REVIEWER KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT and ICT for Public Administration (KMGTICTP)

MODULE 1
Advances in Knowledge Management

Knowledge and competence - Organizations support their ability to offer unique products and enable
operational effectiveness in creating customer value.

Intelligent use of knowledge - Customers enable the management of individualized customer journeys
by recognising the customer’s present and future needs.

Productivity and quality - Increase by process know-how and transfer of «best practices» within and
across the company.

Transparent - Presentation of the «intellectual capital» makes a company more attractive to investors.

Company - Can achieve long-lasting competitive advantages, especially if it's knowledge is difficult to be
copied or transferred.

Organizations - Ability to learn and discard irrelevant knowledge to learn and unlearn in this age of
knowledge-intensive activities.

Explicit knowledge - Formal and structured and can be codified to be shared.

Tacit knowledge - experiential, consisting of lessons learned while executing tasks/projects and insights
gained from continuous problem resolution.

Knowledge - Developed in a specific context and cannot be considered in isolated forms.

Knowledge Management (KM) - Enables individuals, teams and entire organizations to collectively and
systematically create, share and apply knowledge to achieve their strategic and operational objectives.

Acquiring knowledge - Ensuring that the information and knowledge necessary for Business
development and business processes is available.

Creating knowledge - Ensuring that the knowledge is developed in the most suitable place inside or
outside the company and that it leads to innovation.

Sharing and using knowledge - Ensuring dissemination, learning and optimum use of knowledge.

Learning - Ensuring that the organization and each of its employees is able to learn and to reflect as well
as apply what is learned.

Protecting knowledge - Knowledge is an asset and its value needs to be protected by keeping it
updated through contributions from people.
Organization structure - Values practiced in the organization create obstacles to knowledge flows.
Knowledge is power and is therefore kept under wraps. The «not invented here» syndrome prevents
transfer of knowledge.

Reward and appraisal - Systems offer too little incentive to collaborate, learn and transfer knowledge.

Efficient processes for creating and transferring knowledge - Information systems are not user
friendly

Information - Treated as questionable to clients.

Enabling conditions - Corporate values, guiding principles, mission, vision and the reward systems must
interconnect with the success of the business units and the contribution to the development of the whole
organization.

Rules of the game - A knowledge market should be established in the company with supply and
demand. Those in need of a solution can seek knowledge and those who have insights can provide
knowledge.

Processes/structures - Efficient processes, structures and media should be developed for creating and
transferring knowledge.

knowledge ecology - Contains a value system that is characterized by terms like trust, cooperation and
openness to continuous change.

Individual performance - Honored more than teamwork.

Processes and Structures to Support a Knowledge Market in an Organization - Establishing a

knowledge market facilitates knowledge supply and demand, brings knowledge government services for
the public in contact, facilitates exchange of knowledge and determines the exchange conditions.

Formal and informal networks (e.g. communities of practice) - are increasingly gaining importance for
this purpose. Contact fairs, approaches via the internet, debates, exchange of experiences, mentoring,
etc., are other options to bring knowledge in contact with each other.

Organization should Introduce Knowledge Management - Experience has shown that a combined
change process from top to bottom (top-down) and from bottom to top (bottom up) supported by
appropriate information technology is promising

Leaders of the organization - Fully committed to actively managing knowledge resources.

Management and reward system - Reformed so that learning and competence development oriented at
the overall goals of the organization are honored.

Collaboration - Principle across the organization.

Managers and leaders - Recognize and reinforce the link between knowledge, learning and
performance.
Relevant knowledge - Made available and enriched in processes, workflow and projects.

Competence networks and «Communities of Practice» - Transfer knowledge within and outside the
company.

Information and communication systems - Ensure that information is easy to access and retrieve.
Selected information is sent to potential users in a systematic and coherent mann

Government and Firms - Create a knowledge management structure that is parallel to the «real
business», but rather make sure that KM is integrated into all government and business functions.

Introduction strategy of knowledge management - Leads to short-term successes that pave the path
for a long-term strategy of knowledge management.

MODULE 2
Knowledge: A Resource for Creating Wealth

Ikujiro Nonaka - co-workers created a consistent body of theory concerning knowledge creation in
organizations based on four main ideas.

knowledge creation at individual level - a direct result of the continuous dialogue between tacit and
explicit knowledge.

four basic knowledge conversion processes - Socialization, Externalization, Combination and

Internalization.

Knowledge creation at the organizational level - Based on these four conversion processes and a
spiral driving force.

Ba - knowledge creation.

Ba - The space where individuals relate to each other and knowledge is created, provides a platform for
increasing individual and/or collective knowledge.

Ba - Can be Physical (e.g. office, dispersed space), Virtual (e.g. e-mail, videoconference, digital
platforms), Mental (e.g. shared experiences, ideas, models)

Ba - a context in which knowledge is shared, created, and utilized, in recognition of the fact that
knowledge needs a context in order to exist”.

Socialization - The first process of creating tacit knowledge through shared experience.

Combination - The second process is a result of social interaction through language. This process of
creating explicit knowledge from explicit knowledge.

Externalization - Third process of transforming tacit knowledge into explicit knowledge.

Internalization - The fourth process is dealing with transformation of explicit knowledge into tacit
knowledge.This is a process of embodying explicit knowledge as tacit knowledge. It is closely to learning
by doing.

Transformation - Processes are based on the idea that tacit and explicit knowledge are two
complementary forms of knowledge in a continuous interaction.

The first three processes - are related in Nonaka‟s view to organizational learning, while the last one is
related to individual learning.

Nonaka - Organizations create knowledge continuously by restructuring the existing knowledge basis
through the synergy of the four fundamental processes of knowledge
transformation.

Knowledge - as a resource for creating wealth is gaining increasing importance globally at the level of
nations, regions, organizations, teams and individuals.

Society - Social relations (social interactions regulated by social norms, involving social positions and
social roles.

Culture - Patterns of social practice, norms of behavior, value systems, traditions, beliefs.

Institutions - (Social structures and mechanisms of social order and cooperation) e.g. family,
government, media, money, property, labor, etc.

Empowering social vision - That encompasses plurality, inclusion, solidarity and participation.
(UNESCO 2005) United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization.

Values and practices of creativity and innovation - Play a major part for sustaining competitive
advantage.

Creativity and innovation - Lead to promoting new types of collaborative processes (UNESCO 2005),
which are increasingly digitally enabled.

Peter Drucker used the term «knowledge society» already in 1969 «The Age of Discontinuity». In
his seminal study «The Production and Distribution of Knowledge in the United States»

Fritz Machlup - 1962 Focused his research on the patent system, but he came to realize that patents
were simply one part of a much bigger

Knowledge economy - In the 1990s detailed studies on the transformation of labour, property and
knowledge were conducted.

Stehr - 1994

Mansell and When - 1998

Adolf and Stehr - 2017

Kornienko - 2015

Economy - Production, distribution and consumption of goods and services.

Markets and firms - (in the case of capitalism)

Efficient - allocation of resources

● Land (raw materials, natural resources)

● Labor (workers’ time and effort, expertise
● Capital (equipment's, machines, buildings, plants, wealth, etc.)

Knowledge economy - an economy in which the production of goods and services is based primarily
upon knowledge-intensive activities.

Knowledge economy - To create goods and services. In particular, it refers to a high portion of skilled
workers in the economy of a locality, country, or the world, and the idea that most jobs
require specialized skills.

Knowledge-intensive - Activity involves the collection, analysis, and synthesis of information.

Society and economies - Changing their reliance from the labor and manufacturing of products or goods
to an economy that is more reliant on the production and reengineering of information into knowledge.

Industrial economy - Emphasizes the importance of skills in a service economy, the third phase of
economic development.

Information Age - The global economy transition to a knowledge economy.

Peter Drucker - The title of Chapter 12 in his book The Age of Discontinuity (1969), that Drucker
attributed to economist Fritz Machlup, originating in the idea of scientific management developed by
Frederick Winslow Taylor.

Human capital
• A business product, as educational and innovative intellectual products and services can be exported for
a high value return.
• A productive asset.

Structural change - Moving from labor and capital-intensive activities to information and
knowledge-intensive activities means that the companies increasingly sell information, knowledge or
intelligent products and services.

Globalization - Globalization of the economy has changed the international division of labor. The
countries known as industrial nations are now becoming knowledge nations.

Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) - ICT enables dealing with big
data, connecting easily, collaboration and interaction at low transaction costs and brings
about worldwide information transparency.
Diigital transformation - The one coined by Bounfour (2016), namely ‘the change associated with the
application of digital technology in all aspects of human society’.

Age of Reason (Knowledge 1.0) Even though in ancient times there have been schools of philosophers
reflecting knowledge, at least in Europe, the sixteenth century is considered as the start of a systematic
scientific exploration of nature and the development of a more widely accepted scientific method.

Industrial Society (Knowledge 2.0) - The eighteenth century. Knowledge was

increasingly embedded in machines and production systems. Knowledge creation had
been professionalized.

Information and Knowledge Society (Knowledge 3.0) where information and knowledge became
dominant production factors.

Intangible investments - products, development, education and training in software as well in increasing
the effectiveness of management processes and information supply turn out to be the decisive indicators
for the future performance of the economy.

Intellectual capital - Less on the basis of book value than the physical assets of a company. Thus, since
the beginning of the 1980s, we have witnessed a divergent development of book value and market value
of firms, where some companies are valued on the stock market at ten times or more their actual book
value.

Intangible assets - coined to explain the difference between both these values.

Digitized knowledge society (Knowledge 4.0) - Digital transformation strategies take on a different
perspective and pursue different goals. From a business- centric perspective, they focus on the
transformation of products, processes, business models and organizational aspects owing to new
technologies such as big data, business analytics, cloud computing, cognitive systems, robots, social
software and the Internet of Things.

Four dimensions - use of technologies, changes in value creation, structural changes, and financial
aspects (cf. Matt et al. 2015)

MODULE 3
Role of KM in “VUCA” Environments

Knowledge management - Enables individuals, teams and entire organizations as well as networks,
regions and nations to collectively and systematically create, share and apply knowledge to achieve their
strategic and operational objectives.

VUCA - Environment (volatile, uncertain, complex, ambiguous), changed communication behaviors

and the evolution towards knowledge work 4.0 set the scene for managing knowledge within and
across organizations in the digitized society.

If you are a volatile leader - your changing and erratic behaviors will drive good people away.

If you are an uncertain leader - your changing directions will frustrate people and lead them to question
your capabilities.
If you are a complex leader - no one will get to know you or your expectations. There is a clear danger
of aloofness.

If you are an ambiguous leader - your lack of clarity in what is expected will stymie people from being
engaged.

LEAP - The fog and demonstrate the cognitive readiness competencies (Figure 3) and also
possesses the following traits (Bawany, 2016)

Liberal: Open to new behavior or opinions and willing to adapt or discard existing values if and when
necessary to adapt to the new world.

Exuberant: Filled with lively energy with a sense of passion and optimism in engaging the team and other
stakeholders.

Agility: Proficiently change and evolve the learning organization with next generation leadership
competencies including cognitive readiness, critical thinking and emotional & social intelligence amongst
others.

Partnership: Build a trust-based partnership with teams (intra & inter) as well as externally with other
stakeholders including customers and suppliers.

Facilitate ubiquitous and curated knowledge flows - Quick, easy and ubiquitous access to the
knowledge base of the organization and across organizations gains importance and can be characterized
by decentralized, and increasingly peer- networked repositories augmented by rapidly evolving machine
intelligence.

Murray and Wheaton - (2016) Argue that there is a need for “knowledge curation” as even advanced
technologies such as machine- readable ontologies have not yet come close to being able to extract
deep meaning or accurately organize content into proper contextual categories.

Enable collaboration - The emphasis of KM has shifted from the support for collecting to connecting
knowledge activities that help to make collaboration work.

Monitor and control augmented learning and decision-making - As organizations increasingly

develop and deploy algorithms to automate routine knowledge tasks and decisions plus provide decision
support in known situations, such automated knowledge behavior needs to be monitored and controlled to
be not only efficient, but also compliant with an organization’s internal and external regulatory system.

Identify critical knowledge - KM needs to provide deep insight into the critical knowledge assets
required to embark on the learning journey involved in the activities to pursue future organizational goals.

MacMillan et al. 2017 - Strategic knowledge mapping helps to uncover and take an integral view on
critical knowledge assets, providing the context for discovering the most promising digitalization strategies

Facilitate sensemaking and shared understanding - Way of understanding connections between

people, places and events that occur now or occurred in the past, in order to anticipate future trajectories
and act accordingly.
Encourage renewal, agile learning and reflection - To ensure renewal in an ever changing and often
disruptive environment, firms have to learn how to systematically develop new business models and
non-profit organizations need to be capable of redesigning their missions in an accelerated manner.

Build platforms for engagement - In an era of information overload, human attention is a scarce
resource. In order to attract heterogeneous and unexpected knowledge it is of strategic importance to
build platforms that engage members in and beyond the organizational boundaries.

Ghazawneh and Henfridsson (2010) - Point to the importance of governing third-party development
through specific knowledge which they call “platform boundary resources.

MODULE 4
Knowledge Based Value Creation

Symbols - These may be letters, numbers or signs. These symbols can be interpreted only if there are
clear rules of understanding. These rules are called syntax. Symbols plus syntax become data.
Combining the numbers 1, 3, 5 and the unit symbols for degree Celsius plus a point to 13.5 °C transforms
symbols into data.

Information - Organized data adding meaning to a message. This information is interpreted differently
depending on context, experience and the expectations of people.

Knowledge - Refers to the tacit or explicit understanding of people about relationships among
phenomena. It is embodied in routines for the performance of activities, in organizational structures and
processes and in embedded beliefs and behavior.
- Implies an ability to relate inputs to outputs, to observe regularities in information, to codify,
explain and ultimately to predict.

Polanyi (1966) tacit knowledge - Personal, context-specific, often unconscious and therefore hard to
formalize and communicate.

Explicit or codified knowledge - Refers to knowledge that is transmittable in formal, systematic

language.

Competence (or competency) - Person or a group describes the relationship between the tasks
assigned to or assumed by the person or the group and their capability and potential to deliver a desired
performance.

Core competencies - An organization are considered particularly relevant for competition.

- are a combination of skills and technologies that deliver value to the customer.

Objective of knowledge based management - The transformation of information into knowledge and
competence.

Strategic knowledge management - Passes through the knowledge ladder from top to bottom to
answer questions as to «which competencies are required to be competitive», thus deducing which
knowledge and know-how is necessary.
Operative knowledge management - Particularly involves interconnecting information to knowledge,
know-how and actions.

Information and data management (Digitalization) - The basis for knowledge management. If we have
a look at the knowledge ladder, we notice that the supply, storage and distribution of information are
prerequisites for creating and transferring knowledge.

North and Schmidt 2004 - Empirical studies we have identified four levels of maturity in the way
organizations manage their knowledge.

Information processing epistemology - Assumes that knowledge and information are roughly the
same. In this case it is but natural to invest in the speed of information processing.

Network epistemology - Assumes that knowledge is a result of interaction of people in networks. Thus,
the firm should invest to bring the employees of the organization together.

Self - referential epistemology - Assumes that knowledge is a private history- dependent process
within each of us. Knowledge of one person is mere raw data for another. Each person shares
organizational knowledge with another.

Tacit knowledge - Represents the personal knowledge of an individual. It is based on education, ideals,
values and feelings of the individual person.

Explicit knowledge - Methodical and systematic and is present in an articulated form. It is stored in the
media outside the brain (disembodied knowledge) of an individual and can be transferred and stored by
means of information and communication technology.

Socialization: From Tacit to Tacit Knowledge - The conversion from tacit knowledge of one person to
tacit knowledge of another person is called socialization. It is a process of sharing experiences and
thereby creating tacit knowledge such as shared mental models and technical skills.

Externalization: From Tacit to Explicit - Externalization is the process of articulating tacit knowledge
into explicit concepts. Externalization happens when we describe a manufacturing process for the
purpose of an ISO 9000 certification.

Combination: From Explicit to Explicit Knowledge - Combination refers to the conversion from
explicit knowledge to explicit knowledge. Individuals exchange and combine knowledge through
documents, meetings, and communication networks.

Internalization: From Explicit to Tacit Knowledge. Internalization is the process of embodying explicit
knowledge in tacit knowledge. It is closely related to learning by doing. A service engineer, for instance,
reads an operating manual in order to program electronic equipment.

Intention - The most critical element of corporate strategy is to conceptualize a vision about what kind of
knowledge should be developed and to make it operational in a management system for implementation.

Autonomy - At the individual level, all members of an organization should be allowed to act
autonomously as far as circumstances permit. This may increase the chance of introducing unexpected
ideas and tacit opportunities.
Fluctuation and creative chaos - To adopt an open attitude towards environmental signals, to exploit
those signals ambiguity, redundancy and to use fluctuation in order to break routines, habits or cognitive
frameworks.

Redundancy - Business organizations, redundancy refers to intentional overlapping of information about

business activities, management responsibilities and the company as a whole. Sharing redundant
information promotes the sharing of tacit knowledge and thus speeds up the knowledge creation process.

Requisite variety - Based on the assumption, that an organization’s internal diversity must match the
variety and complexity of the environment in order to deal with challenges posed by the environment,
everyone in the organization should be assured of quick access to necessary information and knowledge

Intangible asset - Identifiable non-monetary asset without physical substance.An asset is a resource
that is controlled by the entity as a result of past events (for example, purchase or self-creation) and from
which future economic benefits (inflows of cash or other assets) are expected.

Intellectual capital - Knowledge that can be converted into value (Edvinsson and Sullivan 1996;
Edvinsson and Malone 1997) or as resource utilized in future value creation without a physical
embodiment (OECD 2008).

Skandia 1998 - The intellectual capital in turn is divided into human capital, customer capital and
organizational capital.

Human capital - Comprised of the competencies of the workforce, their motivation as well as relations
and values. In short we might say: Human capital = competence × motivation.

Customer capital - Represents the value of the company’s relationship with the customer.Saint-Onge
defines customer capital as the depth (penetration), width (coverage) and the attachment (loyalty) of the
customer base (Bontis 1996)

Organizational or structural capital - Skandia divided the organizational capital into innovation capital,
process capital and culture.

Innovation capital - The second pillar of structural capital, is defined by Skandia as the renewal strength
of a company and is evident in the protected intellectual property like patents, licenses or brand names
and intangible virtues that enable future cash flows. This contains, for instance, valuation of creativity.

Scarcity and the value-creating potential - The «seller» and the «buyer» to assess the value-creating
potential of knowledge.

Sunk costs - The training of employees or building a team operative in software development are
meaningful only to a certain extent while determining the value of knowledge resources. This is because,
firstly, the expenditure incurred by the company cannot always be ascertained in terms of cost.

Inkinen 2016 Andreeva and Kianto (2012) - KM practices The conscious organizational and
managerial practices intended to achieve organizational goals through efficient and effective management
of the firm’s knowledge.
Zack 2009, Andreeva and Kianto 2012, Inkinen 2016 - A Number of studies relating KM processes,
practices and business cases to organizational performance provide the answer. Studies which provide
an overview of these relationships.

Inkinen 2016 - First, studies investigating how knowledge processes (acquisition, sharing and
utilization) which typically take place in firms even without systematic managerial intervention, are related
with various firm performance outcomes.

Andreeva and Kianto 2012 - Secondly, studies focus on the impact of conscious organizational and
managerial practices, with an intention to achieve organizational goals through efficient and effective
management of the firm’s knowledge resources.

North and Hornung 2003; North et al. 2004 - A third type of studies looks into concrete business cases
and establishes a relationship between intervention and outcome.

Knowledge-based human resource management practices - The literature strongly suggests that
HRM practices are highly associated with innovation. Some studies point out that the utilization of HRM
practices increases the knowledge processes, such as acquisition, sharing and creation, which
have an impact on innovation capability.

Knowledge management leadership practices - Top-management support is associated with an

increase in knowledge processes, which result in higher organizational learning and the capability to
develop new products or services, predict business or risks and cope with new information regarding
markets.

Technology-oriented knowledge management practices - IT support for collaboration, communication,

information search, real-time learning, simulation and prediction is associated with a firm’s
innovativeness.

Organization-oriented knowledge management practices - One study found that the establishment of
a special unit in charge of KM, is significantly associated with firm performance in a learning and growth
perspective, an internal process perspective and a customer perspective.

Management process-oriented knowledge management practices - Generally speaking, the firms

were found to perform better if all the necessary strategic KM elements existed: the concept of KM for top
management, a breadth of knowledge strategy objectives and KM tools and implementation support
elements, such as cultural principles, leadership and HR practices.

MODULE 5
KM in the Public Sector

knowledge Management - Generally considered as a set of new organizational practices, which seems
to be of wide relevance in the knowledge economy.
Knowledge Management - Intentional set of practices and processes designed to optimize the use of
knowledge, in other words, to increase allocative efficiency in the area of knowledge production,
distribution and use.
Knowledge Management - Increasingly been recognized by most governments in the world as strategic
resources within the public sector.
Knowledge Management - Provides the overall strategy to manage the content of electronic government
by providing knowledge organization tools and techniques, monitoring up-datedness of knowledge
contents and availing all necessary information to citizens.
Knowledge Management - Increasingly gaining attention in the public sector.

McKin, 2005 - Government organizations worldwide are facing challenges as administrative, executive
and judicial bodies continue to evolve into an electronic work environment pushed by paperwork,
reduction mandates, requirements to handle increase workloads with fewer personal and the rapid
addition of electronic communication channels by taxpayers and citizens, governments are often the
forefront of adopting new approaches to electronic information management.

McKenzie 2011 - knowledge management practices are well placed to improve decision making.

Public sector - The functioning agencies and units at all state, country, national, and local levels of
government (provincial down to barangay level).

Public Sector - All agencies (executive, legislative, judiciary), government own control corporations
(GOCCs), the military and departments that perform some for of public service.

Roste and Miles, 2005 - Public sector organizations focus on enactment of public policies whereas
profit, revenues and growth are the organizing principle of the private sector.

Nair, 2005 - Rightly or wrongly, they are expected to be a model of efficiency, innovation and service
quality.

fifteen years - a large number of public agencies have embraced knowledge management practices with
the quest of creating more innovative systems to connect people to information and knowledge.

Drive - Efficiencies across all public services, for instance, by connecting silos of information across
different levels of government and across borders.

Develop new or consolidating outdated systems - to improve the overall performance, and
capitalize on the broader, more integrated and easier accessible knowledge base.

Improve accountability and mitigating risk - making informed decisions and resolve issues faster,
supported by access to integrated, transparent information across all organizational boundaries.

Deliver better and more cost-effective constituent services - such as enhancing partnership with, and
responsiveness to the public, thereby clearly demonstrating higher returns on taxpayers’ money.

Nicolini 2008 - Cooperation between various service providers, advanced training of doctors and
specialists in health care, insights into the effectiveness of medicines, and online counseling of patients
are just some of the topics which highlight the significance of a systematic management of knowledge in
the health care sector.
New Public Management - Find a wide range of initiatives for adopting the management methods of the
private sector in the public sector, to achieve an increased customer orientation and efficiency.
Apo 2013 - The hospital has significantly decreased customer complaints and error rates through the KM
initiatives that utilized high-contact methods such as communities of practices, after-action review,
storytelling, and capturing of lessons learned.

Apo 2013 - Organizations must bear the periodic discontinuity of leadership in public-sector term
appointments (APO 2013).

New Public Management (NPM) - a reform movement calling for management reforms in the public
sector organizations. It gained momentum in the developed countries like the UK, New Zealand,
and Australia, and in no time spread to developing countries as well.

Development of a Vision - The bureaucracy should have a mission statement entailing its vision on
organization and development. This will spell out for them the national goals, role and responsibilities,
quality standards, levels of efficiency, incentives for creativeness, innovation in public service delivery;
and direction of the bureaucracy.

Disaggregation of the Administrative Structure - NPM promotes breaking up of a large administrative

organization into several decentralized units with requisite autonomy, independent budgets, and
maintaining an ‘arms length’ relationship with each other.

Downsizing of the Civil Services - NPM reforms aim at a meaningful review of the cadre and ex-cadre
posts, abolition of redundant posts, readjustment of the intake of the new entrants as per the
socio-economic requirements, and undertaking refresher programs to prevent stagnation.

Decentralization of Powers / Functions - With decentralization, The bureaucrats have to transfer local
functions to the state and local governments. This will bring the centers of decision-making nearer to the
people and empower the local administration in solving the civic problems. This will result in empowered
communities who will develop a conducive mind-set for participation, and motivation. The commitment of
civil servants to the administrative goals will also be strengthened

Service Delivery - NPM advocates the use of computerized monitoring of the public grievance redressal
machinery for ensuring its effective functioning. Bureaucrats who have public dealings should be given
training in customer orientation. They should be publicly accessible through the ‘formal and informal
channels of feedback’. This will make them customer-driven and citizen friendly. The quality of public
services will improve, and this will restore the public accountability of the bureaucrats.

Computerized information - Made available at the office reception.

Information counters - Set up in public institutions and offices like schools, post offices, village health
centers, railway stations, hospitals, which can act as a one-stop-consolidated information-shop.

Management Information System (MIS) - They can monitor and implement various developmental
programs.

Hot lines and e-mail - Facility will enable the citizens to bring cases of bureaucratic delay, corruption
and other misdemeanors to the forefront.

cf. Syed-Ikhsan and Rowland 2004 - argued that in many countries motivation and reward systems
within the civil service do not encourage knowledge sharing.
c.f. Taylor and Wright 2004 - Challenges for practicing KM in the public sector are rooted in a rule-
based culture that seeks compliance rather than entrepreneurship, innovation and improvement.

CAF 2013 -The CAF aims to be a catalyst for a full improvement process within the organization and also
facilitates bench learning between public sector organizations.
.
Riege and Lindsay (2006) - argue that a main driver for the adoption of KM initiatives in public services
is the change of organizational culture which is closely related to leadership and human resource
management practice.

Vong 2016 - There study on the food security and nutrition industry in Cambodia, conclude that
information quality, organizational commitment, and top management support influence knowledge
sharing within the public sector.

Ghana Boateng and Agyemang (2016) - found that mutual trust, respect and care for one another, the
quest for organizational success as well as education and experience level of employees are the
significant factors influencing knowledge sharing in the Afigya Kwabre District Assembly.

Jain and Jeppesen (2013) - conducted an empirical study about the relationship between cognitive
styles of leaders and knowledge management practices in the Indian work context.

Process standardization and service platforms - Managing knowledge is directly related to service
delivery based on well-defined and standardized processes oriented towards internal or external
customers.

PWC 2007 - Processes are being re-engineered to put in place improved, value-for-money processes that
will reduce waste and duplication, producing an effective «customer experience.

2001 - The Canadian government developed a one-stop shop website: a single centralized point of entry
for citizens to most federal websites .

2005 - This was extended to the whole of government to become the Government of Canada portal and
became a part of a larger, cohesive strategy for a knowledge-based economy and society.

Dalkir 2016 - Service Canada introduced their portal to provide citizens access to a wide range of
government programs and services.

Heisig 2016 - The implementation of PSN requires the harmonization of terms used for public services
and the standardization of processes in the public administration.

Best Practice Sharing and Learning - Activities to improve service delivery are often accompanied by
platforms and networks within and across organizations and countries to learn, to identify and to share
Best Practices.
Knowledge Transfer across Generations - As many public organizations face massive retirement of
experienced officials, on an operational level KM practices to retain experiences and knowledge of
leaving officials are becoming popular.

cf. Riege and Lindsay 2006 - Partnerships with stakeholders such as private industry and community
organizations are critical to developing effective public policy.