Mayan Civilization

Introduction
The Maya civilization was located in the Yucatán Peninsula and covered parts of Mexico, Belize,
Honduras, and Guatemala.John Lloyd Stephens was an American traveler and archaeologist
whose exploration of Maya ruins in Central America and Mexico generated the archaeology of
Middle America. The Maya civilization disappeared around the year 900 CE; some of their cities
were in ruins by the time Spanish arrived in the 1600s.

Evolution
The Mayas built their civilization, in part, on ideas they inherited from a people called the
Olmecs. The Olmecs lived in the jungle areas on the east coast of Mexico. Their civilization
reached its peak between 1200 and 500 B.C.E. Like early civilizations in other parts of the
world, the Olmec civilization was based on agriculture. By 2000 B.C.E., people in parts of
Mexico had turned from hunting and gathering to farming as their main source of food. A
particularly important crop at the time was maize, or corn. Farming allowed the Olmecs to create
permanent settlements. The Olmecs established farming villages throughout the region. They
also created trade routes that stretched for hundreds of miles. By 1400 B.C.E., the Olmecs had a
capital city that boasted palaces, temples, and monuments. They were the first Mesoamericans to
develop large religious and ceremonial centers. They were also the first to use a solar calendar,
or a calendar based on the cycles of the sun. The Mayas would build on all these achievements.
Mayan civilization began to develop in eastern and southern Mexico around 2000 B.C.E.
Historians divide the history of Mayan civilization into three main periods: Pre-Classic, Classic,
and Post-Classic. The long Pre-Classic period lasted from about 2000 B.C.E. to 300 C.E. During
this time, the Mayas farmed the land and lived in simple houses and compounds, or groups of
buildings. Gradually, Mayan culture became more complex. As the Mayan population grew,
settlements became larger. The Mayas began constructing public buildings for governmental and
religious purposes. Possibly as early as 300 B.C.E., they began to adapt the writing system of the
Olmecs and to develop their own system of hieroglyphic writing. Mayan civilization reached its
peak during the Classic period, from around 300 to 900 C.E. The achievements you will study in
this chapter date from this time. During the Classic period, the Mayas adapted and developed
other ideas they had learned from the Olmecs. For example, they improved on Olmec building
techniques. Even though the Mayas lacked metal tools and had not discovered the wheel, they
built enormous stone cities with elaborate and highly decorated temple pyramids and palaces.
The Mayas also built observatories for studying the sky. They charted the movements of the
moon, stars, and planets. They used their knowledge of astronomy and mathematics to create
complex and highly accurate calendars. Mayan society during the Classic period consisted of
many independent states. Each state included farming communities and one or more cities. At its
height, the Mayan Empire included more than forty cities, including Tikal, Copan, Chichén Itzá,
and Palenque. Around 900 C.E., the Classic civilization collapsed. The Mayas abandoned their
cities in the southern lowland area, and the once thriving communities fell into ruin in the jungle.
To the north, on the Yucatán Peninsula, Mayan cities continued to prosper during the Post-
Classic period. This period lasted from about 900 C.E. to 1500 C.E. During this time, the Mayas
continued their warfare and empire building, but they had fewer great artistic and cultural
achievements.

Social Organization
Within each Mayan city-state, society was structured like a pyramid. The ruler of each city-state
was at the top of this social pyramid. The rest of the members of Mayan society were organized
into a series of ranks below the ruler. The Ruler The highest authority in the state was the halach
uinic (hah-lach WEE-nik), a Mayan phrase that means “true man.” He ruled the state with the
help of his advisers. He decided when and with whom to go to war. The Mayan ruler was
considered a god-king. During religious ceremonies, he wore a headdress that was as tall as a
person. When he died, a son or another close male relative succeeded him. Mayan rulers were
almost always men, but scholars believe that some women had considerable influence, probably
through family relationships. Nobles and Priests The next layer in the social pyramid was made
up of nobles and priests. They, along with the ruler, were the only members of Mayan society
who knew how to read and write. The nobles served as scribes and officials, and oversaw the
administration of the states. They gathered taxes, supplies, and labor for projects, such as the
construction of temples. Nobles led peasant armies in times of war. During battles, they wore
elaborate costumes, including gold jewelry and animal robes made from the skins of jaguars.
Priests were important because it was their job to maintain favor with the gods. Like nobles,
priests inherited their position from their fathers. Priests led rituals, offered sacrifices, and
foretold the future. They were consulted to determine the best days for going to battle. In
addition to their religious duties, priests were often mathematicians, astronomers, and healers.
Merchants and Artisans Although the Mayan economy was based mostly on farming, trade and
crafts were also important. These functions were carried out by merchants and artisans. The
Mayas were accomplished traders. They traveled by sea, river, and wellconstructed roads to trade
with other city-states. Merchants in the lowlands imported valuable products from the highlands.
These products included stones such as obsidian and jade; copal, a tree sap that the Maya used as
incense during religious ceremonies; and quetzals, birds whose shiny green feathers were used in
headdresses. Mayan artisans made a wide variety of objects, many of them designed to pay
tribute to the gods. They painted books on paper made from the bark of fig trees. Artists painted
murals of Mayan life, important battles, and other major events. They created sculptures for
temples and decorative designs on palace walls. The Mayas were also skilled weavers and
potters. Peasants The peasants were the backbone of Mayan society. They worked hard on the
land, growing maize, squash, beans, and other crops to feed the population. During the growing
season, men spent most of the day in the fields, farming with wooden hoes. Women usually
stayed closer to home, preparing food, weaving, and sewing. When they were not farming,
peasants had to spend time building pyramids and temples. In exchange for their work, they
sometimes attended royal weddings and religious events. Peasants also served as soldiers during
wars. Slaves At the bottom of the social pyramid were the slaves. Slaves performed manual labor
for their owners. Some were born into slavery, but free people sometimes became slaves. Some
children became slaves when their parents sold them to feed the rest of the family. War prisoners
of humble origin were enslaved. (Those of higher rank were sacrificed to the gods.) And some
people were enslaved as a punishment for serious crimes. In general, the Mayas did not mistreat
slaves. Sometimes, slaves actually had easier lives than peasants, depending on what jobs they
did and their owners’ social rank. But slaves were not free to come and go as they pleased.
Often, they were sacrificed when their owners died.

Religion
Religion was very important to the Mayas. They built their cities around religious and
ceremonial centers. Their magnificent temple-pyramids rose high above the jungle canopy, like
mountains reaching into the sky. Temple plazas provided gathering places for people to attend
rituals and ceremonies. The Mayan religion was polytheistic, which means it included many
gods. The Mayas believed in more than 160 gods. The primary Mayan gods were forces or
objects in nature that affected people’s daily lives, such as rain, corn, and death. Many gods had
animal characteristics. The jaguar was especially important to the Mayas. The Mayas believed
that the gods had created the world and could influence or even destroy it. The same god that
sent life-giving rain could also ruin the crops with hailstones. So, it was extremely important to
honor the gods. According to Mayan beliefs, only priests could explain divine signs and lead
people through rituals aimed at pleasing the gods. Priests performed sacrifices and conducted
ceremonies. They consulted sacred books, read omens, interpreted signs, and predicted the
future. No decision was made without seeking the gods’ advice. The Mayas honored their gods
with offerings such as plants, food, flowers, feathers, jade, and shells. The Mayas believed that
blood gave the gods strength, so they also made blood offerings by sacrificing animals and,
sometimes, humans. The people who were sacrificed were usually orphans, slaves, or nobles
captured during war. Human sacrifice also played a role in an ancient Mayan game called pok-a-
tok. Every Mayan city had at least one ball court where the game took place. Scholars believe
that there were two teams of nobles. Players tried to hit a solid rubber ball through a stone ring
by using their leather-padded elbows, wrists, and hips. People from all levels of Mayan society
attended the popular games. However, the outcome often had serious results. Surviving art from
the ball courts shows members of the losing team being sacrificed and the captain of the defeated
team being beheaded.

Achievements

Mayan Writing System

 ● The Maya developed one of the most sophisticated writing systems in pre-Columbian
Americas. It was a combination of logograms and syllabic symbols, known as Maya
hieroglyphs.
● The decipherment of the Mayan script is largely credited to linguists and epigraphers
such as J. Eric S. Thompson, who contributed greatly to the understanding of the script's
symbols. Later work by David Stuart in the late 20th century helped to fully decode the
glyphs and their meanings.
● The Mayans used this writing system to record historical events, rituals, and astronomical
information, seen on monuments, codices (folding books), and ceramics.

2. Astronomy and Calendar Systems

● The Maya were exceptional astronomers, using the stars and celestial bodies to guide
agricultural and ceremonial activities.
● The Maya Calendar: The Maya developed several calendar systems, most notably the
Haab' (a 365-day solar calendar) and the Tzolk'in (a 260-day ritual calendar). These
calendars were used to plan agricultural cycles, religious events, and political affairs.
● The Long Count Calendar was another of the Maya's key innovations. It allowed the
Maya to track longer periods of time (spanning millennia), and it is best known for the
2012 phenomenon, which misinterpreted the end of a cycle as the "end of the world."
● Historians: David Stuart and Anthony Aveni are prominent figures in the study of
Mayan astronomy, contributing to our understanding of how the Maya tracked and
predicted celestial events.

3. Mathematics

● The Maya developed a vigesimal (base-20) number system and used the concept of zero,
which was a significant mathematical innovation for the time. This allowed them to
create highly accurate calendars and perform complex calculations.
● Historians: David H. Kelley was a key figure in recognizing the importance of the
Maya's use of zero, which was one of the earliest instances of its use in the world.

4. Architecture and Urban Planning

● The Maya built grand cities with impressive architecture, including massive temples,
palaces, and pyramids. Some of the most famous Mayan architectural feats include the
temples at Tikal, Palenque, Chichen Itza, and Calakmul.
● Mayan Pyramids: Structures like the Temple of the Inscriptions at Palenque, and the
iconic El Castillo at Chichen Itza, showcase the Maya’s advanced understanding of
geometry and their ability to align their structures with celestial events, such as the
equinox.
 ● Mayan cities often had elaborate ceremonial centers, ball courts, and plazas, highlighting
their social and religious importance.
● Historians: The work of archaeologists like William H. Holmes, Tatiana
Proskouriakoff, and George F. Andrews has been crucial in the study of Mayan cities
and their architecture.

5. Agriculture and Engineering

● The Maya were highly skilled in agricultural practices, utilizing advanced techniques
such as terracing, irrigation, and slash-and-burn farming to cultivate crops like maize
(corn), beans, squash, and cacao.
● Maya agricultural terraces and the development of raised fields helped them manage
the challenging terrain of the Yucatán Peninsula and the highlands.
● They also constructed raised roads (known as sacbeob) to connect different cities and
regions, facilitating trade and communication.
● Historians: Archaeologists like Ruth K. Shady and Norman Hammond have studied
the agricultural practices of the Maya and their innovations.

6. Art and Sculpture

● The Maya were accomplished artists and sculptors. They created stunning pottery,
murals, and stone carvings that depicted gods, rulers, and daily life. Mayan pottery, often
featuring intricate designs, was used for both practical and ceremonial purposes.
● They also created large-scale stelae and altars, often inscribed with dates and historical
events. The Mayan cities had impressive stelae, such as those at Copán, with carved
hieroglyphs commemorating kings and important events.
● Historians: Art historians such as M. S. Jansen have contributed to understanding the
Mayan use of art for political propaganda and religious expression.

7. Political Organization and Social Structure

● The Maya civilization was not a single unified empire but rather a collection of city-
states, each ruled by a king or a high priest, with a complex social hierarchy. These city-
states often engaged in both alliances and conflicts with each other.
● The Maya had a theocratic system of governance, where kings were seen as divine
intermediaries between the gods and the people. They performed religious ceremonies
and acted as military leaders.
● Historians: The study of Mayan political organization is largely attributed to the work of
Linda Schele, who helped interpret the dynastic histories recorded in Mayan texts.

8. Trade and Economy

 ● The Maya were active traders, exchanging goods such as jade, obsidian, cacao, cotton,
and salt. They had established trade networks that reached far beyond their homeland,
trading with neighboring civilizations like the Teotihuacan in central Mexico and even
the Zapotecs and Mixtecs.
● The Maya used cacao beans as currency, and their economy was based on agriculture,
craftsmanship, and long-distance trade.
● Historians: The studies of Maya trade and economic systems have been advanced by
Michael D. Coe and other scholars who have examined Mayan trade routes and
exchanges.

9. Religion and Mythology

● The Maya had a rich religious life, with a pantheon of gods and goddesses representing
forces of nature, such as the sun, rain, and maize. Their religion was highly ritualistic,
with elaborate ceremonies, offerings, and human sacrifices performed to appease the
gods and ensure agricultural prosperity.
● The Popol Vuh, an important text from the K'iche' Maya, provides an epic account of
creation, gods, and heroes and remains a key source for understanding Maya mythology.
● Historians:Dennis Tedlock have made significant contributions to the study of Maya
religion, particularly through their work on texts like the Popol Vuh.

10. Decline and Legacy

● While the Maya civilization faced a gradual decline during the Postclassic period
(around 1000 CE to 1500 CE), many of the Mayan cities remained powerful and
culturally significant until the arrival of the Spanish conquistadors in the 16th century.
● Despite the challenges faced by the Maya, including internal conflicts, environmental
changes, and European invasion, their cultural legacy has persisted, influencing modern
art, architecture, and culture in the region.

Conclusion
In conclusion, the Maya civilization was one of the most advanced cultures in pre-Columbian
Americas. Despite the challenges it faced, including political fragmentation and the arrival of the
Spanish, the Maya left a profound legacy that continues to influence modern society. Historians
such as David Stuart, Linda Schele, and Michael D. Coe have been instrumental in uncovering
the complexities of civilization.