Dr.

B R Ambedkar National Institute of Technology, Jalandhar

(Department of Instrumentation and Control Engineering)

(Transducer and Signal Conditioning Lab)

Experiment No-1

AIM- To Study the characteristics of the thermistor

Apparatus required: Thermistor, Thermometer, Multimeter, and Heater for heating the
water

Theory: A thermistor is a resistance thermometer or a resistor whose resistance is dependent

on temperature. The term is a combination of “thermal” and “resistor”. It is made of metallic
oxides, pressed into a bead, disk, or cylindrical shape, and then encapsulated with an
impermeable material such as epoxy or glass. There are two types of thermistors: Negative
Temperature Coefficient (NTC) and Positive Temperature Coefficient (PTC). With an NTC
thermistor, when the temperature increases, resistance decreases. Conversely, when
temperature decreases, resistance increases. This type of thermistor is used the most. A PTC
thermistor works a little differently. When temperature increases, the resistance increases,
and when temperature decreases, resistance decreases. This type of thermistor is generally
used as a fuse. Typically, a thermistor achieves high precision within a limited temperature
range of about 50ºC around the target temperature. This range is dependent on the base
resistance. The thermistor symbol is shown in the figure 1.

Fig (1)

Thermistors come in a variety of shapes-disk, chip, bead, or rod, and can be surface mounted
or embedded in a system. They can be encapsulated in epoxy resin, glass, baked-on phenolic,
or painted. The best shape often depends on what material is being monitored, such as a solid,
liquid, or gas. For example, a bead thermistor is ideal for embedding into a device, while a
rod, disk, or cylindrical head is best for optical surfaces. A thermistor chip is normally
mounted on a printed circuit board (PCB).
Dr. B R Ambedkar National Institute of Technology, Jalandhar
(Department of Instrumentation and Control Engineering)

(Transducer and Signal Conditioning Lab)

Fig (2) Different types of thermistors

Thermistor Equation:

Where:
T1 is the first temperature point in Kelvin
T2 is the second temperature point in Kelvin
R1 is the resistance of the thermistor at temperature T1 in Ohms
R2 is the resistance of the thermistor at temperature T2 in Ohms

Experimental Setup:

Fig (3)
Dr. B R Ambedkar National Institute of Technology, Jalandhar
(Department of Instrumentation and Control Engineering)

(Transducer and Signal Conditioning Lab)

Procedure:
1. Make the connections as per the Fig (3).
2. Increase the temperature of the water in a beaker in steps.
3. Note down the temperature and corresponding resistance of the thermistor with the
help of Multimeter.
4. Plot the graph of temperature Vs resistance for Thermistor.

Model Graph:

Fig (4)

Observations:

S.No. Temperature (Celsius) Resistance(kΩ)

Result: The characteristics of the thermistor is studied and the graph is plotted

Prepared by Verified By
Nikhil Kr. Gill Dr K.S Nagla
Dr. B R Ambedkar National Institute of Technology, Jalandhar
(Department of Instrumentation and Control Engineering)

(Transducer and Signal Conditioning Lab)

Experiment No-2

AIM- To Study the characteristics of the RTD

Apparatus required: RTD, Thermometer, Multimeter, and Heater for heating the water

Theory: A platinum resistance temperature detector (RTD) is a device with a typical

resistance of 100 Ω at 0 °C. It consists of a thin film of platinum on a plastic film. Its
resistance varies with temperature and it can typically measure temperatures up to 850 °C.
Passing current through an RTD generates a voltage across the RTD. By measuring this
voltage, you can determine its resistance and, thus, its temperature. The relationship between
resistance and temperature is relatively linear.

Fig (1) Physical Architecture of an RTD

RTDs operate on the principle of changes in electrical resistance of pure metals and are
characterized by a linear positive change in resistance with temperature. Typical elements
used for RTDs include nickel (Ni) and copper (Cu), but platinum (Pt) is by far the most
common because of its wide temperature range, accuracy, and stability.

RTDs are commonly categorized by their nominal resistance at 0 °C. Typical nominal
resistance values for platinum thin-film RTDs include 100 and 1000 Ω. The relationship
between resistance and temperature is nearly linear and follows this equation:

For <0 °C R T = R O [ 1 + aT + bT 2 + cT 3 (T − 100) ] …….Eqn 1

For >0 °C R T = R O [ 1 + aT + bT 2 ] ………………..Eqn (2)

Where 𝑅𝑇 = resistance at temperature T

𝑅0 = nominal resistance

a, b, and c = constants used to scale the RTD

Dr. B R Ambedkar National Institute of Technology, Jalandhar
(Department of Instrumentation and Control Engineering)

(Transducer and Signal Conditioning Lab)

Experimental Setup:

Fig (2)

Model Graph:

Fig (3)

Procedure:
1. Make the connections as per the Fig (2).
2. Increase the temperature of the water in a beaker in steps.
3. Note down the temperature and corresponding resistance of the RTD with the help of
Multimeter.
4. Plot the graph of temperature Vs resistance for RTD.
Dr. B R Ambedkar National Institute of Technology, Jalandhar
(Department of Instrumentation and Control Engineering)

(Transducer and Signal Conditioning Lab)

Observations:

S.No. Temperature (Celsius) Resistance(kΩ)

Result: The characteristics of the RTD is studied and the graph is plotted

Prepared by Verified By

Nikhil Kr. Gill Dr K.S Nagla

Dr. B R Ambedkar National Institute of Technology, Jalandhar
(Department of Instrumentation and Control Engineering)

(Transducer and Signal Conditioning Lab)

Experiment No-3

Aim: - To study the characteristics of Thermocouple for measuring Temperature.

Apparatus required: - Electric heater, Thermometer, thermocouple

experimental setup.

Theory:-
 It is a transducer based on seedbeck effect. Thermocouple is a self-
generating transducer and basically a pair of dissimilar metallic conductors
joined so as to produce an emf when the junctions are at different
temperatures. Magnitude of emf depends upon the magnitude of
temperature difference and materials of conductors.
 Combinations of Copper-Constantan Iron-Constantan and Chromel-Alumel
are examples.
 Thermocouples are low in cost, reliable in service and easily used, cover
wide range of temperature and good time response.

Circuit Diagram:-
Dr. B R Ambedkar National Institute of Technology, Jalandhar
(Department of Instrumentation and Control Engineering)

(Transducer and Signal Conditioning Lab)

Feedback Instrumetation kit Module TK2941A connections

Dr. B R Ambedkar National Institute of Technology, Jalandhar
(Department of Instrumentation and Control Engineering)

(Transducer and Signal Conditioning Lab)

PROCEDURE

 Switch on the Heat Bar and allow it to heat up to a steady temperature. This will take
approximately 45 minutes.
 Examine the thermocouple transducer. You cannot see the actual hot junction because
it is enclosed in a protective sheath but it is formed of Copper and Constantan.
 The flexible lead is attached to the ends of the couple wires inside the-black-rubber-
sleeve.
 If the measuring instrument has a very high input resistance and is voltage-sensitive
then the resistance of the couple and its extension leads will be negligible and the emf
measured by the meter will be the ‘open-circuit emf of the couple.
 In this experiment we shall use the Instrumentation Module TK2941A to amplify the
couple emf to a sufficient value to drive a meter.
 The circuit resistance of the thermocouple assembly is about 3 ohm. And the input
resistance of the amplifier, which varies according to the gain setting, is at least 40
kohm so that virtually the whole of the emf appears at the amplifier input terminals.
 Connect the probe to the amplifier as shown in fig and also connect at 0-15V meter
between the amplifier output and 0V. Switch on the power supply and place the probe
near to the amplifier input so that all points are at the same temperature.
 To avoid possible 'pick-up' of signal, due to the proximity of the thermocouple lead to
the TK2941A oscillator, the positive input to the operational amplifier is decoupled to
OV with a 100 microF capacitor.
 Use the thermometer to read the room temperature near the amplifier. This will be the
cold junction temperature and should ideally be constant during the experiment. If
you suspect that this temperature might vary and you have two thermometers
available, use the second one to note the room temperature before every reading.
 Now switch the gain on the Operational Amplifier to 1000, disconnect the probe, note
the meter reading in observation table , and place it and a thermometer in the water
tank and clip this on the heat bar at Notch 20.
 When the tem[perature is steady (about 15 minutes) note the thermometer reading and
the meter reading. Repeat for Notches 18, 16, etc. upto the point where 100 degree is
reached. Note dsown the values in observation table and plot the graph.
Dr. B R Ambedkar National Institute of Technology, Jalandhar
(Department of Instrumentation and Control Engineering)

(Transducer and Signal Conditioning Lab)

OBSERVATION TABLE
S.No. Notch Room temp. Temp of Hot junction Temp Thermocouple
No. (Thermometer) difference emf (mV)

MODEL GRAPH

RESULT
The Characteristics of Thermocouple was verified successfully.

Prepared by
Nikhil Kr. Gill
Dr. B R Ambedkar National Institute of Technology, Jalandhar
(Department of Instrumentation and Control Engineering)

(Transducer and Signal Conditioning Lab)

Experiment No-4

OBJECTIVE (AIM) OF THE EXPERIMENT

To verify and study the characteristic of Linear Variable Differential Transformer.

FACILITIES REQUIRED AND PROCEDURE

FACILITIES REQUIRED TO DO THE EXPERIMENT:

S.NO Apparatus Quantity

1 LVDT SETUP 1
2 LVDT MEASURING 1
SYSTEM
3 DIGITAL MULTI- 1
METER

Formula:

Measured value –True value

%Error =( ) x100%
True value

THEORY:

The most widely used inductive Transformer to translate the linear motion into electricalsignals

is the Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT). The LVDT acting as primary

transducers converts the displacement directly into an electrical output proportional to

displacement, i.e. the Mechanical Variable (displacement) is converted into Analog Signal

(Voltage) directly LVDT provides continuous reduction and shows the low hysteresis and

hence, repeatability is excellent under all conditions.

Dr. B R Ambedkar National Institute of Technology, Jalandhar
(Department of Instrumentation and Control Engineering)

(Transducer and Signal Conditioning Lab)

Procedure

Connections are given as per the circuit diagram.

The screw gauge is adjusted for minimal voltage.

The core is moved in clockwise direction with the help of screw gauge.

The output voltage for each 1 mm displacement was added and noted.

The displacement core was brought to initial position and moved in anticlockwisedirection.

Again the output voltage for each 1 mm displacement was noted.

A graph is plotted between displacement and output voltage (Eo).

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
Dr. B R Ambedkar National Institute of Technology, Jalandhar
(Department of Instrumentation and Control Engineering)

(Transducer and Signal Conditioning Lab)

MODEL GRAPH

OBSERVATION TABLE

Position (mm) Output ac volts (pk-pk)

RESULT:

Thus, the characteristics of Linear Variable Differential Transformer was studied and
verified successfully.

Prepared by
Nikhil Kr. Gill
Dr. B R Ambedkar National Institute of Technology, Jalandhar
(Department of Instrumentation and Control Engineering)

(Transducer and Signal Conditioning Lab)

Experiment No-5

OBJECTIVE (AIM) OF THE EXPERIMENT

To verify the characteristics of Load Cell.

FACILITIES REQUIRED TO DO THE EXPERIMENT:

s.no Apparatus Quantity

1 Load cell 1
2 Weights
3 Multimeter 1

THEORY:

A Load Cell is transducer that is used to create an electric signal whose magnitude is

directly proportional to the force being measured. Load Cell utilises an electric

membrane as the primary transducer and strain gauge as secondary transducer. The

various type of load cell includes hydraulic load cell, pneumatic load cell, and strain

gauge load cell. The other types include vibrating wire load cells which are useful in

geo mechanical applications due to low amount of drift and capacitive load cells

where capacitance of the capacitor s load presses the two plates of capacitor making

them come closer to each other.

DESIGN PROCEDURE/ DESIGN CALCULATIONS:

𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒
1. sensitivity=
𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑

(𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒−𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒)

2.
% Error = 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
Dr. B R Ambedkar National Institute of Technology, Jalandhar
(Department of Instrumentation and Control Engineering)

(Transducer and Signal Conditioning Lab)

PROCEDURE:

1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.

2. Load to be increased in steps and the corresponding output voltage is noted and
tabulated.

3. Similarly each load is removed one-by-one and the corresponding

output voltage is noteddown and tabulated.

4. A graph is drawn with load on X-axis and output voltage on Y-axis.

Block Diagram:

Measuring System:

Load Cell Measurement:

Dr. B R Ambedkar National Institute of Technology, Jalandhar
(Department of Instrumentation and Control Engineering)

(Transducer and Signal Conditioning Lab)

Signal conditioning ckt. of load cell

OBSERVATION TABLE

Load / Weight (Kg) Output Voltage

0 0
1 .
2 .
3 .
4 .
. .
. .
Dr. B R Ambedkar National Institute of Technology, Jalandhar
(Department of Instrumentation and Control Engineering)

(Transducer and Signal Conditioning Lab)

MODEL GRAPH

RESULT: The characteristics of load cell were verified successfully.

Prepared by
Nikhil Kr. Gill
Dr. B R Ambedkar National Institute of Technology, Jalandhar
(Department of Instrumentation and Control Engineering)

(Transducer and Signal Conditioning Lab)

EXPERIMENT NO. 6

AIM:-
To study and perform speed control of DC motor by varying voltage.

EQUIPMENTS REQUIRED:-

Proximity Trainer Kit, Two Banana cables.

THEORY:-
Proximity Sensors detect the presence of metal objects which come within range of their oscillating
field and provide target detection to “zero speed”. Internally, an oscillator creates a high frequency
electromagnetic field (RF) which is radiated from the coil and out from the sensor face (See Figure
1). When a metal object enters this field, eddy currents are induced into the object. As the metal
moves closer to the sensor, these eddy currents increase and result in an absorption of energy from
the coil which dampens the oscillator amplitude until it finally stops.
Dr. B R Ambedkar National Institute of Technology, Jalandhar
(Department of Instrumentation and Control Engineering)

(Transducer and Signal Conditioning Lab)

Now kit is ready to perform the experiment. When you give power to the motor, it will start
rotate. The speed of DC motor vary directly proportional to the voltage i.e.

Speed α Voltage
So when we increase the voltage speed of motor will be increased and vice-versa.

BLOCK DIAGRAM
 Dr. B R Ambedkar National Institute of Technology, Jalandhar
(Department of Instrumentation and Control Engineering)

(Transducer and Signal Conditioning Lab)

How to use Trainer

MOTOR UNIT

TEST
POINT
PROXIMITY
SENSOR

VOLTAGE
VARIATE
SECTION

SELECTION SWITCHES
LCD SECTION

Motor connection

 Connect V1 to +12V of Voltage Variate.

 Connect V2 to GND of Voltage Variate.

Sensor Connection

 Connect +V of sensor to +V Connect

 GND of sensor to GND Connect

 O/P of sensor to Sensor input

Dr. B R Ambedkar National Institute of Technology, Jalandhar
(Department of Instrumentation and Control Engineering)

(Transducer and Signal Conditioning Lab)

 Apply Power Supply to the Circuit.

 LCD will display SET COUNT
 Press CLK/INC to select the count or if you want to decrease the count then press
CLK/DEC.
 Now Press the OK Switch
 Then Press START.
 Motor will rotate and output will display on the LCD

PROCEDURE: -

 Take two Banana cables and connect supply of motor (i.e. V1 and V2) to 0 to
12Vsupply.
 Now power on the main supply.

 Set the Clockwise Rotation from the Switch (CLK/INC) and Anti-Clockwise from
Switch (CLK/DEC).

 Rotate the switch (VOLTAGE VARIATE) in clockwise direction. Speed of motor will
be increase.
 To decrease the speed of motor rotate the switch in anticlockwise direction.

TABLE: EXPECTED VOLTAGE VS RPM

S.NO. VOLTAGE (V) R.P.M

1 2 00

2 4 34

3 6 60

4 8 86

5 10 112
6 12 140
Dr. B R Ambedkar National Institute of Technology, Jalandhar
(Department of Instrumentation and Control Engineering)

(Transducer and Signal Conditioning Lab)

MODEL GRAPH

RESULT:- Speed of motor will be increased by increasing the voltage and speed
willdecrease by decreasing the voltage.

PRECAUTIONS:-

 Do not power on the main supply before the connection.

 Keep the VOLTAGE VARIATE at minimum voltage level.

 Do not apply pressure on the Banana Sockets.

 Keep the Banana cables at distance from motor armature

Prepared by
Nikhil Kr. Gill
Dr. B R Ambedkar National Institute of Technology, Jalandhar
(Department of Instrumentation and Control Engineering)

(Transducer and Signal Conditioning Lab)

EXPERIMENT No. 7

AIM

Voltage Measurement of Solar Panel Trainer with series connection in Open Circuit

EQUIPMENT REQUIRED

Solar Panel Trainer, Patch Cord, Halogen Light, Lux meter

THEORY

A solar cell, or photovoltaic cell, is an electrical device that converts the

energy of light directly into electricity by the photovoltaic effect. It is a form of
photoelectric cell, defined as a device whose electrical characteristics, such as current,
voltage, or resistance, vary when exposed to light. Solar cells are the building blocks
of photovoltaic modules, otherwise known as solar panels.
An open ckt. is electric circuit through which current cannot flow because the path is
broken or interrupted by an opening. Any circuit which is not complete is considered
an open circuit. A complete circuit which is not performing any actual work can still
be a closed circuit. For example, a circuit connected to a dead battery may not perform
any work, but it is still a closed circuit. In a series circuit, the current through
each of the components is the same, and the voltage across the circuit is the
sum of the voltages across each component.

PROCEDURE

1. Make the Connections according to the connection diagram from panel 1 and panel 2
with the voltmeter.
2. Power on the panel.
3. Place halogen light in front of the solar panel and give power supply to it.
4. Make sure light falls on solar panel properly.
5. Place the lux meter with the solar panel so the light should fall on that too. By using lux
meter light intensity can be measured.
6. Now vary the voltage of halogen light with regulator placed on it. With this light
intensity will also vary and observe the varying voltage of solar panel on voltmeter.
7. Now note down the readings of lux meter and voltmeter.
8. Make an observation table between halogen voltages and lux meter.
9. Make an observation table between light intensity and voltmeter.
10. Observe the reading and make graph according to this.
Dr. B R Ambedkar National Institute of Technology, Jalandhar
(Department of Instrumentation and Control Engineering)

(Transducer and Signal Conditioning Lab)

CONNECTION DIAGRAM

OBSERVATION TABLE

Sr. No. Halogen Voltage Light Intensity

1 20 120
2 50 205
3 65 280
4 75 515
5 85 809
6 100 1390
7 130 1840
8 150 2870
9 175 3650
10 200 4700
11 220 5390
Observation table between Halogen voltages and Light intensity
Dr. B R Ambedkar National Institute of Technology, Jalandhar
(Department of Instrumentation and Control Engineering)

(Transducer and Signal Conditioning Lab)

Sr. No. Light Intensity Solar Voltage

1 120 17.2
2 205 19.4
3 280 21.6
4 515 24.1
5 809 26.3
6 1390 27.8
7 1840 30.9
8 2870 32.1
9 3650 33.3
10 4700 34
11 5390 34.2
Observation Table between light intensity and solar voltage

CHARACTERISTICS GRAPH

Solar Voltage
40

35

30

25 Solar Voltage

20

15
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000

Characteristics Graph between light intensity and solar voltage

FOR STUDENT PRACTICE (OBSERVATIONS)

Sr. No. Light Intensity Solar Voltage

1
2
3
4
5
6
Dr. B R Ambedkar National Institute of Technology, Jalandhar
(Department of Instrumentation and Control Engineering)

(Transducer and Signal Conditioning Lab)

RESULT

Voltage has been measured with series connection in an open circuit.

PRECAUTION

1. Connection should be done carefully.

2. Does not power on the halogen light for long time and do not touch it.
3. Do not put scratch on the solar panel.
4. Make yourself safe from the AC supply.

Prepared by
Nikhil Kr. Gill
Dr. B R Ambedkar National Institute of Technology, Jalandhar
(Department of Instrumentation and Control Engineering)

(Transducer and Signal Conditioning Lab)

EXPERIMENT No. 8

AIM

Voltage Measurement of Solar Panel Trainer with parallel connection in Open Circuit

EQUIPMENT REQUIRED

Solar Panel Trainer, Patch Cord, Halogen Light, Lux meter

THEORY

A solar cell, or photovoltaic cell, is an electrical device that converts the

energy of light directly into electricity by the photovoltaic effect. It is a form of
photoelectric cell, defined as a device whose electrical characteristics, such as current,
voltage, or resistance, vary when exposed to light. Solar cells are the building blocks
of photovoltaic modules, otherwise known as solar panels.
An open ckt. is electric circuit through which current cannot flow because the path is
broken or interrupted by an opening. Any circuit which is not complete is considered
an open circuit. A complete circuit which is not performing any actual work can still
be a closed circuit. For example, a circuit connected to a dead battery may not perform
any work, but it is still a closed circuit. In a series circuit, the current through
each of the components is the same, and the voltage across the circuit is the
sum of the voltages across each component.

PROCEDURE

1. Make the Connections according to the connection diagram from panel 1 and panel 2
with the voltmeter.
2. Power on the panel.
3. Place halogen light in front of the solar panel and give power supply to it.
4. Make sure light falls on solar panel properly.
5. Place the lux meter with the solar panel so the light should fall on that too. By using lux
meter light intensity can be measured.
6. Now vary the voltage of halogen light with regulator placed on it. With this light
intensity will also vary and observe the varying voltage of solar panel on voltmeter.
7. Now note down the readings of lux meter and voltmeter.
8. Make an observation table between halogen voltages and lux meter.
9. Make an observation table between light intensity and voltmeter.
10. Observe the reading and make graph according to this.
Dr. B R Ambedkar National Institute of Technology, Jalandhar
(Department of Instrumentation and Control Engineering)

(Transducer and Signal Conditioning Lab)

CONNECTION DIAGRAM

OBSERVATION TABLE

Sr. No. Halogen Voltage Light Intensity

1 20 120
2 50 205
3 65 280
4 75 515
5 85 809
6 100 1390
7 130 1840
8 150 2870
9 175 3650
10 200 4700
11 220 5390
Observation table between Halogen voltages and Light intensity
Dr. B R Ambedkar National Institute of Technology, Jalandhar
(Department of Instrumentation and Control Engineering)

(Transducer and Signal Conditioning Lab)

Sr. No. Light Intensity Solar Voltage

1 120 8.5
2 205 9.8
3 280 11.1
4 515 12.2
5 809 13.1
6 1390 14
7 1840 14.8
8 2870 15.4
9 3650 15.9
10 4700 16.4
11 5390 16.8
Observation Table between light intensity and solar voltage

CHARACTERISTICS GRAPH

Characteristics Graph between light intensity and solar voltage

FOR STUDENT PRACTICE (OBSERVATIONS)

Sr. No. Light Intensity Solar Voltage

1
2
3
4
Dr. B R Ambedkar National Institute of Technology, Jalandhar
(Department of Instrumentation and Control Engineering)

(Transducer and Signal Conditioning Lab)

RESULT

Voltage has been measured with parallel connection in an open circuit.

PRECAUTION

1. Connection should be done carefully.

2. Does not power on the halogen light for long time and do not touch it.
3. Do not put scratch on the solar panel.
4. Make yourself safe from the AC supply.

Prepared by
Nikhil Kr. Gill