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Advances in Mathematics Education
Scott A. Chamberlin
Bharath Sriraman Editors
Affect in
Mathematical
Modeling
Advances in Mathematics Education
Series Editors
Gabriele Kaiser, University of Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany
Bharath Sriraman, University of Montana, Missoula, MT, USA
Affect in Mathematical
Modeling
Editors
Scott A. Chamberlin Bharath Sriraman
School of Teacher Education Department of Mathematical Sciences
University of Wyoming University of Montana
Laramie, WY, USA Missoula, MT, USA
This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG.
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
Contents
Part I
Commentary on Affect, Cognition and Metacognition
in Mathematical Modelling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Jonei Cerqueira Barbosa
Chapter 1: The Construct of Affect in Mathematical Modeling . . . . . . . 15
Scott A. Chamberlin
Chapter 2: Metacognition in Mathematical
Modeling – An Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Katrin Vorhölter, Alexandra Krüger, and Lisa Wendt
Chapter 3: Principles for Designing Research Settings
to Study Spontaneous Metacognitive Activity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Marta T. Magiera and Judith S. Zawojewski
Chapter 4: Engagement Structures and the Development
of Mathematical Ideas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Lisa B. Warner and Roberta Y. Schorr
Part II
The What and the Why of Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Alan H. Schoenfeld
Engaging Students in Mathematical Modeling:
Themes and Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Peter Kloosterman
Chapter 5: Exploring a Conative Perspective
on Mathematical Engagement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
Gerald A. Goldin
v
vi Contents
Part III
Commentary on Part III: Connections to Theory
and Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
Morten Blomhøj
Commentary: Flow and Mathematical Modelling:
Issues of Balance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
Lyn D. English
Chapter 9: The Complex Relationship Between Mathematical
Modeling and Attitude Towards Mathematics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
Pietro Di Martino
Chapter 10: Teaching Modelling Problems and Its Effects
on Students’ Engagement and Attitude Toward Mathematics . . . . . . . . 235
Zakieh Parhizgar and Peter Liljedahl
Chapter 11: Affect and Mathematical Modeling Assessment:
A Case Study on Engineering Students’ Experience of Challenge
and Flow During a Compulsory Mathematical Modeling Task . . . . . . . . 257
Thomas Gjesteland and Pauline Vos
Chapter 12: Flow and Modelling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
Minnie Liu and Peter Liljedahl
Chapter 13: A Coda on Affect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
Bharath Sriraman
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
Part I
Commentary on Affect, Cognition
and Metacognition in Mathematical
Modelling
Abstract In this chapter, I react to the texts by Chamberlin (2019); Vorhölter et al.
(2019); Magiera and Zawojewski (2019); and Warner and Schorr (2019), which
provide powerful insights to analyze mathematical modelling in terms of affect,
cognition, and metacognition. Particularly, I use the sociocultural and sociocritical
lens to discuss the ideas presented by the authors and to propose other questions.
Introduction
The past decades have witnessed important theoretical insights on the practice of
mathematical modelling in educational settings (Schukajlow et al. 2018). The
community of researchers has given more attention to the analysis and theorising
of what happens when mathematical modelling has been developed in educational
environments. One of the focuses refers to students’ psychological processes, which
I understand initially as dispositions for action, ways of thinking, and ways of
communicating.
In the case of the section one of this book Affect in Mathematical Modelling, the
chapters by Chamberlin (2019); Vorhölter et al. (2019); Magiera and Zawojewski
(2019); and Warner and Schorr (2019) address the concepts of affect, cognition, and
metacognition. They present powerful ideas that provoke us into thinking about
students’ doings in mathematical modelling activities. These concepts were origi-
nally formulated in the field of psychology, but they have been borrowed by those in
the field of mathematics education. As Lerman (2010) underlines, our area has weak
grammar, which means that it does not produce unambiguous empirical descriptions.
Many conceptualizations compete in the fields, giving rise to what the sociologist
J. C. Barbosa (*)
Federal University of Bahia, Salvador, Brazil
e-mail: [email protected]
A Classroom Episode
The following episode was extracted from one of Teacher Marcelo’s first mathe-
matical modelling-based lessons. It took place in a public school located in the
Brazilian city of Salvador. Usually, mathematics lessons at the school followed this
Fig. 1 Bay of All Saints, where Salvador City and the island of Itaparica are located. (Source:
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Commentary on Affect, Cognition and Metacognition in Mathematical Modelling 5
After that, the teacher left the group. Clearly, the students are struggling to deal with
a realistic and complex situation. They do not understand how to solve the presented
problem. Now I am going to use this episode to clarify my perspective on mathe-
matical modelling in mathematics education and to build a dialogue with the chapter
authors.
6 J. C. Barbosa
Mathematical Modelling
Before discussing the concepts of affect, cognition, and metacognition, I will clarify
my understanding of mathematical modelling because it is going to unfold in the
following discussion. In my view, mathematical modelling is a way to educate in
which students are invited to question and investigate situations originally from daily
life, sciences and/or vocational contexts through mathematics (Barbosa 2006). The
episode above shows this concept in action: the situation comes from daily life. In
fact, the population of the city and region were already discussing the building of the
bridge and its environmental effects on the island. Therefore, the problem was not
originally formulated in the context of school mathematics, but it was moved into
classroom. It was an open problem for the students because there were not given
clues about which mathematical strategies should be used.
The context of school mathematics is evocative because the students easily
recognize that the problem should be solved through school mathematics, though
other arguments are allowed. This understanding of mathematical modelling has
some similarities with the principles of model-eliciting activities developed by
D. Lesh and colleagues, cited by Magiera and Zawojewski (2019), particularly
regarding the reality principle.
The so-called modelling cycles have been used as a theoretical model to describe
the students’ actions, such as in Blum and Leiß (2006). It is well accepted that
modelling involves those sets of actions described by the cycles, but they might not
represent the sequencing developed by students (Barbosa 2006). Czocher (2014)
shows that the cycles of modelling are highly idealized, artificial, and simplified,
suggesting that the mathematical thinking involved is not sequential or quasi-
periodic.
The metacognitive activity itself links all supposed steps of the cycle. When the
students of the aforementioned episode were discussing the criteria to be considered
to decide the location of the bridge, they should have been given an idea about the
solution. The student, Lúcia, said: “Let us then make a list of what influences the
cost” [Turn 14]. This means that the solution must be in terms of the best cost.
Therefore, I would consider the modelling phases pointed out by Vorhölter et al.
(2019) more as actions involved in modelling than sequential steps.
The separation between the mathematical world and the real world might be seen
as problematic. For instance, suppose that the group of students mentioned in the
episode are going to find the distance between any point belonging to the island
border and any point belonging to the Salvador city border. Would they forget they
are dealing with the problem introduced by the teacher that day?
It seems that the line between mathematics and reality leads to the instrumental
perspective on mathematics, as pointed out by Chamberlin (2019). As a conse-
quence, mathematics might be seen as transparent (i.e., mathematics is a neutral
instrument to describe the world itself). This idea has been challenged through the
notion of mathematics in action discussed by Skovsmose (2011), who suggests that
mathematics structures the empirical situations.
Commentary on Affect, Cognition and Metacognition in Mathematical Modelling 7
In order to make this point clearer, I go to L. Wittgenstein (2001), who says that
the mathematical propositions are normative (i.e., they provide standards, forms, and
modes of conduct to organize our experiences). The mathematical propositions are
never distorted by empirical experience. Look back to the group of students working
on the bridge-building problem. They are invited to organize their experience with
the issue through propositions that already pre-exist in mathematical grammar. The
problem solution can only be produced from the norms provided by mathematics.
Based on this idea, Souza and Barbosa (2014) have pointed out that mathematical
modelling does not describe the reality but regulates it.
Consequently, the fundamental educational task is to invite students to reflect on
the ways mathematics regulates our experience. I have argued that a socio-critical
perspective of mathematical modelling is in action when students engage in
discussing the relationship between the assumptions and their resulting mathemat-
ical models as well as their uses in society (Barbosa 2010). This understanding might
now be extended to include the discussion on how mathematical propositions shape
the modelling process itself and its results.
Since I have clarified my understanding on mathematical modelling, I am going
to discuss students’ doings in mathematical modelling regarding the concepts of
affect, cognition, and metacognition, seeking to build a dialogue with the authors of
the section.
Affect
The empirical example shown by the authors illustrates how those constructs might
be used to identify a shift in students’ forms of participation.
As defined by the authors, the engagement structures belong to an individual’s
internal instance and are activated by social circumstances. However, from a socio-
cultural perspective, the internal level is constituted from interactions with others.
Therefore, the social context should not only be viewed as a kind of activator, but
social settings are also seen as constituting individual dispositions (Lerman 2001).
As a consequence, I would tend to re-interpret the engagement structures as forms of
participation established in social contexts that were internalised by students as long
as they have been taking part in pedagogical practices.
Chamberlin (2019) sees the relations between affect, modelling, and cognition as
reciprocal. The author presents and discusses a scheme in which the three compo-
nents are interconnected, challenging the idea of affect as the primary cause. From
this point of view, Renato’s impatience and apathy might be challenged in the
practice of modelling since there is no cause-effect relationship between affect and
cognition, but they are brought together.
Also, Chamberlin (2019) sees affect, cognition, and mathematical modelling as
processes, which, to my view, lead us to think of them as situated. As I suggested
earlier, mathematical modelling is part of a pedagogical practice that we call school
mathematics, and as such it provides what is more or less legitimate (or even not
legitimate). The sociology of B. Bernstein (2000) talks about the concept of peda-
gogical practice as a code that regulates legitimate communication and establishes
rules for acceptable meanings. Therefore, mathematical modelling seems to go
beyond a process; it is a way of organizing the pedagogical practice, establishing
rules for action in school mathematics.
Referring back to the example in section 2 and considering the way the mathe-
matical modelling environment was organized, someone might identify some rules:
students are allowed to talk about a situation from daily life, control over students’
communication is weakened, and the students are required to make assumptions.
The students (e.g., Renato) may not follow the rules, or they might struggle to
address the rules, as Ana and Lúcia seem to do. This means that the practice of
mathematical modelling provides positions, and those who participate in it react in
different ways. These reactions might be seen as dispositions, attitudes, feelings, and
so on. Therefore, it seems to be impossible to say that affective and cognitive
processes are forms of dealing with social contexts, but I rather see them as shaped
in contexts.
When Renato asked for the teacher’s guidelines [Turn 12], perhaps he was acting
similarly to other situations in school mathematics. His question would not be
unusual in a context in which following examples provided by the teacher is the
main rule. This illustrates what L. Wittgenstein (2001) called family resemblance.
Renato acted by similarity. It leads us not to think of affective dispositions as internal
structures that germinate in fertile conditions. On the contrary, they are shaped in
social life; in such a way, I would emphasize the perspective that considers that
feelings, emotions, beliefs, and dispositions are built and rebuilt in social practices.
Commentary on Affect, Cognition and Metacognition in Mathematical Modelling 9
Cognition
Metacognition
Final Remarks
the social dimension. Instead of seeing the social context as a place to express affect,
cognition, and metacognition, my main theoretical point is to see these psycholog-
ical processes as inseparable from the context in which they occur. This does not
imply that the rules of the pedagogical context determine how mathematical model-
ling and students’ psychological processes take place, but we can certainly say that
contextual rules set limits on what students can think and speak. Furthermore, this
does not mean that students, teachers, and other actors cannot challenge the rules
altering their values.
In addition, one question remains that needs further elaboration: How should the
concepts of affect and metacognition be conceptualized if we assume there is no
separation between internal and external instances? This understanding comes from
the late writings of L. Wittgenstein (2011) and inspired Sfard’s (2007)
commognitive approach. Harré (2009) says this Wittgensteinian view leads us to
the second cognitive revolution, which is more radical than the first since it is
abolishing the border between internal and external. This is an issue that the areas
of mathematics education and mathematical modelling should put in their agendas.
References
Alrø, H., & Skovsmose. (2002). Dialogue and learning in mathematics education: Intention,
reflection, critique. Dordrecht: Kluwer.
Barbosa, J. C. (2010). The students’ discussions in the modeling environment. In R. Lesh, P. L.
Galbraith, C. R. Haines, & A. Hurford (Eds.), Modeling students’ mathematical modeling
competencies (pp. 365–372). New York: Springer.
Bernstein, B. (2000). Pedagogy, symbolic control and identity: Theory, research, critique (Rev
ed.). London: Rowman & Littlefield.
Blum, W., & Leiß, D. (2006). “Filling up” – The problem of independence-preserving teacher
interventions in lessons with demanding modelling tasks. In Bosch, M. (Ed.), CERME-4 –
Proceedings of the fourth conference of the European Society for Research in mathematics
education, Guixol.
Bochichhio, R. (2017, July 10). Ponte Salvador-Itaparica: edital sai em outubro. A Tarde. Retrieved
from: http://atarde.uol.com.br/
Borromeo Ferri, R. (2006). Theoretical and empirical differentiations of phases in the modelling
process. ZDM, 38(2), 86–95.
Chamberlin, S. A. (2019). The construct of affect in mathematical modelling. In [to be completed].
Czocher, J. A. (2014). Towards building a theory of mathematical modelling. In P. Liljedahl,
C. Nicol, S. Oesterle, & D. Allan (Eds.), Proceedings of the joint meeting of PME38 and
PME-NA36 (Vol. 2, pp. 353–360). Vancouver: PME.
Flavell, J. H. (1979). Metacognition and cognitive monitoring: A new area of cognitive-
developmental inquiry. American Psychologist, 34(10), 906–911.
Glasersfeld, E. (2005). Thirty years of radical constructivism. Constructivist Foundations, 1(1),
9–12.
Hannula, M. S. (2014). Affect in mathematics education. In S. Lerman (Ed.), Encyclopedia of
mathematics education. Dordrecht: Springer.
Hannula, M. S., Di Martino, P., Pantziara, M., Zhang, Q., Morselli, F., Heyd-Metzuyanim, E.,
Lutovac, S., Kaasila, R., Middleton, J. A., Jansen, A., & Goldin, G. A. (2016). Attitudes, beliefs,
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motivation and identity in mathematics education: An overview of the field and future directions
(ICME-13 Topical Surveys). Hamburg: SpringerOpen.
Harré, R. (2009). The second cognitive revolution. In K. Leidlmair (Ed.), After cognitivism: A
reassessment of cognitive science and philosophy (pp. 181–187). New York: Springer.
Kaiser, G., & Sriraman, B. (2006). A global survey of international perspectives on modelling in
mathematics education. ZDM, 38(3), 302–310.
Lerman, S. (2001). Cultural, discursive psychology: A sociocultural approach to studying the
teaching and learning of mathematics. Educational Studies in Mathematics, 46, 87–113.
Lerman, S. (2010). Theories of mathematics education: Is plurality a problem? In B. Sriraman &
L. English (Eds.), Theories of mathematics education: Seeking new frontiers (pp. 99–109).
Heidelberg: Springer.
Magiera, M. T., & Zawojewski, J. S. (2019). Designing research settings for the study of
metacognitive activity: A case for small group mathematical modeling. In [to be completed].
Oliveira, A. M. P., & Barbosa, J. C. (2013). Mathematical modelling, mathematical content and
tensions in discourses. In G. A. Stillman, G. Kaiser, W. Blum, & J. P. Brown (Eds.), Teaching
mathematical modelling: Connecting to research and practice (pp. 67–76). Dordrecht:
Springer.
Schoenfeld, A. H. (1992). Learning to think mathematically: Problem solving, metacognition, and
sense-making in mathematics. In D. A. Grouws (Ed.), Handbook of research on mathematics
teaching and learning. A project of the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics
(pp. 334–370). New York: Macmillan.
Schukajlow, S., Kaiser, G., & Stilman, G. (2018). Empirical research on teaching and learning of
mathematical modelling: a survey on the current state-of-the-art. ZDM Mathematics Education.
Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11858-018-0933-5.
Sfard, A. (2007). Commognition: Thinking as communicating, the case of mathematics. New York:
Cambridge University Press.
Skovsmose, O. (2011). An invitation to critical mathematics education. Rotterdam: Sense
Publishers.
Souza, E. G., & Barbosa, J. C. (2014). Some implications of Wittgenstein’s idea of use for learning
mathematics through mathematical modelling. International Journal for Research in Mathe-
matics Education, 4, 114–138.
Vorhölter, K., Krüger, A., & Wendt, L. (2019). Metacognition in mathematical modeling – An
overview. In [to be completed].
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and the development of mathematical ideas. In [to be completed].
Wittgenstein, L. (2001). Philosophical investigations (3rd ed.). Oxford: Blackwell.
Chapter 1: The Construct of Affect
in Mathematical Modeling
Scott A. Chamberlin
The focus of this chapter is on explicating the relationship between affect in mathematics
and mathematical modeling. The chapter is broken into three sections, with a priority on
seminal research in the fields of (1) affect in mathematics, (2) mathematical modeling, and
(3) their relationship. At the conclusion of the literature review, a model (found in Fig. 1)
regarding the relationship between affect, modeling, and cognition is presented. This model
is a theoretical one and some assumptions are made for its creation. The model was created
based on empirical literature, but not per se on empirical data collected specifically to
substantiate the model.
The general field of affect is much older than many realize, dating to at least the
mid-1700s (Smith 1759). Mathematical modeling gained notoriety circa the late
1800s with the work of Hertz (1894). Each field grew precipitously in the late 1960s
S. A. Chamberlin (*)
School of Teacher Education, University of Wyoming, Laramie, WY, USA
e-mail: [email protected]
and early 1970s, as scholarly activity centered on the two foci and they thus became
a concentration in the burgeoning field of mathematics education. Prior to the
introduction of the discussion, it is critical to note three points. First, with respect
to each focus (i.e., affect and mathematical modeling), each existed long before they
were formally conceptualized in literature and the dates mentioned are the earliest
known dates of well-recognized publications. Second, given the rather lengthy
ascension of literature of affect in mathematics, the Smith publication may not
formally be considered an area of mathematics education today. Instead, the Smith
publication dealt formally with how people make moral judgments in the area of
economics. Nevertheless, the publication is often credited with providing early
theory about affective subconstructs such as interest, value, and emotions. Third,
several notes about semantics may help readers interpret this chapter and the larger
book. Affect is considered a noun and it relates to feelings, emotions, dispositions,
and beliefs, in this case relative to mathematics (Anderson and Bourke 2000;
McLeod 1994; McLeod and Adams 1989; Middleton and Spanias 1999). Mathe-
matical modeling is considered an act or process and is therefore a verb. From the
process of modeling, ideally mathematical models are created (Lesh and Zawojewski
2007) as modeling maintains a close relationship with mathematical problem solv-
ing. Cognition in the context of this model is generally considered a process (verb),
though at times it could be considered a noun as well.
History of Affect
Around the time of Binet and Simon (1916), Valentiner (1930) coined the term
non-intellectual factors in relation to intelligence. More recently, the Educational
Testing Service did refer to non-intellectual factors as early as 1951, regarding
general intellect and not mathematics specifically. Throughout all of this theoretical
writing, the construct of affect was difficult to disentangle from how individuals
think. This is because much of the international emphasis in the early twentieth
century pertained to the rather misunderstood construct called cognition (Jastrow
1901; Maher 1900). The sentiment among experts in the early twentieth century was
that feelings, emotions, attitudes, dispositions, and beliefs were impossible to dis-
entangle from the process of thought (cognition). They were thus considered some-
what distinct constructs, but affect may have been considered a subset of cognition.
This rather ill-defined understanding of affect’s relation to cognition may not have
helped (mathematical) psychologists make sense of the construct.
Specific to mathematics, Feierabend (1960) may be credited with creating foci
that led to subsequent research on affect in mathematics. Among her contributions
were questions that provided direction regarding what areas to research in mathe-
matics. In her article, she urged researchers to investigate:
• If there was a prevailing negative attitude toward arithmetic and mathematics
(p. 19)
• What the relationship was between motivation and achievement (p. 19)
• What the factors are underlying attitudes towards mathematics (p. 20)
Within the decade, the School Mathematics Study Group (SMSG) convened the
National Longitudinal Study of Mathematical Abilities (Higgins 1970; Romberg and
Wilson 1969) to investigate such matters. The NLSMA may be considered the most
comprehensive work of its era and provided significant direction for the nascent field
of mathematical psychology. Specifically, NLSMA reports 4–7, 20, and 33 pertain
to student affective factors as they were measured and as they relate to achievement.
In this sense, the formal construct-domains of affect and mathematics had officially
been conceived by the late 1960s and from there, the volume of literature grew
almost exponentially with much of the work coming immediately after the NLSMA
efforts.
Hence, the work by the SMSG was instrumental in promulgating additional
research in the field of affect in mathematics (Chamberlin 2010). Many studies
proceeded the work of the SMSG, including a vast array of studies in which
researchers investigated anxiety (Richardson and Suinn 1972; Suinn 1970) and
attitude in mathematics (Aiken 1972, 1974). Fennema and Sherman’s work (1976)
is often cited as seminal in the area of affect in mathematics because they assessed
multiple subconstructs of affect with a single instrument. Prior to this date, instru-
ments were typically created to assess one subcomponent of affect (Chamberlin).
The Fennema-Sherman instrument was later revised by Lim and Chapman (2012).
As additional research efforts were invested in investigating affect in mathematics,
the field questioned what, precisely, constituted affect. The answer to this question
may reside in a publication outside of the domain of mathematics. By 1982, then
updated in the year 2000 with a second edition, Anderson and Bourke had clarified
18 S. A. Chamberlin
what affect was, at least in general educational settings, with their work entitled,
Assessing affective characteristics in the schools. In being able to advertise that they
could accurately assess affective characteristics in schools, they were tasked with
conceptually establishing several foundational understandings such as (1) identifying
effective approaches to assessing psychological constructs, including instrumenta-
tion, (2) providing a rationale for why affect should be assessed in schools,
(3) ascertaining the specific subconstructs that constitute affect. It is the third piece
of these foundational understandings that likely provided great direction to the
domain of mathematical psychology. According to Anderson and Bourke, two tenets
are critical. First, affect is synonymous with motivation. Second, affect is comprised
of the following eight subconstructs: anxiety, aspiration, attitude, interest, locus of
control, self-efficacy, self-esteem, and value. In the next section, additional concep-
tions of what affect in mathematics is will be presented.
Similarly, in 1982, Hoyles sought empirical data to clarify whether hypotheses
about negative affect in mathematics were apparent. According to Hoyles, high
school students hold very emotional, predominately negative, responses to mathe-
matics. In subsequent years, multiple researchers helped quantify students’ value of
mathematics through monitoring and investigating course matriculation (e.g., Betz
and Hackett 1983; Reyes 1984).
Subsequently, an important step in the discussion of affect transpired in the late
1990s/early 2000s. During this time, the field realized a change from a normative to
an interpretive perspective on the discussion of affect, regarding the approach to
measurement and individual impact on mathematical problem solvers. In so doing,
the focus in affect transferred from a process of explaining it to one of interpreting
student affect. Practically speaking, this meant that researchers focused their efforts
on understanding why individuals’ affective states were as they were through
interpretation, rather than using general (or normative) guidelines to causally explain
affective states (Hannula et al. 2004).
A recurring issue with the psychological construct of affect is that it seems the longer
experts discuss what, precisely it is, the more convoluted the conception of it
becomes. Nevertheless, some clarification exists in theoretical writings by experts
in mathematics education.
Of particular note, are early writings by McLeod and colleagues (1989, 1992,
1994). In 1989, McLeod and Adams published a formative book that helped provide
a foundation for researchers in mathematics education. The book, entitled Affect and
mathematical problem solving, had a very similar focus and title to this book, Affect
in mathematical modeling. Prior to this publication, the construct of affect in relation
to mathematics was somewhat amorphous. That is to say, several of the aforemen-
tioned researchers had conducted investigations on various concepts of affect, but it
may not have been formalized in one central publication quite as well as it was in the
Chapter 1: The Construct of Affect in Mathematical Modeling 19
McLeod and Adams’ book. Hannula et al. (2004) referred to it as a ‘pioneer book’
(p. 132). Foci in the book included, the role of affect in problem solving, the
conception of what constituted affect in mathematics, affect and learning, and affect
and metacognition, to name a few. Subsequently, McLeod contributed to the Inter-
national handbook of research on mathematics education, edited by Grouws in
1992. In this chapter, he again relied heavily on Mandler’s 1984 general publication
about affect and emotions in the world of psychology, not the domain of mathemat-
ics per se. Throughout all of his work, he was steadfast in interpreting research in the
general field of psychology and personalizing it to mathematics (education). In this
1992 publication, McLeod was famous for attributing actual constructs of affect to
mathematics education including beliefs, attitudes, and emotions. Many scholars
today, some 25 years later, still refer to affect in mathematics as comprised of beliefs,
attitudes, and emotions, though some scholars reference a more comprehensive
spectrum of affective components than the ones McLeod did. In addition, McLeod
discussed the relationship between affect and cognition. These efforts may have
been instrumental in helping affect become prominent among mathematics educa-
tors as its own field of inquiry, rather than being considered a subset of cognition, as
has been postulated. In so doing, McLeod provided badly needed structure to affect
and facilitated understanding among researchers for future work. In 1994, McLeod
provided another major contribution to JRME in which he reviewed research on
affect in mathematics from 1970 to 1994. This publication was instrumental in
several respects. First, it identified the informal start date of research on affect in
mathematics, circa 1970. Second, it provided a thorough overview of literature that
researchers could utilize for several years. In essence, the publication afforded
neophyte scholars the opportunity to access most research contributions relevant to
affect and mathematics in one spot. A prospective shortcoming of the publication
was that the research discussed was only that contained within JRME to date, not
publications in other outlets.
In the late 1990s, Ma published two meta-analyses on affect and mathematics
achievement. These publications were instrumental in providing lucidity in
interpreting the importance of affect, relative to achievement in mathematics. The
first study was published in 1997 and in it Ma and Kishor explicated the effect of
attitude in relation to achievement. After limiting studies to 107, an effect size of .12
was realized. Individual categories were also analyzed and they were gender, grade,
ethnicity, sample selection, sample size, and date of publication with very similar
results (minimally significant if at all). This study put to rest the notion that attitude
can influence mathematics achievement. Though the finding(s) was/were statistically
significant, the practical significance of attitude could be debated. Moreover, the
results may have been negatively influenced by a shortsighted view of what consti-
tuted attitude since all of the studies preceded 1997. Subsequently (1999), Ma
conducted a similar investigation on anxiety in relation to mathematics achievement.
In this meta-analysis, Ma utilized 26 studies and found a correlation of .27 between
anxiety and achievement. Though a negative relationship, as expected between
anxiety and achievement, the .27 effect size was stronger than the rather modest
.12. Practically speaking, anxiety correlates negatively, though nominally so, with
20 S. A. Chamberlin
achievement. In short, this means that low anxiety is better than high anxiety for high
achievement and conversely high anxiety often correlates with low achievement.
The results of the studies were certainly of importance to the field of mathematics
education. Nearly as important was the collection of the corpus of literature in one
study. Incidentally, as with the 1997 study, Ma investigated the relationship of
anxiety and achievement in mathematics using several demographic variables,
including gender, grade, and ethnicity and found each to be of no significant
interaction with achievement in mathematics. It is important to note that Ma’s studies
were correlational and therefore causation cannot be assumed.
Within the decade, Middleton and Spanias provided another lens on affect in
mathematics as they reviewed motivation and its effect on teaching and learning in
mathematics. This publication was considered by many to be the most comprehen-
sive discussion of motivation in mathematics at that time. Though not perhaps an
original intent, the Middleton and Spanias publication brought to the fore the
question of, “What precisely is the relationship between affect and motivation?”
Within the year, Anderson and Bourke (2000), stated that motivation is the sum total
of affect, though this statement came from the general field of educational psychol-
ogy, and not specifically mathematical psychology.
Malmivuori’s (2001) dissertation promulgated an emerging career in which she inves-
tigated affect in relation to such constructs as self-regulation (2006). McLeod later called
Malmivuori’s dissertation far superior to his 1992 chapter in the Handbook of Research on
Mathematics Education (Center for Research in Mathematics and Science Education n.d.).
This comment was rendered likely for two reasons. First, her dissertation is considered by
many to be widely influential and a model for high quality works. Second, when
Malmivuori completed her dissertation, she had access to an additional 10 years of
publications (both empirical and theoretical) on which to base her claims. Still, her analysis
of literature prior to her dissertation was conducted at a very deep level, hence, McLeod’s
comments on the high quality of her dissertation.
The following year, 2002, Leder, Pehkonen, and Törner edited a book in which a
comprehensive overview of affect was provided. They termed beliefs, what McLeod
referred to as but one of three legs of affect, a ‘hidden variable’ in mathematics
education. Various discussions were provided by researchers in this book relevant to
topics such as a conceptualization of what beliefs are in mathematics, teacher beliefs
and their relation to learning, student beliefs and their relation to learning, and beliefs
in relation to other components of affect. Of great importance to this book was
Goldin’s discussion of beliefs in relation to affect and meta-affect. In so discussing
meta-affect, he referred to it as ‘affect about affect’ or a cognizance of emotions,
beliefs, and attitudes. Interestingly, Goldin stated that affect is often downplayed in
significance in mathematics because society believes it to be a purely intellectual
endeavor and therefore fully devoid of an emotional component. The Goldin con-
tribution was a theory developed from over a decade of work with colleague Valerie
DeBellis (1991, 1993, 1997, 1999). Also of note is their tetrahedral model (Debellis
and Goldin 2006) in which it is suggested that affect is comprised of four separate,
but intricately intertwined categories. The category that DeBellis and Goldin added
was values, which subsumed ethics, and morals, and were in addition to McLeod’s
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Aina kaikkeen valmiina!!… No, minä olen kaksikymmen-vuotias!
kaksikymmentä!
Klaus piti tarpeellisena, koska nyt oli toisen asiat kuullut, kertoa
vähän omistakin oloistansa. Ja hän sanoi lähtevänsä kohta
sotapalveluksesta päästyä ulkomaille, luultavasti Brasiliaan. Ja hän
kertoi myös äidistä ja sisaruksista eikä ällistynyt yhtään, vaikka
huomasi joutuvansa arveluttavan lähelle tavallisen kerskailunsa
rajaa. Hän ajatteli näet: tässä ei auta suun supistus, tässä täytyy
viheltää ja niin että kuuluu. Minun täytyy häntä vastaan pitää puoleni
ja minä pidän. Mutta sitten en palaa koskaan. Ja Klaus Baas käveli
iloisena hänen rinnallaan ja sai mitä tahtoi, nimittäin Susen melkein
uskomaan, ettei Klaus ollut häntä koskaan tosissaan ajatellut. Ja
entistä mieluummin Suse kertoi nyt hänelle nykyisestä onnestansa.
Kun hän vähän ajan päästä tuli sisään, seisoi nuori pari häntä
vastassa eteisessä. Susen hieno, sininen silkkipuku kaunisti suuresti
hänen nuorta vartaloansa. Sulhanen oli muhkea mies, parhaassa
miehuuden ijässä. Mentiin ruualle, ja viini oli hyvää, ja Klaus Baas
muisti maistaa, ja lausuili puheenpartensa kuin toisetkin ja hekumoi
itseluottamuksestaan. Pian alkoi maamies kysellä yhtä ja toista firma
P.C. Trimbornista. Klaus vastasi kuin mies, joka tunsi liikkeen
perinpohjaisesti ja tiesi sitäpaitsi, mitä oli luvallista kertoa. Maamies
alkoi nyt puhua ulkomaisen kauppamme kansantaloudellisesta
merkityksestä, — juuri siihen aikaan oli näet kauppamme kohonnut
suureen kukoistukseen, — hän otti esimerkin Portugalin ja Hollannin
ja Englannin historiasta ja puhui säätynsä ja ammattinsa kannalta ja
varovaisesti ja epäröivästi kuin henkilö ainakin, jolla on edessään
menneisyyden samalla rohkaisevat ja peloittavat kuvat. Klaus
Baasilla oli kyllä historiallista vaistoa ja hän oli lukenut yhtä ja toista
kauppa-oppikirjoista ja suurista Hampurin lehdistä. Mutta oikeaa
opetusta hän oli saanut vähän. Ja kaiken päälliseksi: kaksikymmen-
vuotias ei ole usein historikko, vaan filosoofi! Klaus Baas vieritti siis
esiin kaikellaisia suuria, kauniita ajatuksia, jotka yksinäisen ja
salaisen käytön kautta olivat häneen takertuneet. Hänellä ei ollut
tätä ennen ollut tilaisuutta tuoda niitä katseltaviksi miesten
kämmenille, ja nyt, tässä kodikkaassa seurassa, viinilasin ääressä, ne
hyppäsivät itse esiin. Hän lasketteli paloviinan ja kiväärien
myynnistä, kaikellaisesta joutavasta vientitavarasta, esteettisistä ja
eetillisistä velvoituksista, Bismarckista, maailman kultuurista. Se oli
hauska sekoitus Klaus Baasista ja Hampurin lehdistä. Hänen
kuvauksensa tulivat komeammiksi, hänen väitteensä tulivat
mahtavapiirteisiksi. Ja lopuksi hän, taitavasti pyöritellen
punaviinilasia kaikkien kymmenen sormensa päillä, — hän istui ensi
kertaa elämässään kodikkaassa seurassa ja viinin ääressä, — lausui,
että hallituksen on "ylimalkaan" huolehdittava ja vastattava siitä, että
koko tuotanto ja kauppiaskunta tulee kauttaaltaan siveellisesti
kauniiksi. Ja vielä toistui hyvän aikaa "ylimalkaan, ylimalkaan."
Pappis-eno, joka katseli kylmästi kaikkia kummia, hymyili
leikillisesti. Ruustinna ajatteli: Raakilo! Huonosti paistettu. Se lankee
vielä nenälleen! Suse nojasi pöytään niin että rinta sitä suloisempana
kaartui, ja katseli poikaa loistavin silmin ja ajatteli: Mutta kyllä hän
on kaunis! Sulhanen taas oli noita poliittisia neroja, jotka eivät voi
millään muotoa antaa toisten olla rauhassa mielipiteissään ja
erehdyksissään, joiden täytyy aprikoida niiden syitä ja syntyä ja
vastustaa ja parantaa niitä ja opettaa omia mielipiteitään. Ja niinpä
hän nyt kuunteli vakavana ja tarkkaavasti, sisällänsä jo vastausta
sommitellen.
Niin puhui viisas mies vielä hyvän aikaa hiukan narisevalla äänellä.
Vaunujen ainoa istuin oli heille kolmelle kaita, jonka vuoksi Klaus
Baasin täytyi istua melkein tyttöä kohti ja pitää kättään istuimen
selustalla, niin että vierustoveri joutui nojautumaan melkein hänen
kainaloonsa. Klaus Baasilla oli terveen, aistillisen luonteensa mukaan
naisesta korkeat mielipiteet — ja hän ei ollut koskaan ennen päässyt
niin liki kaunista tyttöä. Ja niinpä nyt tapahtuikin, että tuskin Klaus
kuuli Jesin äänen helähdyksen ja näki aivan läheltä hänen
pehmoiset, hienot kasvonsa ja hänen kauniit, kimaltelevat silmänsä,
joista silloin tällöin sinkosi häneen katse ja liiti heti arasti hänen
ohitseen kuin kyyhkynen, — niinpä tapahtui, että Klaus Baas rakastui
häneen. Hän unohti, hylkäsi heti Suse Garbensin! Kuinka hienot,
jalot kasvot! Ah nuo armaat sinisilmät ja pienet, mutta lujat kädet!
Mitkä ihanat ajatukset piilivätkään hänen kauniin, kaarevan otsansa
alla, mitkä herkät, herttaiset tunteet povessa, joka ohuen mustan
röijyn alla kiinteänä ja pyöreänä kohosi!
Ja veli pilkkaili pitkän aikaa siskon viallista kieltä — mikä oli sitä
kummallisempaa ja hassumpaa, kun hän itsekin änkytti aika tavalla.
Klaus Baas katseli tyttöä ja hän huomasi, että näistä sanoista Jes
ei pitänyt: hän tuijotti vaieten, mutta hieman jäykästi eteensä.
Kuitenkaan ei veli malttanut heittää pilaa tähän. "Kerran pienenä
paitaressuna", hän jatkoi, "se kiukustui ponihevoselleen, kun eläin
nosti päätään ylös eikä tahtonut antaa panna kuolaimia suuhunsa, ja
ajattelepa, minkä hän silloin teki? Vihapäissään hän puraisi hevosta
turpaan, ja puraisi niin lujasti, että poni keikautti tuskissaan päänsä
koholle ja — tyttö riippui sen turvassa yhä hampaillansa. Kas
sellainen tuitukko meidän sisko on. Hän tekeekin luonnollisesti
kotona vähän väliä reikiä akkunoihin; sentähden olemmekin
varanneet säilöön entisiä ruutujen kappaleita, joilla voi reiät paikata;
siten käy korjaus kutakuinkin siedettäväksi."
Ja kun Klaus Baas, joka oli kujeilun aikana ollut aivan lähellä
tyttöä, nyt heittäytyi pelästyneenä selkänojaan ja katsoi siskon selän
takaa veljeen, niin hän näki, että tämäkin istui vaunun kolkassa
aivan kalpeana ja hievahtamatta ja mahdollisimman loitolla
siskostansa; ja veli pudisti päätänsä ja iski hänelle silmää, että nyt oli
herran tähden oltava hiljaa tai sisko voisi tehdä mitä tahansa!
Ja kun tyttö oli nyt näin tuttavallinen, niin tohti Klaus Baas
varovasti kysyä, mistä nuo hänen suuttumuksen puuskansa johtuivat
ja miksi hän niin suuttuu?
Silloin Klaus kysyi: "Mitäs olisit tehnyt, jos emme olisi olleet niin
hiljaa silloin kun sinä suutuit?"
"Minä, — siitä olisi voinut tulla tupen rapinat", vastasi tyttö. "Olisin
säikähyttänyt hevoset, kaatanut teidät raviin, ehkä hypännyt
vaunuista ja juossut kotiin. Sen täytyy jollakin tavoin päästä ilmi, tai
sydämeni halkee!"
Klaus Baas ihmetteli ja kysyi: "No kuinka sinä sitten annat minun
itseäsi suudella?"
Tyttö vastasi: "No, eikö nuoret saisi sitten suudella kun tahtovat?
Eivätkö Hampurin tytöt sitä tee? Sillä sehän on niin suloista. Ja
kuinka voi oppia toisiaan tuntemaan, ellei ole kahden kesken ja
suutele toisiaan? Kas sellaisia me täällä olemme kaikki. Jotka sitten
voivat, menevät pitemmälle ja naimisiin; toiset taas eroavat ja
hakevat uuden lemmityn. Kuinka voi mennä naimisiin, jollei ole
vähintäin vuoden sitä ennen suudellut ja toisiaan tutkinut?"
Klaus puolusti itseään ja sanoi: "Ei siinä ollut mitään pahaa, Suse,
ei kerrassa mitään! Vakuutan, että minä olin vain tuhma. Mutta
sitten jälestä hän oli aivan hyvä."
Suse seisoi hyvän aikaa Klaus Baasin vieressä, kun hän joi
kahviaan, ja katseli pilvisiin auringottomiin aamuilmoihin ja virkkoi
mietteissään: "Kun ihmisen täytyy opetella kaikki muu ja maksaa
kalliit oppirahat, niin kuinka hän tietäisi opettajatta ja oppirahatta
kaikkein tärkeimmän ja vaikeimman? Kyllä minä rakastan häntä,
muuten en olisi sitä tehnyt; mutta olisi parempi, jos ensin oppisimme
toisemme tuntemaan ja hän suutelisi minua joka piilopaikassa
vankasti kuin se ylioppilas… Miksi hän ei ole minua edes suudellut!!"
Maalari katsoi häneen suu auki ja vastasi: "Sinä, mistä sinä sen
tiedät? Hupsu, etten minä muka ole kokenut? Minä olen ollut
seitsemännessä taivaassa, poika parka!"
Silloin sattui, että kun hän eräänä sunnuntaina oli menossa kotiin
äidin luo, hän tapasi kadulla erään piirikomennuskunnan aliupseerin,
jonka hän jo ennestään usein oli nähnyt. Mies tuli nyt hänen
puheilleen ja kertoi olleensa, vuosia sitten, pätöisenä pojan vesana,
samoissa talonpurkutöissä kuin Klaus Baasin isä ja että Jan Baas oli
puolustanut häntä monasti kaikellaisilta toisten kujeilta ja
raakuuksilta. Joten hän nyt oli oikein hyvillään, kun sai tavata hänen
poikaansa.
Klaus Baas rypisti otsaansa, hänelle tuli heti eräs älytuuma ja hän
vastasi: "No jos isä teki kerran teille jonkun palveluksen, niin voitte
nyt tehdä puolestanne minulle." Ja hän kertoi siitä kiusallisesta
aliupseerista.
Kelpo mies oli kuin lemmessä valmis ja hän ajoi asian niin hyvin,
että Klaus Baas muutaman viikon päästä komennettiin hyvän
käsialansa tähden piirikomennuskunnan kansliaan.
Hänellä oli yllä aivan uusi sininen pusero, posket oli sileiksi ajeltu
ja huikaisevan valkea, korkea kaulus oli kaulassa; muuten hän näytti
merkillisen totiselta. Kättä kaikille, myös pikku lapsille, annettuansa
hän istui pöydän ääreen ja kertoi sitten, että hän oli eilen puolen
päivän tienoissa saapunut "Susannalla" Iquiquesta[49] ja olleensa
yötä Kindtin muorin luona, joka asui Hopfenstrassen varrella. Ja hän
läiskäsi lakin päästänsä pöydälle ja lykkäsi halveksien syrjään
Hannan kirjat, jotka olivat siinä hänen edessään, ja alkoi valtavasti
vannoskella: "Minä tahdon ja minun täytyy nyt päästä
merimieskouluun! Ei nyt muu auta! Ei ole sittenkään mukavaa
kiipeillä kaiken ikänsä matruusina köysitikkaissa! Mutta toiselta
puolen: niin vaan on, että ennen antaisin paistaa itseni kuin silakan
halstarilla kuin kävisin yhdeksän kuuta tuota vietävän koulua!"
"Pidä suusi!" vastasi Kalli Dau. "Sitäkö varten minä sinut tänne
mukaan otin? Vaivaa sinä vain aivojasi ja mieti, mitä meidän on
tehtävä, ettei se ukko paiskaa meitä pellolle!" Ja taas hän kävi
sormin kurkkuunsa ja haukkasi ilmaa kuin tukehtuva ahven. Mutta
ajan ratoksi hän sitten rupesi — tosin hiukan kainommin kuin ennen
ihmisten kanssa Grossneumarktilla — pakinoihin matamin kanssa ja
kuvaili hänelle ensin, kuinka satumaisen tuhma "Susannan" kokki oli
ollut ja piti esitelmää Azorien asukkaista, jotka käyttävät olkihattuja,
sekä miehet että naiset, eivätkä öljylakkeja. Ja matami kertoi
puolestaan tyttärensä tyttären hyvästä lukupäästä ja menestyksestä
koulussa.