Table of Contents

1) FUNCTIONS 1-28

2) LIMITS 29-50

3) CONTINUITY 51-65

4) DIFFERENTIATION &APPLICATIONS 66-93

5) APPLICATIONS OF DERIVATIVES 94-127

6) SOLVED PROBLEMS 128-153

FUNCTIONS
Sets
A set is a well-defined collection of distinct objects. The objects in a set
are called the elements or members of the set. Capital letters A, B, C,…
are usually used to denote sets and lowercase letters a, b, c,… to denote
the elements of a set.
For a collection S of objects to be a set it must be well-defined in the
sense that given any object x whatever, it must be possible to determine
whether or not x is an element of S. For example, the collection of
Natural numbers, the collection of letters of the alphabet, and the
collection of states in the United States of America. On the other hand,
suppose we want to discuss the collection of beautiful cities in Europe.
Different people might have different collections. Thus, the collection of
beautiful cities in Europe cannot be regarded as a set. Collections based
on subjective judgments, such as “all good football players” or ”all
intelligent students,” are not sets.

Notation
The object x is in the set A: x  A .
The object x is not in the set A: x  A .
The set of all x for which property P holds: x : P.
(for example, A={x: x is a vowel}={a,e,i,o,u})
A is a subset of B (A is contained in B): A  B .
The union of A and B: A  B . ( A  B = x : x  A or x  B )
The intersection of A and B: A  B . ( A  B = x : x  A and x  B  )

The empty set: .

The Set of Real Numbers
It is the set of numbers that we deal with in all aspects of life. Real
numbers are numbers that can be expressed as decimals such as;

2
3/4=0.75000, -1/3=-0.333…, 23/11=2.090909…
2 =1.414213562…, =3.141592653…, e=2.718228 …

The set of real numbers groups the following sets:

(1) Natural numbers N: is the set {1,2,3,…} that represents the natural
counting for human being.
(2) Integer numbers Z: is the set {..-3,-2,-1,0,1,2,3,..} that groups the set
N besides the zero and natural numbers with negative sign. These
numbers result from the solution of the algebraic equation x+a=b, where
a, b are natural numbers.
(3) Rational numbers Q: it groups the integer and fractional numbers
that satisfy the equation bx-a=0, where a and b are integers, b≠0 as -1/2,
-9, 17/5, 121/13, -23/1375. They are the numbers that can be put in the
form a/b.
The rational number can be represented in decimal form by dividing the
denominator b into the numerator a. The resulting decimal expansion
will either terminate or repeat.
Example: 3/5=0.6, 27/20=1.35, and 43/8=5.375 are terminating decimals
(ending with an infinite string of zeros).
Example: 2/3=0.6666.., 15/11=1.363636.., and 116/37=3.135135..
are repeating decimals where the sequence of digits indicates that the
sequence repeats indefinitely (ending with a block of digits that repeats
over and over). The converse is also true; every terminating or repeating
decimal represents a rational number. A terminating decimal expansion
is a special case of repeating decimal since the ending zeros repeat.
(4) Irrational numbers Q : they are the numbers that can not be put in
the form a/b, where a and b are integers. The decimal expansion of an
irrational number neither terminates nor repeats. For example, the
numbers, 2 =1.414213562…, =3.141592653…, e=2.718228 …

3
are irrational numbers. If we stop the decimal expansion of a given
number at a certain decimal place, then the result is a rational number
which approximates the given number. For instance, 1.414=1414/1000
and 3.14=314/100 are common rational number approximations for 2

and  respectively. More accurate approximations can be obtained by

taking more decimal places in the expansions.
Notice that: Q contains Z which includes N and there are other numbers
such as 2 , e, . Then the set of real numbers R is divided into two

groups: one contains the rational numbers Q and the other includes the
irrational numbers.
The real numbers can be represented geometrically by points on a straight
line called the real line R.

-623/370 3/7 521/281 e


-100/31 -3/4 0 2.1

Example: Classification of some numbers:

[1] 7.000 (rational), [2] 0.9999… (rational)

[3] -4/5 (rational), 25 (rational)

[4]

[5] 4
13 (irrational), [6] (2)1/3 (irrational)

[7] 0.020202… (rational), [8] tan-1(1) (irrational)

[9]  (irrational), [10] 10 90 = 30 (rational)

Properties of Real Numbers

Algebraic Properties: The real numbers can be added, subtracted,

multiplied, and divided (except by zero) to produce more real numbers
under the usual rule of arithmetic.

4
Ordered Properties: If a and b are real numbers, then a is less than b,
denoted as a<b, if b-a is a positive number. This is equivalent to saying
that b is greater than a, which is denoted as b>a. Geometrically, a<b if
the point a lies to the left of the point b on a number line. The notion
a  b means that either a<b or a=b (equivalently, a  b ). The real
numbers are ordered in the sense that if a and b are real numbers, then
exactly one of the following holds: a<b, a=b, a>b.

The symbols , , ,  are called inequalities satisfy the following

ordered properties:

(i) If a<b and b<c, then a<c.

(ii) If a<b and a+c<b+c for all real numbers c.

(iii) If a<b and c<d, then a+c<b+d.

(iv) If a<b and c>0, then ac<bc.

(v) If a<b and c<0, then ac>bc.

The corresponding properties hold for , ,  . A crucial point is

property (v): if an inequality is multiplied by a negative quantity, the
direction of the inequality is reversed.

Completeness (Density) Property: There are enough real numbers to

complete the real number line in the sense that there are no holes or gaps
in it. Therefore, between any two real numbers there are infinitely many
rational and irrational numbers. In particular, there is no smallest positive
real number.

Intervals: A subset of the real line is called an interval, if it contains at

least two numbers and contains all the real numbers lying between any
two of its elements.

Example: x  6 is an interval and − 2  x  5 is an interval.

5
Example: The set of all non-zero real numbers is not an interval since 0
is absent. The set fails to contain every real number between -1 and 1.

Types of Intervals

Finite Intervals:

(a,b): (a, b) = x : a  x  b (open)

[a,b]: [a, b] = x : a  x  b (closed)

(a, b] = x : a  x  b , [a, b) = x : a  x  b (half-open)

Infinite Intervals:

(a, ) = x : a  x (open), [a, ) = x : a  x (closed)

(−, b) = x : x  b (open), (−, b] = x : x  b (closed)

(−, ) = the set of real numbers (both open and closed)

Interval notation is easy to remember: we use a square bracket to include

an endpoint and a parenthesis when the endpoint is not included. On a
number line, the inclusion or exclusion of an endpoint is signified with a
solid “dot” or an open “dot,” respectively. The symbols  and −  , read
“infinity” and “negative infinity” (or “minus infinity”), are not real
numbers. The  symbol in the intervals given above indicates that the
interval extends indefinitely in the positive direction; the −  indicates
that the interval extends indefinitely in the negative direction.

Solving Inequalities: The process of solving the inequality is the process

of finding the interval or intervals of numbers that satisfy the inequality.

Example: Solve each of the following inequalities:

[1] 2 x + 3  6 → 2 x  3 → x  3 / 2 → (−,3 / 2]

[2] x 2 − 3 x − 4  0 → ( x − 4)( x + 1)  0
++++−−−−−−++++
x x
-1 4
6
→ (−,−1]  [4, )

2x − 7 2x − 7
[3] 3→ −3 0
x−2 x−2
++++−−−−−−++++
x +1 x
→  0 → (−,−1]  (2, ) -1 2
x−2

Example: If A = [−2,1), B = [−1,3] , find A  B, A  B, A \ B

A  B = [−2 , 3], A  B = [−1,1), A \ B = [−2 , − 1)

Example: For the intervals A=[-1,1], B=[-1,3], C=(-  , 0) find

A  B, A  B, A  C , A  C , B / C , ( A / C )  B, C  ( A / B )

A  B = [−1 , 3], A  B = [−1 , 1], A  C = (− , 1], A  C = [−1 , 0),

B / C = [0 ,3], ( A / C )  B = [0 ,1], C  ( A / B) = (− , 0)   = (− , 0)

Absolute Value: two important properties of a real number x are its sign
and its size, or magnitude. Geometrically, the sign of x tells us whether
the point x is on the right or left of 0 on a number line. The magnitude of
x is the distance between the point x and 0; 0 itself does not have a sign
and its magnitude is 0. The magnitude of x is more commonly called
absolute value of x, denoted x and is defined as

 x, x0
x =
− x, x  0

Geometrically, x is the distance between x and 0 on the real line.

x = 0 only if x = 0 .

Alternate definition of x : x = x 2 ( x 2 = x only if x is positive)

7
Properties of absolute values:

a a
(1) − a = a , (2) ab = a b , (3) = ,
b b

(4) a + b  a + b , (triangle inequality)

(5) a − b  a − b , (triangle inequality)

If a and b differ in sign, then a + b  a + b . In all other cases,

a+b = a + b

Properties of absolute values and Intervals:

(6) x = a  x =  a ,

(7) x  a  − a  x  a ,

(8) x  a  x  a or x  − a

Example: Solve each of the following inequalities:

2x − 3 2x − 3
[1] 3  7→3 → 2 x − 3  15 → x  9
5 5

2x − 3
Also,  7 → 2 x  38 → x  19 → 9  x  19.
5

[2] x + 1  3 → −3  x + 1  3 → −4  x  2

[3] x + 2  7 → x + 2  7 or x + 2  −7 → x  5 or x  −9 .

[4] x + 4 = x + 2 → x + 4 = x + 2 (rejected)

or, x + 4 = −( x + 2) → 2 x = −6 → x = −3

[5] x − 3  x + 2 by squaring, → ( x − 3) 2  ( x + 2) 2 → x  1 / 2 → x  (−,1 / 2].

8
Functions: Domain and Range
The function is a rule that assigns for every element x in a set D one
element y in the set R.

f x
D R
x y The function accepts x in its
domain
f (x)

The function f is a machine which has the input xD that transforms to
f(x)R, where f represents the machine and f(x) is the output for the
input x. The set of all possible input values x is called the domain of the
function D(f ) and x is called the independent variable. The set of all
output values f(x) as x varies through D is called the range of the
function R(f ) (or the image of D under f ) and f(x) is called the dependent
variable. In calculus, the domain and range are sets of real numbers.
Therefore, we exclude from the domain D the values of x which results in
a complex number or division by zero. For example f ( x) = x 3 + 1 , we take
as a domain the set of real numbers. For g ( x) = x , we take as a domain
the set of nonnegative numbers. For h( x) = 1 /( x − 2) we take the domain
the set of all real numbers x  2 . In interval notation, we write
D( f ) = (−, ), D( g ) = [0, ), D(h) = (−,2)  (2, ) or R − {2}

Example: Find the domain and range for each of the following functions:
[1] f ( x) = x 2

The domain of f, is given explicitly as the set of real numbers. As x runs

through the real numbers, x 2 runs through all the nonnegative numbers.
Therefore, the range of f is [0, ) . In abbreviated form we can write

D( f ) = (−, ), R( f ) = [0, ) and say that f maps (−,  ) onto [0, ) .

9
[2] f ( x) = 2 x + 4
The domain of f is defined by the interval in which:
2 x + 4  0 → x  −2 → D( f ) = [−2, )

At x=-2: f(-2)=0 and the value of f increases with increasing x up till 

Then, R ( f ) = [0, ) .

[3] f ( x) = 1 − x 2
The domain of f is defined by the interval in which:
1 − x 2  0 → x 2  1 → D( f ) = [−1,1]

At x = 1 : f = 0 and the value of f increases with decreasing x up till 1

then, R( f ) = [0,1] .

[4] f ( x) = 2 − x

For x : x  0 and also 2 − x  0 then x must not exceed 4, then

D(f )=[0,4]. For x  D( f ) → 2  f ( x)  0 → R( f ) = [0, 2 ].

[5] f ( x) = 16 − x 2 + - +
× ×
→ 16 − x 2  0 → x 2 − 16  0 -4 4
x 2 − 16
→ ( x − 4)( x + 4)  0 → D ( f ) = [−4,4].

At x = 4 : f = 0 and the value of f increases with decreasing x up till 4

then, R ( f ) = [0,4] .

1 + - +
[6] f ( x) =
1 − x2 × ×
-1 1
→ 1 − x 2  0 → x 2  1 → x 2 − 1  0 → ( x − 1)( x + 1)  0 → D( f ) = (−1,1).

At x = 0 : f = 1 and the value of f increases with increasing x up till 1 or

decreasing x up till -1 then, R ( f ) = [1, ) .

[7] f ( x) = x 2 + 1 → x 2 + 1  0 for all x → D(f )=R.

10
At x = 0 : f = 1 and the value of f is always positive and increases with
increasing or decreasing x then, R ( f ) = [1, ) .

Example: Find the domain for each of the following functions:

4x
[1] f ( x) = → 6 x 2 − 7 = 0 → x =  7 6 → D( f ) = R − { 7 / 6}.
(6 x 2 − 7 )

[2] f ( x) = x − 5 − 9 − x

x − 5  0 → x  5 and 9 − x  0 → x  9 → D(f )=[5,9]

2x − 6
[3] f ( x) =
x − 2x + 1
2

2 x − 6  0 → x  3, x 2 − 2 x + 1  0 → x  1 → D( f ) = [3, ) − {1} = [3, )

[4] 1
f ( x) = → D( f ) = R − {1,3}.
( x − 1)( x − 3)

Graphs of Functions: The graph of the function consists of the points in

the Cartesian plane whose coordinates are the input-output pairs of f .
Then, the numerical values of x and y permit representing f on the form
of points p(x,y) that groups every x with every corresponding y.
In set notation the graph is: {( x, y ) : x  D and y = f (x)} .
The most elementary way to sketch the graph of a function is to plot
points. We plot enough points so that we can “see” what the graph may
look like and then connect the points with a “curve”. Of course, if we can
identify the curve in advance (for example a straight line, circle and so
on), then it is much easier to draw the graph. In general, the graph of a
function is a “curve” in the plane which is a geometric representation of
the function that provides a useful picture of the behavior of a function.

R (f)
y=f(x)
Y=f (x)
11

D(f) x
Example: The graph of the function f ( x) = x + 2 is the set of points with
coordinates ( x, y ) for which y = x + 2 which is a straight line.

This geometric representation of a function raises the converse question:

Under what condition a given curve in the plane is the graph of a
function?

The vertical line test: Not every curve you draw is the graph of a
function. Since for each x in the domain of a function f there
corresponds one and only one element y=f(x) in the range of f , it follows
that no vertical line can intersect the graph of f in more than one point
which is known as the vertical line test. The graphs of the circles,
ellipses, hyperbolas, and some parabolas are not the graph of functions
since some vertical lines intersect these graphs twice.

Piecewise-Defined Functions: sometimes a function is described by

using different formulas on different parts on its domain. In most cases,
piecewise-defined functions will be used to illustrate mathematical
concepts, but they occur in a natural way, too. For example,
 x, x0
the absolute value function defined by x = 
− x, x  0
is a familiar example of a piecewise-defined function (two-pieces
function). The domain of the function is (−, ) and the range is [0, ) .
 − x, x  0
 2
Example: The three-pieces function f ( x) =  x , 0  x  1
 1, x  1

The domain of the function is (−, ) and the range is [0, ) .
Example: Find the domain and range for each of the following functions:

12
 2 x + 4, x  0

[1] f ( x) =  x 3 , 0  x  2
1, x2


D(f )=R and for x<0: f<4, 0<x<2: 0≤f<8 and for x  2 : f = 1

→ R( f ) = (−,8) .

2 x + 1, x  0
[2] f ( x) =  2
x , x0

The domain of f is the set of all real numbers and the range of f is also
the set of all real numbers. D( f ) = (−, ), R( f ) = (−, ) .

Function Classifications:
According to the method of evaluation, the function can be classified as:
algebraic and non-algebraic (transcendental) functions. A function f is
said to be algebraic if we are able to determine f(x) using only the five
basic algebraic operations (addition, subtraction, multiplication, division
and roots finite number of times). Otherwise, it is non-algebraic.
The algebraic function is classified into polynomial (integral), rational
and irrational function.
The polynomial takes the form f ( x) = a o + a1 x + ... + a n x n where
a o , a1 ,..., a n are real constants, n is a positive integer.

The rational takes the form,

ao + a1 x + ... + an x n
f ( x) =
b o + b1 x + ... + bm x m

where a o , a1 ,..., a n , bo , b1 ,..., bm are real constants, n, m  N .

But the irrational function has various shapes, for example

(2 x − 5)3
f ( x) = is an irrational function.
x( x 2 + 3)

13
The non-algebraic function can be divided into elementary and special
functions. The elementary functions group the trigonometric, inverse
trigonometric, exponential, logarithmic, hyperbolic, and inverse
hyperbolic functions. The special functions include functions of special
form as gamma, beta, Legendre, and Bessel functions, etc.

Example: Classify each of the following functions:

[1] x2 −1 (algebraic, irrational)

[2] sin2x (non-algebraic, elementary, trigonometric)

x
[3] x (non-algebraic, elementary, exponential)

[4] x 2 + 1 (algebraic, polynomial)

[5] x1 / 9 (algebraic, irrational)

1 + x2
[6] 3 (algebraic, rational)
x −x+4

1+ x
[7] (algebraic, irrational)
x( x + 1) 3

[8] (x) (non-algebraic, special, gamma)

[9]  ( x,1 − x) (non-algebraic, special, beta)

The functions can also be classified according to the shape as follows:

(i) Explicit function: y=f(x)
(ii) Implicit function: f(x,y)=0
(iii) Function in parametric form: x=x(t), y=y(t)
x

(iv) Function in integral form: y =  f (t )dt

a

For example, y=x3 is an explicit function, but (x-1)2 +y2-5=0 is an

implicit function, while x=1+t and y = − 5 − t 2 is a function in
parametric form where x and y are the independent and dependent
14
 x
dt
variables, but t is an intermediate variable. ln( x) =  is a function
1
t

defined in an integral form.

Geometric Properties: They are properties for the graph of the function
y=f(x). y
x2/3
(1) Symmetry property:
a) The graph of the function is
symmetric about the y-axis
if f(x) is an even function; x

f(-x)=f(x), xD(f )

Example: f ( x) = x 2 / 3
→ f (− x) = (− x) 2 / 3 = x 2 / 3 = f ( x)

b) The graph of the function is

y x1 / 3
symmetric about the origin
if f(x) is an odd function
f(-x) =-f(x), xD(f ). x

Example: f ( x) = x 1 / 3

→ f (− x) = (− x)1/ 3 = − x1/ 3 = − f ( x)

(2) Monotonicity Property:

If f(x) is monotonically increasing or decreasing with increasing x in each
case. It is an important condition in finding
the inverse function. y
x2
Example: f(x)=x2 , x≥0
is monotonically increasing.
x
f(x)=x2 , x≤0 is monotonically decreasing.
15
But for all x, f(x)=x2 is not monotonically
increasing or decreasing.
y

(3) Periodicity Property:

When the graph repeats its
self every fixed interval T which is 0 x
-T T
called the period its function is called
periodic; then f(x)=f(x+T), xD(f ).
In general, we can write
f(x)=f(x+nT), nZ , xD(f ).
It should be noted that all the previous properties not necessarily satisfied
by a given function, for example, the function may be even or odd or
neither even nor odd function.
Example: f ( x) = x 2 + x → f (− x) = x 2 − x  ( x 2 + x) or − ( x 2 + x)
→ f ( x)   f ( x) → f (x ) is neither even nor odd .

Example: Discuss the symmetry for each of the following functions:

[1] f ( x) = 5 x 3 − x → f (− x) = −5 x 3 + x = −(5 x 3 − x) = − f ( x)

f is an odd function.

[2] f ( x) = x + 7 → f (− x) = − x + 7 = x + 7 = f ( x) , then f is an even function.

[3] f ( x) = (8 x 5 − 3x 2 )3 → f (− x) = (8(− x)5 − 3(− x) 2 )3

= (−8 x 5 − 3 x 2 )3 = −(8 x 5 + 3 x 2 )3   f ( x) , then f is neither even nor odd.

[4] f ( x) = 2 x 6 − 2 x 4 + 1 → f (− x) = 2(− x) 6 − 2(− x) 4 + 1 = 2( x) 6 − 2( x) 4 + 1 = f ( x)

f is an even function

x −x x
[5] f ( x) = → f (− x) = = − = − f ( x) , f is an odd function.
x (− x) x

16
The Basic Functions: The functions that are important in applications.
(1) The power function: f(x)=xn, it can be classified according to the
number n as follows: n=1

(a) n is a positive integer:

It is an algebraic function with domain R
n=2
and it represents the contents of the
polynomial of degree n;
f ( x) = an x n + an −1 x n −1 + ... + a1 x + ao ,

where ao , a1 , ..., an are constants. n=3

The most famous polynomials are:
[1] The linear ax+b (the straight line) n= -1
2
[2] The quadratic ax +bx+c (the parabola)
[3] The cubic ax3+bx2+cx+d n = -2
n=-2

(b) n is a negative integer:

It is an algebraic function n= -1
with domain R-{0} and it appears
in the rational function
a x  + a  −1 x  −1 + ... + a1 x + ao
f ( x) =
bm x m + bm−1 x m−1 + ... + b1 x + bo
n = 1/ 2
 , mN, a's and b's are constants.
D(f )=R–{zeros of the denominator}. n = 1/ 3

(c) n = 1 / m , mN:
It is called the root function n = 1/ 3
for the exponent m. It is an algebraic
irrational with domain R for m odd and x≥0 for m even.

17
(d) n =  / m,  , m  N :
It is an algebraic irrational and
n = 2/3
can be written as f ( x) = m x  and it
may be even as x 2 / 3 or odd as

x 5 / 3 and is undefined for x<0

when m is even as x 3 / 2 , then
n = 5/3
we write, in general, D(f )=[0,) only.
(e) n = − / m, , m  N : n = −1 / 2
It is algebraic irrational as it can be
written as f = ( x1 / m ) − 
D(f )=(0,), in general. y
(f) n is an irrational number:
n=  n= 2
2 
(for example x or x ).
It is non-algebraic elementary

as we can not define 3

2
with
x
the basic algebraic operations, D(f )=(0,).
(2) Trigonometric Functions: They are also called circular functions.
They are six functions: sine, cosine, segment, cosecant, tangent and
cotangent. All these functions have relations to the triangular ratios.
Triangular ratios: sin=b, cos =a, tan=b/a, csc=1/b, sec=1/a,
cot =a/b. When point P moves on the circle,  changes and consequently
all the above ratios change and then they have y

the behavior of functions. P

For all angles R, sin   1, cos   1 , 1 b
 x
then the range of sin and cos is [-1,1]. 0 a
For tan and cot the range is (-,),

18
but for sec and cosec, we have, sec   1, cos ec  1 , then the range of

sec and cosec is (-,-1]  [1,).

Periodicity: The sine and cosine functions are periodic with period 2.
It follows also that the secant and cosecant functions are also periodic
with period 2. The tangent and cotangent functions have period .
Graphs: The graphs of the six trigonometric functions are shown where
the horizontal axis represents the angle.

y y

x x

-6.28 -4.71 -3.14 -1.57 sinx

0 1.571 3.142 4.712 6.283
-6.28 -4.71 -3.14 -1.57 cosx
0 1.571 3.142 4.712 6.283

y y

x x

-6.28 -4.71 -3.14 -1.57 tanx

0 1.571 3.142 4.712 6.283
-6.28 -4.71 -3.14 -1.57 cosecx
0 1.571 3.142 4.712 6.283

y
y

x
x

-6.28 -4.71 -3.14 -1.57 secx

0 1.571 3.142 4.712 6.283 -6.28 -4.71 -3.14 -1.57 cotx
0 1.571 3.142 4.712 6.283

Summary of Domains and Ranges:

f(x)=sinx, D(f )=R, R(f )=[-1,1],

f(x)=cosx, D(f )=R, R(f )=[-1,1],

f(x)=tanx, D(f )=R–{(2n+1)/2, nZ}, R(f )=R,

f(x)=cotx, D(f )=R-{n, nZ}, R(f )=R,

19
f(x)=secx, D(f )=R-{(2n+1)/2, nZ}, R(f )=R-(-1,1)

f(x)=cscx, D(f )=R-{n, nZ}, R(f )=R–(-1,1).

Example: Find the domain of each of the following functions:

1  
[1] f ( x) = → D( f ) = R −  + 2n , n  
1 − sin x 2 

[2] f ( x) = cos x → D(f )=[0,  )

1 − cos x
[3] f ( x) = → D(f )=R–{0}
x

tan x
[4] f ( x) = → D( f ) = R − (2n + 1) / 2, n  Z ,0
x

5
[5] f ( x) = → D(f )=R
3 − cos x

[6] f (x)=cos(1/x) → D(f )=R–{0}

Symmetry property:

The sine function is an odd; its graph is symmetric with respect to the
origin. The cosine function is an even function; its graph is symmetric
with respect to the y-axis. Then sin( − x) = − sin x, cos( − x) = cos x and in turn

tan( − x) = − tan x, cot( − x) = − cot x, sec( − x) = sec x, csc( − x) = − csc x

Example: Discuss the symmetry of each of the following functions:

[1] f(x)=xcosx → f (-x)=-xcos (− x) =-xcosx=- f (x) → f is an odd function.

x tan x − x tan(− x) x tan x

[2] f ( x) = → f (− x) = = 2 = f ( x)
x +3
2
(− x) 2 + 3 x +3

→ f(x) is an even function.

[3] f(x)=tan(sinx) → f (− x) = tan(sin( − x)) = − tan(sin x) = − f ( x)

20
→ f(x) is an odd function.

Important Identities:

(i) unit circle

sin 2 x + cos 2 x = 1, tan 2 x + 1 = sec 2 x, 1 + cot 2 x = csc 2 x

(ii) addition formulas

sin( x1  x2 ) = sin x1 cos x2  cos x1 sin x2

cos( x1  x2 ) = cos x1 cos x2  sin x1 sin x2

(iii) double-angle formula:

sin( 2 x) = 2 sin x cos x

cos( 2 x) = cos 2 x − sin 2 x = 2 cos 2 x − 1 = 1 − 2 sin 2 x

(iv) half-angle formula:

1 1
sin 2 x = (1 − cos 2 x), cos2 x = (1 + cos 2 x)
2 2

Combinations of Functions: We define combination of two functions as

follows; f +g, f –g, fg, f /g where

(f +g)(x)=f(x)+g(x), (f-g)(x)=f(x)-g(x), (fg)(x)=f(x)g(x), (f /g)(x)=f(x)/g(x).

The two functions f and g can be added, subtracted and multiplied on the
intersection of their domains, therefore
D(f +g)=D(f -g)=D(f g)=D(f )D(g)
We can form the quotient on the intersection of the domains of f and g
and, at the points x where g ( x)  0,
D(f /g)=D(f )  D(g)-{zeros of g(x)}

If α and β are real numbers, we can form scalar multiples

(f )( x) = f ( x)

21
and linear combinations

(f +  g )( x) = f ( x) +  g ( x )

If α and β are nonzero, then D(f ) = D( f )

and D(f + g ) = D(f )  D( g ) = D( f )  D( g )

Example: For f ( x) = 9 − x 2 , g ( x) = x 2 − 4 find

( f + g )( x), ( fg )( x), ( f / g )( x), ( f 2 )( x), (2 f − 3g )( x) , and determine the

domain of each of them.

D(f )=[-3,3], D(g)=R

(f +g)(x)= 9 − x2 + x2 − 4 → D(f +g)=[-3,3]

(f g)(x)= 9 − x 2 ( x 2 − 4) → D(f g)=[-3,3]

(f / g)(x)= 9 − x 2 /( x 2 − 4) → D(f / g)=[-3,3] \{-2 ,2}

f 2 ( x) = (9 − x 2 ) → D( f 2 )=[-3,3]

(Although the last appears to have the domain R).

(2f -3g)(x)= 2 9 − x 2 − 3( x 2 − 4) → D(2f -3 g)=[-3,3]

1 x
Example: For f ( x) = , g ( x) = find
x−2 5x + 7

(f+g)(x), (f g)(x), (f /g)(x), (4g)(x) and determine the domain of each one.

D(f )=R-{2}, D(g)=R–{-7/5}

→ D( f + g ) = R − − 7 / 5 , 2
1 x
( f + g )( x) = +
x − 2 5x + 7

→ D( f g ) = R − − 7 / 5 , 2
x
( f g )( x) =
( x − 2)(5 x + 7)

5x + 7
( f / g )( x) = → D( f / g ) = R − − 7 / 5 , 0 , 2
x( x − 2)

22
 → D(4 g ) = R − − 7 / 5
4x
(4 g )( x) =
(5 x + 7)

There is a special case of addition of functions that is worth noting here.

For a function f and a number c, let F(x)=f(x)+c for all x  D( f )

The function F is called the vertical translation (or vertical shift) of f

because the graph of F is simply the graph of f shifted up c units if

c>0, or shifted down c units if c<0 as shown in figure.

y
y
F f
f
F

x
x

c>0 c<0

Example: Let f ( x) = x 3 and g ( x) = cos x . The graphs of F ( x) = x 3 + 2

and G ( x) = cos x − 1 , along with the graphs of f and g, are shown in figure.
y y

2 g
F
f
x

x
G

Composition of Functions:

Let f and g be two functions. For values of x in the domain of g for

which g(x) is in the domain of f, we define the composition of f with g,
written as f  g by, ( f  g )( x) = f ( g ( x))

23
 f
g

g(x)
x f(g(x))

Example: Suppose that g ( x) = x 2 and f ( x) = x + 3

Then ( f  g )( x) = f ( g ( x)) = g ( x) + 3 = x 2 + 3

Thus, f  g is the function that first squares and then adds 3.

On the other hand, the composition of g with f is

( g  f )( x) = g ( f ( x)) = ( x + 3) 2

Thus, g  f is the function that first adds 3 and then squares.

Since f and g are everywhere defined, both f  g and g  f are also

everywhere defined. Note that f  g is not the same as g  f .

Example: Let f ( x) = x 2 − 1 and g ( x) = 3 − x

The domain of g is (−,3] . Since f is everywhere defined, the domain of

f  g is also (−,3] . On that interval

( f  g )( x) = f ( g ( x)) = ( 3 − x ) 2 − 1 = 2 − x

To form g  f we need f ( x)  3 (the same as the domain of g). This

holds only for x in [-2,2]. On [-2,2]

( g  f )( x) = g ( f ( x)) = 3 − ( x 2 − 1) = 4 − x 2

Example: Find functions f and g such that f  g = ( x + 1)

5

The function consists of first adding 1 and then taking the fifth power.
We can write, g ( x) = x + 1 (adding 1) and f ( x) = x 5 (taking fifth power)

Then ( f  g )( x) = f ( g ( x)) = ( g ( x)) 5 = ( x + 1) 5

24
 As in addition, there is a special case of composition that is worth noting.
For a function f and a number c, let g(x)=f(x-c) for all x in the domain of f
such that x-c is also in the domain of f. Then the function g is called a
horizontal translation (or horizontal shift) of f because the graph of g is
simply the graph of f shifted c units to the right if c>0, or c units to the
left if c<0as shown in figure.
y y

g
f f
g

c x
c x
c>0
c<0

Example: Let f ( x) = x 2 + 1 and g ( x) = sin x . The graphs of

F ( x ) = f ( x − 2) = ( x − 2 ) 2 + 1 and G ( x) = g ( x +  / 4) = sin( x +  / 4) , along
with the graphs of f and g, are shown in figure.

y
y
f
F
G g
x
1
x
2

It is possible to form the composition of more than two functions. For

example, the triple composition f  g  h consists of first h, then g, and
then f ; ( f  g  h)( x) = f ( g (h( x))).

1
Example: If f ( x) = , g ( x) = x 2 + 1, h( x) = cos x
x
25
 1 1 1
Then ( f  g  h)( x) = f ( g (h( x))) = = =
g (h( x)) (h( x)) + 1 cos x + 1
2 2

Inverse Functions

One-to-One Functions:

A function can take on the same value at different points of its domain.
Constant functions, for example, take on the same value at all points of
their domains. The quadratic function f ( x) = x 2 takes on the same value

at –c as it does at c; so does the absolute-value function g ( x) = x . The

function f ( x) = 1 + ( x − 3)( x − 5) takes on the same value at x=5 as it does

at x=3: f(3)=1, f(5)=1. Functions for which this kind of repetition does
not occur are called one-to-one functions.

Definition: A function f is said to be one-to-one if there are no two

distinct numbers in the domain of f at which f takes on the same value:

f ( x1 ) = f ( x 2 )  x1 = x 2 . Thus, if f is one-to-one and x1 , x 2 are

different points of the domain, then f ( x1 )  f ( x2 ) .

There is a simple geometric test, called the horizontal line test, which can
be used to determine whether a function is one-to one. If some horizontal
line intersects the graph more than once, then the function is not one-to-
one. If, on the other hand, no horizontal line intersects the graph more
than once, then the function is one-to-one.

Inverses:

Theorem: If f is one-to-one function, then there is one and only one

function g with domain equal to the range of f that satisfies the equation

f ( g ( x)) = x for all x in the range of f .

Definition: Inverse Function:

26
Let f be a one-to-one function. The inverse of f , denoted by f −1 , is the
single function with domain equals to the range of f that satisfies the
equation: f ( f −1 ( x)) = x for all x in the range of f .

Remarks:

(1) The “-1” in the notation for the inverse of f is not an exponent;
f −1 ( x ) does not mean 1 / f ( x ) .

(2) Suppose that the function f has an inverse. Then, by definition, f −1

satisfies the equation, f ( f −1 ( x)) = x for all x in the range of f. It is also
true that f −1 ( f ( x)) = x for all x in the domain of f. Thus, f takes x to f(x);
f −1 takes f(x) to x. Then,

(a) Domain of f −1 = range of f and range of f −1 =domain of f.

(b) The graph of f −1 is the graph of f reflected in the line y=x.

Solved Problems

1
(1) Find the inverse of y = x + 1 .
2

Solve for x in terms of y: x = 2 y − 2

Interchange x and y: y = 2 x − 2

1
f ( x) = x + 1, f −1 ( x) = 2 x − 2
2

1 1
Check: f −1 ( f ( x)) = 2( x + 1) − 2 = x, f ( f −1 ( x)) = (2 x − 2) + 1 = x
2 2

(2) Find the inverse of y = x 2 , x  0 .

Solve for x in terms of y: x = y

Interchange x and y: y = x

27
 −1
f ( x) = x 2 , x  0, f ( x) = x

(3) Find the inverse of f ( x) = x 3 .

Let y = f −1 ( x) and solve the equation f ( y ) = x for y:

f ( y ) = x → y 3 = x → y = x1/ 3 , thus, f −1 ( x) = x1 / 3 .

(4) Show that the linear function y = 3x − 5 is one-to-one. Then find its
inverse.

Suppose that f ( x1 ) = f ( x 2 ) , then 3x1 − 5 = 3x2 − 5 → 3x1 = 3x2 → x1 = x2

The function is one-to-one since f ( x1 ) = f ( x2 ) → x1 = x2 .

−1
To find the inverse, let y = f ( x) and solve the equation f ( y ) = x for y:

1 1
f ( y ) = x → 3 y − 5 = x → y = ( x + 5) → f −1 ( x) = ( x + 5)
3 3

(5) Find the inverse of f ( x) = (1 − x 3 )1 / 5 + 2 .

Let y = f −1 ( x) and solve the equation f ( y ) = x for y:

f ( y ) = x → (1 − y 3 )1 / 5 + 2 = x → 1 − y 3 = ( x − 2) 5

→ y = (1 − ( x − 2) 5 )1/ 3 → f −1 ( x) = (1 − ( x − 2) 5 )1/ 3

28
LIMITS
Introductory Example: A man which is at a distance 4m from a wall is
moving towards the wall such that in each step he covers half the distance
to the wall. Then the steps are;
4m
2m, 1m, 0.5m, 0.25m, … ,4(0.5)n , …
The question is: Is the man 2m

going to approach the wall?.

1m
Answer: No, since the steps
to the wall decrease while the
distance apart decreases. We are
sure of only one thing, is that the distance between the man and the wall
decreases with increasing steps. This is the concept of limit "approaching
without arrival".

Definition: Limit of a Function

We said that the function f has the limit L as x tends to x o written as

lim f = L , if f is defined in the neighborhood of x o (f may or may not

x→ xo

be defined at x o itself) and f is getting close to L for x close to x o .

Behavior of a function near a point:
x 2 −1
Example: f ( x) = , near x = 1
x −1
( x − 1)( x + 1)
f is defined for all x  1 . Simplifying, f ( x) = = x + 1, x  1
x −1

The graph of f is the line y = x + 1 with (1,2) removed which is represented

by a hole. Even though f is undefined, it is clear that we can make the
value of f as close as we want to 2 by choosing x close enough to 1. We
say that f approaches the limit 2 as x approaches 1, and write
x 2 −1
lim f ( x) = lim =2
x →1 x →1 x −1

30
 x f(x) x f(x)
1.1 2.1 0.9 1.9
1.01 2.01 0.99 1.99
1.001 2.001 0.999 1.999
1.000001 2.000001 0.999999 1.999999

Example: f = sin x x sinx/x

x  0.1 0.998374166
f(x) approaches 1 as x → 0 .  0.01 0.999983333
 0.001 0.999999833
x2 −1  0.0001 0.999999995
Example: f ( x) = , x →1
x( x − 1)

x f(x) x f(x)
1.1 1.909090909 0.9 2.11111111
1.01 1.99009901 0.99 2.01010101
1.001 1.999000999 0.999 2.001001001
1.0001 1.999900010 0.9999 2.000100010
1.00001 1.99998000 0.99999 2.000010000
1.000001 1.99999800 0.999999 2000002000
1.0000001 1.9999998 0.9999999 2.000000200

f(x) approaches 2 as x → 1 .

− 6 x f(x)
Example: f ( x) = x10 ,x→ 0 10 -3
0.99999309
10-6 0.999986185
Although of the large number of 10-9 0.999979277
10-20 0.999972369
steps, we are still far from the limit . .
10-99 0.999772070
zero.

Important question: Is this method good for determining the limit of a

function?. Answer: No, we are not sure that the function will continue
getting closed to the expected number since there is a possibility for the
function to change its value suddenly. Essentially, the definition says that

the values of f (x) are close to the number L whenever x is close to xo

(on either side of x o ). This definition is informal because phrases like

arbitrarily close and sufficiently close are imprecise; their meaning
depends on the context.

31
Example:
x f(x)
(1 + x)10 − 1
9

f ( x) = , x →0
10-7 2 . 6 8 8 1 0 3 7 0 1×1 0 5 0
x 10-8 2 . 2 0 2 5 4 6 4 6×1 0 1 2
10-9 1.71828×109
This example presents another
disadvantage of the method. We are still far from the limit 109 and we
are not able to choose x=10-10 due to storage problem in computers. If we
stop at the last step in table, then we have estimated the limit with an
error greater then 70%. Then in precise terms we can define the limit as
follows.

Theorem: We said that f has the limit L as x approaches x o written as

lim f = L , if f is defined in the neighborhood of x o (may or may not

x → xo

be defined at x o ) and if for every positive   0 there exists a positive

f
number  ( )  0 such that f  ( L −  , L +  )
for every x  ( xo −  , xo +  ) . Then for f (x)

every selected   0 , there exists a  ○L
x
neighborhood for x o such that for
xo
every x in that neighborhood, the ( ○ ) x

function f is different from L by a  

difference less than .
Example: Prove that lim 2x + 1 = 7
x →3
 /2  /2
Let 2 x + 1 − 7   → 7 −   2 x + 1  7 +  ) ○ (
3
 
→ 6 −   2x  6 +  →3 −  x  3+
2 2
Then, for every x in the interval (3 −  / 2, 3 +  / 2) , we have f in the
interval (7 −  , 7 +  ) .
A function may fail to have a limit at a point in its domain.

32
 0, x  0
Example: unit step function U ( x) = 
1, x  0
The unit step function U (x) has no limit as x → 0 because its value jumps
at x = 0 . For negative values of x arbitrarily close to zero, U ( x) = 0 . x
arbitrarily close to zero, U ( x) = 1 . There is no single value x approaches by
U as x → 0 .
1 / x, x  0
Example: g ( x) =  it has no limit as x → 0 because the
 0, x = 0
absolute value of g grows arbitrarily large as x → 0 and do not stay close
to any real number as x → 0 .
 0, x  0
Example: f ( x) =  it oscillates too much to have a limit:
sin(1 / x), x  0
f has no limit as x → 0 because the values of f oscillate between (+1)
and (-1) in every open interval containing 0. The values do not stay
close to any real number as x → 0 .
Theorem: If f has a limit L at a point x o then this limit has a single
value.
Theorems for Finding Limits:
If f and g are two functions that have the limits
lim f = L, lim g = M , then;
x → xo x → xo

1. xlim cf = cL (c is a constant)
→x o

2. lim ( f  g ) = lim f  lim g = L  M

x→ xo x→ xo x→ xo

3. lim fg = lim f . lim g = LM

x → xo x → xo x → xo

lim f
f x → xo L
4. xlim = = ,M 0
→ xo g lim g M
x → xo

33
 f
lim
5. x→ does not exist if M = 0, L  0 .
x o g
Theorem:
1. lim c = c (c is a constant) , lim x = xo
x → xo x→ xo

2. lim x n = xon (n is a positive integer)

x → xo

3. lim (ao + a1 x + ... + a n x ) = ao + a1 x + ... + an x

n n
x → xo

ao + a1 x + ... + an x n ao + a1 xo + ... + an xon

4. lim =
x→ xo bo + b1 x + ... + bm x m bo + b1 xo + ... + bm xom

where bo + b1 x o + ... + bm x o  0 .
m

lim f exists then,

Theorem: If x→ x o

1. lim ( f ) n = ( lim f ) n , n  N
x→ xo x→ xo

2. lim n f = n lim f , n  N , (provided that lim f  0 for even n)

x → xo x → xo x → xo

3. lim f ( x) = lim f ( x)
x→ xo x→ xo

Example: Find each of the following limits:

8x 8(2) − 14
[1] lim ( x 2 − 7 x + ) = (2) 2 − 7(2) + =
x →2 x +1 2 +1 3

4x 2 − 6x + 3 4(1 / 2) 2 − 6(1 / 2) + 3
[2] xlim = =1
→1 / 2 16 x 2 + 8 x − 7 16(1 / 2) 2 + 8(1 / 2) − 7

[3] lim 3x 2 − 4 x + 9 = lim (3x 2 − 4 x + 9) = 3(5) 2 − 4(5) + 9 = 8

x→5 x→5

2 + 5 x − 3x 3 2 + 5(3) − 3(3)3
[4] lim 3 = 3 = −2
x →3 x2 − 1 (3) 2 − 1

(2 + x) 3 − 8 8 + 12 x + 6 x 2 + x 3 − 8
[5] lim = lim = lim (12 + 6 x + x 2 ) = 12
x →0 x x → 0 x x →0

or using factoring,

34
 (2 + x) 3 − 8 (2 + x − 2)((2 + x) 2 + 2(2 + x) + 4)
lim = lim
x →0 x x →0 x

= lim ((2 + x) 2 + 2(2 + x) + 4) = 12

x→0

x 3 − 2x 2 x 2 ( x − 2) x2 4
[6] lim = lim = lim =
x →2 3x − 6 x → 2 3( x − 2) x →2 3 3

x−4 x−4 1 1
[7] lim = lim = lim =
x →4 x − x − 12
2 x → 4 ( x − 4)( x + 3) x → 4 x+3 7

x −9 ( x − 3)( x + 3)
[8] lim = lim = lim x + 3 = 6
x→ 9 x −3 x→ 9 ( x − 3) x→ 9

[9] lim 4 − 16 + x = lim (4 − 16 + x )(4 + 16 + x )

x →0 x →0
x x(4 + 16 + x )

16 − (16 + x) −1 1
= lim = lim =−
x →0
x(4 + 16 + x ) x →0
4 + 16 + x 8

x2
[10] lim does not exist
x→1 x −1

[11] lim 5 does not exist

x→0 x

4 − x2 (4 − x 2 )(3 + x 2 + 5 )
[12] lim = lim
x →2 x →2
3 − x2 + 5 (3 − x 2 + 5 )(3 + x 2 + 5 )

(4 − x 2 )(3 + x 2 + 5 ) (4 − x 2 )(3 + x 2 + 5 )
= lim = lim = lim (3 + x 2 + 5 ) = 6
x →2 9 − ( x + 5)
2 x → 2 4− x 2 x →2

4 − x2 (2 − x)(2 + x) 2+ x
[13] lim = lim = lim =2
x →2
6 − 5x + x 2 x →2 (2 − x)(3 − x) x→2 3− x

y −3 y −3 y +3 y −9 1 1
[14] lim = lim = lim = lim =
y→ 9 y −9 y→ 9 y −9 y +3 y→ 9
( y − 9)( y + 3) y→ 9
y +3 6

y− c y− c y+ c y −c 1 1
[15] lim , c  0 = lim = lim = lim =
y →c y −c y →c y −c y+ c y →c
( y − c)( y + c ) y →c
y+ c 2 c

35
[16] lim 1 + x − 1 − x = lim 1 + x − 1 − x 1 + x + 1 − x
x →0 x →0
x x 1+ x + 1− x

1+ x −1+ x 1
= lim = 2 lim =1
x →0
x( 1 + x + 1 − x ) x →0
1+ x + 1− x

[17] lim 1 ( 1 − 1 ) = lim 1 ( 2 − 2 − x ) = lim 1 ( − x ) = lim −1

=−
1
x →0 x 2+ xx →0 2 x 2(2 + x)
x →0 x →0 x 2( x + 2) 2( x + 2) 4

[18] lim 1 / z − 1 / 4 = lim (4 − z ) / 4 z = lim − 1 = − 1

z →4 z−4 z →4 z−4 z →4 4z 16

 x 2 − 2 x + 3, x  3
[19] lim f ( x) , where f ( x) = 
x →3
8, x=3

lim f ( x) = lim x 2 − 2 x + 3 = 6
x →3 x →3

x2 − 9
 , x3
[20] lim f ( x) , where f ( x) =  x − 3
x →3
− 3, x=3


x2 − 9 ( x − 3)( x + 3)
lim f ( x) = lim = lim = lim ( x + 3) = 6
x→3 x→3 x − 3 x→3 x −3 x→3

xn − an
Theorem: lim = na n−1 , n N
x →a x−a
Example: Find each of the following limits:

x3 − a3
[1] lim = 3a 2
x →a x−a

[2] lim x 2 − a 2 = lim x − a 1 = 5a = 5a

5 5 5 5 4 3

x →a x −a x →a x−a x+a 2a 2

x3 − 8 x 3 − 23 x − 2 3(2 2 ) 3
[3] lim = lim = =
x →2 x 4 − 16 x→2 x − 2 x 4 − 2 4 4(2 3 ) 8

(1 + x)100 − 1
[4] lim
x →0 x

(1 + x)100 − 1 y 100 − 1
Let x + 1 = y → lim = lim = 100
x →0 x y →1 y −1

36
 y7/ 2 −1
[5] lim
y →1
y −1

y7/ 2 −1 z7 −1
Let y = z → lim = lim =7
y →1
y −1 z →1 z −1

x −1n n
x −1 y −1 1
[6] lim , let n
x = y → x = y → lim n
= lim n =
x →1 x − 1 x →1 x −1 y →1 y −1 n

Theorem:
1. lim cos x = 1, lim sin x = 0,
x →0 x →0

2. lim cos x = cos xo , lim sin x = sin xo , lim tan x = tan xo ,

x→ xo x→ xo x→ xo

sin x
3. lim sec x = sec xo , lim csc x = csc xo , lim cot x = cot xo , lim
x →0
= 1.
x → xo x → xo x → xo x

Example: Find each of the following limits:

sin 5 x 5 sin 5 x 5
[1] lim = lim ( )=
x →0 2x x →0 2 5x 2

[2] lim tan x = lim 1 ( sin x )( 1 ) = 1

x →0 x →0
2x 2 x cos x 2

[3] lim 1 − cos x = lim 2 sin

2
( x / 2) sin( x / 2) x
= lim sin( ) = 0
x →0 x x →0 x x → 0 x/2 2

1 − cos x 1 − cos x 1 + cos x 1 − cos 2 x sin x sin x

or lim = lim = lim = lim =0
x →0 x x →0 x 1 + cos x x→0 x(1 + cos x) x→0 x 1 + cos x

2 x + 1 − cos x 2 x 1 1 − cos x 2 1 2
[4] lim = lim ( + ( )) = + .0 =
x →0 3x x →0 3 x 3 x 3 3 3

[5] lim sin 2 x = lim 2 sin 2 x , let 2 x = y → lim 2 sin 2 x = lim 2 sin y = 2
x →0 x →0 x →0 y →0 y
x 2 x 2 x

[6] lim tan a x = lim sin a x = lim a sin a x 1

= a(1)(1) = a
x →0 x →0
x x →0x cos ax ax cos ax

[7] lim 1 − cos x = lim 1 − cos x 1 + cos x = lim 1 − cos 2 x

x →0 x →0
sin 2 x 2 sin x cos x 1 + cos x
x →0 2 sin x cos x(1 + cos x)

37
 1 1 1 1
= lim (sin x) = .0. = 0
2 x →0 cos x(1 + cos x) 2 2

sin ax + sin bx a sin ax b sin bx

[8] lim = lim ( + ) = a+b
x →0 x x → 0 ax bx

x2 x 2 cos 2 2 x 1 (2 x) 2
[9] lim 2
= lim 2
= lim 2
cos 2 2 x
x →0 tan 2 x x →0 sin 2 x 4 x →0 sin 2 x

1 2x 2 1 1
= lim ( ) cos 2 2 x = .1.1 =
4 x→0 sin 2 x 4 4

4 x 2 + 3x sin x 3 sin x sin x

[10] lim 2
= lim (4 + ) = 4 + 3 lim = 4+3= 7
x →0 x x → 0 x x → 0 x

sin ax (sin ax) / x a(sin ax) /(ax) a

[11] lim = lim = lim =
x →0 sin bx x→0 (sin bx) / x x→0 b(sin bx) /(bx) b

tan ax (sin ax) (cos bx) a(sin ax) /(ax) (cos bx) a
[12] lim = lim = lim =
x →0 tan bx x →0 (sin bx) (cos ax) x→0 b(sin bx) /(bx) (cos ax) b

1 cos x 1 − cos x 1 + cos x

[13] lim (cos ecx − cot x) = lim ( − ) = lim
x →0 x →0 sin x sin x x → 0 sin x 1 + cos x

1 − cos 2 x sin 2 x sin x 0

= lim = lim = lim = =0
x →0 sin x(1 + cos x ) x →0 sin x(1 + cos x) x →0 (1 + cos x) 2

x sin 2 x x sin 2 x 1 + cos x x sin x(1 + cos x)

[14] lim = lim = lim
x →0 sin 2 x − 2 sin x x →0 2 sin x cos x − 2 sin x 1 + cos x x →0 2(cos 2 x − 1)

x sin x(1 + cos x) − 1 x(1 + cos x) − 1 x −1

= lim = lim = lim (1 + cos x) = (1)(2) = −1
x →0 − 2 sin x
2
2 x → 0 sin x 2 x → 0 sin x 2

[15] lim (sec x − tan x) = lim ( 1 − sin x ) = lim 1 − sin x 1 + sin x

x → / 2 x → / 2 x → / 2
cos x cos x cos x 1 + sin x

1 − sin 2 x cos 2 x cos x 0

= lim = lim = lim = =0
x → / 2 cos x(1 + sin x) x → / 2 cos x(1 + sin x) x → / 2 (1 + sin x) 2

[16] lim cos x = lim − sin( x −  / 2) = − 1 .1 = − 1

x → / 2 2x − 
x → / 2 2( x −  / 2) 2 2

sin( x +  / 4) − 1
[17] lim , let y = x −  / 4
x → / 4 x − /4

38
 sin( x +  / 4) − 1 sin( y +  / 2) − 1 cos y − 1
→ lim = lim = lim =0
x → / 4 x − /4 y →0 y y →0 y

[18] lim sin( x +  / 4)2− 1 = lim sin( x +  / 4)2− 1 sin( x +  / 4) + 1

x → / 4 ( x −  / 4)x → / 4 ( x −  / 4) sin( x +  / 4) + 1

sin 2 ( x +  / 4) − 1 1 − cos2 ( x +  / 4)
= lim = lim
x→ / 4 ( x −  / 4) 2 (sin( x +  / 4) + 1) 2 x→ / 4 ( x −  / 4) 2

Let y = x +  / 4 → − 1 lim cos ( x +  /24) = − 1 lim

2
cos2 y
x→ / 42 ( x −  / 4)
y → / 2 2 ( y −  / 2) 2

−1 sin 2 ( y −  / 2) − 1 −1
= lim = .1 =
2 y→ / 2 ( y −  / 2) 2
2 2

The Pinching (Sandwich) Theorem: If f and g are two functions that

have the same limit at x = xo , and h is a third function such that
g(x)≤h(x) ≤f(x) in any deleted neighborhood of point xo , then,
lim h( x) = lim f ( x) = lim g ( x)
x→ xo x→ xo x→ xo

Example: Find each of the following limits:

lim x 2 sin(1 / x 2 ), lim x 2 cos(1 / x 2 ), lim x 2 sin(1 / 3 x )
x→0 x→0 x→0

As the sine (or cosine) function is bounded between the two values -1
and 1 for all xR, then
-1 ≤ sin (1/x2) ≤1 → − x 2  x 2 sin(1 / x 2 )  x 2 , but;
lim − x 2 = lim x 2 = 0 → lim x 2 sin(1 / x 2 ) = 0
x→0 x→0 x→0

Similarly, we can find the other limits.

Example: Find lim
x→0
x sin(1 / x)

If x>0, -x ≤ xsin (1/x) ≤x, and if x<0, x ≤ xsin (1/x) ≤-x. Thus, for x  0 ,
− x  x sin(1 / x)  x . Since both x → 0 and − x → 0 as x → 0 , the

pinching theorem applies and we conclude that x sin(1 / x) → 0 as x → 0 .

Example: Find lim
x→0
sin( x)

39
− x  sin( x)  x . Since both x → 0 and − x → 0 as x → 0 , the pinching

theorem applies and we conclude that sin( x) → 0 as x → 0 .

One Sided Limits: To have a limit L as x → xo a function f must be

defined on both sides of xo and its values must approach L as x
approaches xo from either side. Because of this, ordinary limits are called
two-sided.
y x
For example; lim x , we notice that only the y
x →0 +

right-side of the neighborhood of x = 0 lies

in the domain of f, while the left-side does
x
not lie in that domain, then, the limit as
x → 0 from left does not exist ( lim− x ). We can only determine the limit
x →0

from the right-side, lim x = 0 . In this case, the two-sided limit

x →0 +

lim x does not exist.

x →0

Also, there are other cases where the two limits from left and right-side
are not equal such as the sign function;
 x / x, x  0
f ( x) = sgn( x) =  sgn(x)
0, x=0
1
lim− sgn( x) = −1, lim+ sgn( x) = 1
x →0 x →0

In this case, lim sgn( x) does not exist

x→0
-1
as the two limits from left and right-side are
not equal.
Theorem: The necessary and sufficient conditions for the function f(x) to

have a limit at xo is that; lim f ( x) = lim f ( x)

x → xo+ x → xo−

All the theorems of limits are applied for the limit of one side.

40
Solved Problems
[1] Find the right and left limits at x = 0 and x = 2 for


− x + 1, x0
 2
f ( x) =  x , 0 x2
 x +1
 , x2
 2

lim − x + 1 = 1, lim+ x 2 = 0 → lim f ( x) (does not exist)

x →0 − x →0 x→0

x +1 3
lim x 2 = 4, lim+ = → lim f ( x) (does not exist)
x →2 − x →2 2 2 x→2

3 − x, x 1

[2] Find lim f ( x) where f ( x) = 4, x =1
x→1
 x 2 + 1, x 1


lim f ( x) = lim− (3 − x) = 2, lim+ f ( x) = lim+ ( x 2 + 1) = 2 → lim f ( x) = 2

x →1− x →1 x →1 x →1 x →1

− x + 6, x3
[3] Find lim f ( x) , where f ( x) = − 1, x=3
x→3
 x, x3


lim f ( x) = lim− (− x + 6) = 3, lim+ f ( x) = lim+ x = 3 → lim f ( x) = 3

x →3− x →3 x →3 x →3 x →3

x 2 , x 1
lim
[4] Find x→0 g ( x ) and x→1
lim g ( x ) where g ( x ) = 
− 2 x, x  1

lim g ( x) = lim x 2 = 0, lim− g ( x) = lim− x 2 = 1, lim+ g ( x) = lim+ − 2 x = −2

x→0 x→0 x →1 x→1 x→1 x→1

→ lim g ( x) does not exist.

x→1

 x, x0

[5] Find lim u ( x) , where u ( x) =  1
x→0
 , x0
x

1
lim− u ( x) = lim− x = 0, lim+ u ( x) = lim+ does not exist
x→0 x→0 x→0 x→0 x

41
lim u ( x) does not exist.
x→0

 x −1
, x 1
x −1 x − 1  x 2 − 1
[6] Find lim → 2 =
x →1 x − 1
2
x − 1  − ( x − 1)
, x 1
 x 2 − 1

− ( x − 1) −1 −1 x −1 1 1 x −1
lim− = lim− = , lim+ 2 = lim+ = → lim 2 does not exist.
x→1 x −1
2
x→1 x + 1 2 x→1 x − 1 x→1 x + 1 2 x →1 x −1

3x − 1 -------- ++++++ --------

[7] lim D(f )= [1/3,4)
x→4 4− x ×
1/3 4
3x − 1
lim does not exist as f is undefined in the right neighborhood
x →4 + 4− x

3x − 1
of x=4 and therefore lim does not exist.
x→4 4− x

x−2 -------- ++++++ --------

[8] lim D(f)=(2/3,2]
x→2 / 3 2 − 3x × ×
2/3 2
x−2
lim does not exist as f is undefined in the left
x→( 2 / 3)− 2 − 3x

x−2
neighborhood of x=2/3 and consequently xlim does not exist.
→2 / 3 2 − 3x

Unbounded Limits: (or infinite limits)

When we define the limit, we have said that f is close to L (a real
number) as x is approaching xo. It happens sometimes, that f instead of
approaching a real number L, it increases or y
decreases monotonically without bound.
For example; lim
x→0
1/ x y=1/x

1/x increases monotonically as x → 0+ , x

while it decreases monotonically as x → 0− .

Hence, there is no a real number L that f =1/x

42
is getting close to it as x → 0 . In this case, we say that as x → 0 + , 1/x
increases continuously, and then we write lim 1 / x =  . Similarly
x →0 +

lim 1 / x = − corresponding to the continuous decrease in 1/x as x → 0− .

x →0 −

The symbols  or - are not actually real numbers, but mathematical

expressions that describe the state of monotonic increasing or decreasing
without bound and the limits in this case do not exist.
We have four types of these unbounded limits which are described as;
a a
y y
x x

x x
a a y y

lim f ( x) = , lim f ( x) = , lim f ( x) = −, lim f ( x) = −

x →a − x →a + x →a − x →a +

We notice that the distance between a point on the graph of f and the
dotted vertical line approach zero as the point moves vertically along and
away from point a and we say that the line x = a is a vertical asymptote
of the graph of f , observe that the denominator is zero at x = a .
Definition: A line x = a is a vertical asymptote of the graph y = f (x) if
either, lim f ( x) = , or lim f ( x) = 
x →a − x→a +

Solved Problems

(1) Find each of the following limits and the vertical asymptotes:

1
[1] lim
x →2 ( x − 2) 3

1 1 1 1 1
lim− = − = −, lim+ = + =  → lim does not exist.
x →2 ( x − 2) 3
0 x →2 ( x − 2)
3
0 x →2 ( x − 2) 3

43
x = 2 is a vertical asymptote.

[2] xlim
→ / 2
tan x

sin x 1 sin x 1
lim − = + = , lim + = − = − → lim tan x does not exist.
x→ / 2 cos x 0 x→ / 2 cos x 0 x→ / 2

x =  / 2 is a vertical asymptote.

5
[3] lim
x→4 x−4

5 1 5 1 5
lim− = − = −, lim+ = + =  → lim does not exist.
x →4 x−4 0 x →4 x − 4 0 x →4 x − 4

x = 4 is a vertical asymptote.

8
[4] lim
x →( −5 / 2 ) 2x + 5

8 1 8 1 8
lim = − = −, lim = + =  → lim does not exist.
x →( −5 / 2 ) −
2x + 5 0 x →( −5 / 2 ) +
2x + 5 0 x →−5 / 2 2 x + 5

x = 5 / 2 is a vertical asymptote.

1
[5] lim
x →3 x( x − 3) 2

1 1 1 1 1
lim− = + = , lim+ = + =  → lim =  (does not exist).
x →3 x( x − 3) 2
0 x →3 x( x − 3) 2
0 x →3 x( x − 3) 2

x = 3 is a vertical asymptote.

−1
[6] lim
x → −3 ( x + 3) 2

−1 1 −1 1 −1
lim− = − = −, lim+ = − = − → lim = − (does not exist).
x → −3 ( x + 3) 2
0 x → −3 ( x + 3) 2
0 x → −3 ( x + 3) 2

x = − 3 is a vertical asymptote.

1
[7] lim
x →2 ( x − 2) 3

44
 1 1 1 1 1
lim− = − = −, lim+ = + =  → lim does not exist.
x →2 ( x − 2) 3
0 x →2 ( x − 2) 3
0 x →2 ( x − 2) 3

x = 2 is a vertical asymptote.

1
[8] lim
x →0 x

1 1 1 1 1
lim− = − = −, lim+ = + =  → lim does not exist.
x →0 x 0 x →0 x 0 x →0 x

x = 0 is a vertical asymptote.

x −1 x −1
[9] lim , lim
x →−3 ( x + 3)( x − 2) x → 2 ( x + 3)( x − 2)

x −1 1 x −1 1
lim− = − = −, lim+ = + =
x →−3 ( x + 3)( x − 2) 0 x →−3 ( x + 3)( x − 2) 0

x −1
→ lim does not exist.
x→−3 ( x + 3)( x − 2)

x = − 3 is a vertical asymptote.

x −1 1 x −1 1
lim− = − = −, lim+ = + =
x →2 ( x + 3)( x − 2) 0 x →2 ( x + 3)( x − 2) 0

x −1
→ lim does not exist.
x→2 ( x + 3)( x − 2)

x = 2 is a vertical asymptote.

( x + 2)(− x + 1)
[10] lim
x →3 x−3

( x + 2)(− x + 1) 1 ( x + 2)(− x + 1) 1
lim− = + = , lim+ = − = −
x →3 x−3 0 x →3 ( x − 3) 0

( x + 2)(− x + 1)
→ lim does not exist.
x→3 x −3

x = 3 is a vertical asymptote.

45
 x
[11] lim
x →0 x

x −x x x x
lim− = lim− = −1, lim+ = lim+ = 1 → lim does not exist.
x →0 x x →0 x x →0 x x →0 x x →0 x

x = 0 is a vertical asymptote.

Limits at Infinity: End Behavior

In this section we discuss algebraic techniques for computing limits at
  for many functions, that is lim f ( x ) or
x →
lim f ( x) . We use (  ) to
x→−

describe the behavior of a function when the values in its domain outgrow
all finite bounds. If the limit exists and equals a real number L, we said
that the limit at infinity exists. The lines y=L are asymptotic horizontal
lines. The result is important as it determines the behavior of a function
toward the extremes of its domain which is sometimes called its end
behavior. For example, the function f ( x) = 1 / x is defined for all x  0 .
When x is positive and becomes increasingly large, 1 / x becomes
increasingly small. When x is negative and its magnitude becomes
increasingly large, 1 / x again becomes small. We summarize these
observations by saying that f ( x) = 1 / x has the limit 0 as x →  and y = 0
is a horizontal asymptote for the graph of f .
Definition: A line y = b is a horizontal asymptote of the graph y = f (x) if
either, lim f ( x) = b, or lim f ( x) = b
x → x → −

Theorem: Let c be any real number

(1) lim c = c, lim c = c,
x→ x→−

(2) lim x = , lim x = −,

x→ x→−

1 1
(3) lim = 0, lim = 0,
x→ x x→− x

46
 1
(4) If k is a positive rational number, then lim =0
x →  xk
provided that 1/xk is defined.
− , n = 1,3,5, ...
(5) lim x n = , n = 1,2,3, ... , lim x n = 
x→ x→−
+ , n = 2,4,6, ...

Example:
1 1
[1] lim = 0, lim =0
x→ x4 x→− x4

[2] lim 2 x 5 = , lim 2 x 5 = −

x→ x→−

[3] lim − 7 x 6 = −, lim − 7 x 6 = −

x→ x→−

All theorems of limits are applied for limits at infinity.

There is a useful principle about polynomials which states that:

The end behavior of a polynomial matches the end behavior of its highest
degree term. If cn  0 then

lim (co + c1 x + ... + cn x n ) = lim cn x n

x→ x→

lim (co + c1 x + ... + cn x n ) = lim cn x n

x→− x→−

Example:
[1] xlim (7 x 5 − 4 x 3 + 2 x − 9) = lim 7 x 5 = −
→− x→−

[2] xlim (−4 x 8 + 17 x 3 − 5 x + 1) = lim − 4 x 8 = −

→− x→−

Limits of a Rational Function as x →  :

A useful technique for determining the end behavior of a rational function
f ( x) = n( x) / d ( x) is to factor and cancel the highest power of x that occurs

in the denominator d(x) from both n(x) and d(x). The denominator of the
resulting fraction then has a (non-zero) limit equal to the leading
coefficient of d(x), so the limit of the resulting fraction can be quickly
determined using the previous theorems.

47
Example: Find each of the following limits and the horizontal asymptotes:

2x 2 − 6 (2 x 2 − 6) / x 2 2 − 6 / x2
[1] lim = lim = lim = 1/ 3
x → 6 x 2 + 3x − 2 x→ (6 x 2 + 3x − 2) / x 2 x→ 6 + 3 / x − 2 / x 2

y = 1 / 3 is a horizontal asymptote.

[2] lim 3x − 2 = lim (3x − 2) / x = lim 3 − 2 / x = 1

x→ 6x + 7
x→ (6 x + 7) / x
x→ 6+7/ x 2

y = 1 / 2 is a horizontal asymptote.

6x 2 + 2x +1 (6 x 2 + 2 x + 1) / x 2 6 + 2 / x + 1/ x 2
[3] lim = lim = lim =1
x→ 6 x 2 − 3x + 4 x→ (6 x 2 − 3x + 4) / x 2 x→ 6 − 3 / x + 4 / x 2

y = 1 is a horizontal asymptote.

x2 + x + 2 ( x 2 + x + 2) / x 3 1 / x + 1 / x 2 − 2 / x3 0
[4] lim = lim = lim = =0
x→ 4 x 3 − 1 x→ ( 4 x 3 − 1) / x 3 x→ 4 − 1 / x3 4

y = 0 is a horizontal asymptote.

2 x3 2 x3 / x 2 2x
[5] lim = lim = lim = lim 2 x = .
x→ x + 1 x→ ( x + 1) / x
2 2 2 x→ 1 + 1 / x 2 x→

5x 3 − 2 x 2 + 1 (5 x 3 − 2 x 2 + 1) / x 5x 2 − 2 x + 1 / x
[6] lim = lim = lim = lim 5 x 2 = .
x →− 3x + 5 x →− (3x + 5) / x x →− 3 + 5/ x x →−

( x 2 + x + 1 − x)( x 2 + x + 1 + x) ( x 2 + x + 1) − x 2
[7] lim ( x 2 + x + 1 − x) = lim = lim
x → x → x →
( x 2 + x + 1 + x) x2 + x +1 + x

( x + 1) / x ( x + 1) / x 1 + 1/ x 1
= lim = lim = lim =
x → x → x →
( x + x + 1 + x) / x
2
x + x +1 / x + x / x
2 2
1 + 1/ x + 1/ x + 1
2 2

y = 1 / 2 is a horizontal asymptote.

9x 2 + 2 9x 2 + 2 / x 9x 2 + 2 / x 2
[8] lim = lim = lim
x → − 4x + 3 x → − ( 4 x + 3) / x x → − ( 4 x + 3) /( − x )

9 + 2 / x2 3 3
= lim = lim =−
x →− − ( 4 + 3 / x) x → − − 4 4

48
y = −3 / 4 is a horizontal asymptote.

sin x
[9] lim
x →
, − 1  sin x  1 → − 1  sin x  1 , x  0
x x x x

But lim 1 = lim − 1 = 0 → lim sin x = 0

x → x → x x →
x x

y = 0 is a horizontal asymptote.

3 cos x − 2 − 5 3 cos x − 2 1
[10] lim
x→
, − 1  cos x  1 →  
x x x x

−5 1 3 cos x − 2
lim = lim = 0 → lim =0
x→ x x → x x → x

y = 0 is a horizontal asymptote.

x 2 sin(1 / x) x sin(1 / x) sin(1 / x) sin y

[11] lim = lim = (1)(0) = 0 (lim = lim = 0)
x →0 sin x x →0 sin x (1 / x) x→0 (1 / x) y → y

1
[12] lim ( x −  / 2) cos2 ( )
x → / 2 x − / 2

1 1 1 2
lim ( x −  / 2) cos 2 ( ) = lim ( x −  / 2)( + cos( ))
x → / 2 x −  / 2 x→ / 2 2 2 x − /2

1 1 2 ( x −  / 2) 2
= lim ( x −  / 2) + lim ( x −  / 2) cos( ) = lim cos( )
2 x →  / 2 2 x → / 2 x − /2 x → / 2 2 x − /2

Let x −  / 2 = 2 / y then x → ( / 2) − → y → − , x → ( / 2) + → y → 

( x −  / 2) 2 cos y
lim − cos( ) = lim =0
x → / 2 2 x −  / 2 y → − y

( x −  / 2) 2 cos y
lim + cos( ) = lim =0
x → / 2 2 x − /2 y → y

( x −  / 2) 2
→ lim cos( )=0
x → / 2 2 x − / 2

y = 0 is a horizontal asymptote.

Oblique Asymptotes: If the degree of the numerator of a rational

function is one greater than the degree of the numerator , the graph has an
49
oblique asymptote. We define an equation for the asymptote by dividing
numerator by denominator to express f as a linear function plus a
remainder that goes to zero as x goes to infinity.

Example: Finding an oblique asymptote for

2x 2 − 3 2 8 − 115
f ( x) = =( x− )+ (by division)
7x + 4 7 49 49(7 x + 4)

The first term in the right side is the linear function g while the second
term is the remainder whose magnitude gives the vertical distance
between the graphs of f and g and goes to zero as x →  , making the
2 8
line x− an asymptote for graph of f from right and left.
7 49

x2 − 3
Example: Finding asymptotes for f ( x) =
2x − 4

x2 − 3 x2 − 3 x2 − 3
lim = , lim+ = , lim− = −
x → 2 x − 4 x →2 2 x − 4 x →2 2 x − 4

The line x = 2 is a two-sided vertical asymptote

x2 − 3 1 1
f ( x) = = ( x + 1) + (by division)
2x − 4 2 2x − 4

1
The line y = x = 1 is an oblique asymptote both to the right and left
2

1
f ( x)  x + 1 for x numerically large
2

1
f ( x)  for x near 2.
2x − 4

50
CONTINUITY
Continuity
Definition: A function f is said to be continuous if its graph is
continuous, that is the graph can be sketched over its domain in one
continuous motion without lifting the pencil.

y
Types of Discontinuity
(1) f is not defined at x=a.
This results in a hole in the graph.
Example: x
a
x −x−2
2
f ( x) = , f is not defined at x=2.
x−2
( x − 2)( x + 1)
But lim f = lim = 3 , then the limit exists.
x →2 x →2 ( x − 2)

(2) f is defined at x=a and the limit at x= a exists, but they are not equal.
This results in a hole.
y
Example: .
 x2 − x − 2
 , x2
f ( x) =  x − 2
4, x=2


f ( 2) = 4 (f is defined) ,
a x
lim f = 3 (as before) but, f (2)  lim f
x→2 x →2

The first and second types ((i) and (ii)) are called removable
discontinuities, as the value of f can be given the value of the limit
which fills the hole.
y
(3) f may be defined or not at x= a, but
the limit does not exist, as the right limit
is not equal to the left limit although both
exist. This results in a jump in the graph. x
a

52
  x / x, x  0
Example: f ( x) =  → lim− f = −1  lim+ f = 1
1, x=0 x →0 x →0

y
(4) The right limit and/or the left limit
does not exist, lim f =   and/or
x →a +

lim− f =   . In this case, the drawing

x →a
a x
can not be completed. 
y
Example:
1 1 1
f ( x) = → lim+ = , lim− = −
x x→0 x x→0 x

x
This type is known as infinite
discontinuity.
-
(5) Oscillating discontinuity: The right limit and/or the left limit does not
exist, as the value of f oscillates and is not approaching a single real
number.
2 2 2
Example: f ( x) = sin( ) → lim+ sin( ), lim− sin( ) oscillates between  1
x x →0 x x →0 x
Then, we conclude that for f to be continuous at x=a, we must have the
following conditions:
(1) f is defined at x=a, (2) lim f exists, (3) lim f = f (a)
x→ a x →a

Notice that, condition (3) includes implicitly conditions (1) and (2). But
writing the three conditions illustrates the sequence of steps that should
be used in discussing continuity. It should be noted that the above three
conditions of continuity are tested at the points that lie in the domain of f
or at the end points of that domain. The function f is said to be
discontinuous at a if it is not continuous there.
Remark: Recall that in the definition of “limit of f at c” we did not
require that f be defined at c itself. In contrast, the definition of
“continuity at c” requires that f be defined at c.

53
Definition: Continuity at a point
Interior point: A function y = f (x) is continuous at an interior point c of
its domain if lim f ( x) = f (c) and called both right continuous and left
x →c

continuous.
End point: A function y = f (x) is continuous at a left end point a or is
continuous at a right end point b of its domain if,
lim + f ( x) = f (a) and called right continuous at a
x →a

or bat continuous leftand called lim f ( x) = f (b)

x →b −

Example: f ( x) = 4 − x 2 is continuous at every point in its domain [−2,2]

including x = −2 where f is right-continuous and x = 2 where f is left-
continuous ( lim 4 − x 2 = 0, lim− 4 − x 2 = 0 ).
x → −2 + x →2

x0
Example: The unit step function U ( x) = 
1,
is right-continuous at
− 1, x  0

x = 0 ( lim+ U = 1 = U (0) ), but is neither left-continuous ( lim − U = −1  U (0) )

x →0 x →0

nor continuous there. It has jump discontinuity at x = 0 .

Continuity Test: A function y = f (x) is continuous at x = c if and only if

it meets the following three conditions:
(1) f (c) exists (c lies in the domain of f)
(2) lim
x→ c
f ( x) exists

(3) lim f ( x ) = f (c )
x →c

For one-sided continuity and continuity at an end point, the limits in part
(2) and (3) of the test should be replaced by the appropriate one-sided
limits.
Solved Problems

54
(1) Prove that f = 3 x + x is continuous at x = −8

f (−8) = 3 − 8 + − 8 = −2 + 8 = 6

lim f = lim 3
x + x =6
x → −8 x → −8

lim f = f (−8) → f is continuous at x = −8 .

x→−8

(2) Show why each of the following functions is not continuous at the
given point a

1
 , x0
[1] f ( x) =  x , a=0
0, x=0


= −, lim+ =  → lim f does not exists.

1 1
f (0) = 0, lim−
x→0 x x→0 x x →0

(infinite discontinuity).

x2 − 4
 , x2
[2] f ( x) =  x − 2 , a=2
5, x=2


x2 − 4 ( x − 2)( x + 2)
f (2) = 5, lim = lim = 4 → f (2)  lim f (hole discontinuity).
x→2 x − 2 x→2 x−2 x→2

x−4
[3] f ( x) =  x − 4 , x  4 , a=4
1, x=4


f (4) = 1, lim− f = −1, lim+ f = 1 → lim f does not exist (jump discontinuity).
x →4 x →4 x→4

3
[4] f = , a = −1
x +1

f is not defined and lim f = −, lim f = 

x→−1− x→−1+

→ lim f does not exist (infinite discontinuity)

x→−1

55
 1, x3
[5] f ( x) =  , a =3
0, x=3

f (3) = 0, lim f = 1→ f (3)  lim f (hole discontinuity).

x →3 x →3

 sin x
x0
[6] f ( x) =  x
,
, a=0
0, x=0

f (0) = 0, lim f = 1→ f (0)  lim f (hole discontinuity).

x →0 x →0

 x3 − 1, x 1
[7] f ( x) =  , a=1
4 − x, x 1

f (1) = 3, lim− x 3 − 1 = 0, lim+ 4 − x = 3 → lim f does not exist (jump discontinuity)

x→1 x→1 x→1

1 − cos x
x0
[8] f ( x) =  x
,
, a=0
1, x=0

1 − cos x
f (0) = 1, lim = 0 → f (0)  lim f (hole discontinuity).
x→0 x x→0

 x − 1, x 1
[9] f ( x) =  , a=1
1, x =1

f (1) = 1, lim x − 1 = 0 → f (1)  lim f (hole discontinuity).

x →1 x →1

 x 2 + 1, x 1

[10] f ( x) = 1, x =1 , a=1
 x + 1, x 1


f (1) = 1, lim− x 2 + 1 = 2, lim+ x + 1 = 2 → f (1)  lim f (hole discontinuity).

x →1 x →1 x →1

(3) Find the value of c such that f is continuous at point a

 sin( x − 1)
x 1
[1] f ( x) =  x 2 − 3x + 2
,
, a=1
c, x =1

56
 sin( x − 1) sin( x − 1) 1
f (1) = c = lim = lim ( ) = −1
x →1 x − 3x + 2 x→1 ( x − 1) x − 2
2

 x x2 + 1
 , x0
[2] f ( x) =  x , a=0
 2
2 x − 3 x + c , x0

x x2 +1 x x2 +1
f (0) = c, lim− = lim− = lim− − x 2 + 1 = −1,
x →0 x x → 0 −x x →0

lim+ 2 x 2 − 3x + c = c → c = −1
x →0

Continuous functions: A function is continuous on an interval if and

only if it is continuous at every point of the interval.

Example: f ( x) = 4 − x 2 is continuous on the interval [−2,2] which in its

domain.
A continuous function need not be continuous on every interval.
Example: f ( x) = 1 / x is not continuous on the interval [−1,1] but is
continuous over its domain (−,0)  (0, ) .
Theorem: If f and g are continuous functions at x=c then
1. cf is continuous at x = c . (c is constant)
2. f +g is continuous at x = c .
3. f -g is continuous at x = c .
4. f g is continuous at x = c ..
5. f / g is continuous at x = c , provided that g(c)≠0.
Theorem: If f is a continuous function at x = c , then
1. ( f ) n is continuous at x = c , nN.

2. f is continuous at x = c .
3. f r / s is continuous at x = c (provided that it is defined on an open
interval containing c where r and s are integers.

57
Theorem:
1. Every polynomial P( x) = ao + a1 x + a 2 x 2 + ... + a n x n , n  N is continuous
for xR.
P( x) ao + a1 x + a 2 x 2 + ... + a n x n
2. The rational function: = , n, m  N
Q( x) bo + b1 x + b2 x 2 + ... + bm x m

is continuous wherever it is defined (Q( x)  0) .

Example: The function f ( x) = x is continuous at every value of x.

If x  0 , we have f ( x ) = x is a polynomial. If x  0 , we have f ( x) = − x

is a polynomial. Finally, at the origin lim x =0= 0.
x →0

x3 − 3
Example: The function F ( x) = 3 x + 2 + 4 is continuous on R at
x − 5x + 6
all real numbers other than 2 and 3, we can see this by noting that

F ( x) = 3 f + g / h + k where f = x , g = x 3 − 3, h = x 2 − 5 x + 6, k = 4 .

Since f , g , h, and k are everywhere continuous, F is continuous except

at 2 and 3, the numbers where h takes on the value 0 (that is, the numbers
where F is not defined)

Solved Problems

(1) Discuss the continuity of each of the following functions:

4x − 7
[1] f ( x) =
( x + 3)( x 2 + 2 x − 8)

4 x − 7 and x + 3 and x 2 + 2 x − 8 are continuous on R

→ ( x + 3)( x + 2 x − 8) is continuous on R, but

2

( x + 3)( x 2 + 2 x − 8) = 0 at x=-3, -4, 2 → f is continuous on R − − 4,−3,2.

x −1 x −1
[2] f ( x) = =
x + x − 2 ( x + 2)( x − 1)
2

58
x-1 and x2+x-2 are continuous on R, but x2+x-2=0 at x=-2 or 1, then f is
continuous on R − − 2,1 .

x2 − 9
[3] f ( x) =
x−3

x2-9 and x-3 are continuous on R → f is continuous on R − 3

x
[4] f ( x) =
x +1
2

x and x2+1 are continuous on R, since x 2 + 1  0 → f is continuous on R.

( x + 3) 1 + x 2
[5] f ( x) = → x 3 − 2 x = 0 → x = 0,  2
( x 3 − 2 x)

x + 3, x 2 + 1, x 3 − 2 x are continuous on R, then f is continuous on


R − 0,  2 .
 1− x2 , 0  x 1

6, 1 x  2

[6] f ( x) = 12
 , 2 x4
x
3,
 x4

f is continuous for all x  [0, ) other than x=0, 1, 2, 4 which need

discussion.

At x=0: f (0) = 1, lim 1 − x 2 = 1→ lim f = f (0)

x →0 + x →0 +

→ f is right-continuous at x=0.

At x=1: f (1) = 0, lim 1 − x 2 = 0, lim 6 = 6 → lim f does not exist

x →1− x →1+ x →1

→ f is discontinuous at x = 1

At x=2: f (2) = 6, lim 6 = 6, lim 12 = 6 → lim f = f (2) → f is continuous at x = 2

x →2 − x →2 + x →2
x

At x=4: f is discontinuous at x = 4 since it is undefined.

59
Then f is continuous for x  R − {1,4} .


− x , x  −1
[7] 
f ( x ) = 4 − x 2 , −1 x  2
1
 x − 1, x2
2

f is continuous for all x other than x=-1, 2 which need discussion.

At x=-1: f (−1) = 1, lim − x = 1, lim 4 − x 2 = 3 → xlim f does not exist, f is

x → −1− x → −1+
→ −1

discontinuous at x = −1 .

x
At x=2: f (2) = 0, lim 4 − x 2 = 0, lim − 1 = 0 → lim f exists, f is continuous
− +
x →2 x →2 2 x →2

at x = 2 . Then f is continuous for x  R − {−1} .

(2) Find the values of a and b such that f is continuous over R

5 x 2 + b, x 1

[1] f ( x) = 3b, x =1
ax + b, x 1


f is continuous for all x other than x=1 which needs discussion.

At x=1: f (1) = 3b, lim f = lim 5 x 2 + b = 5 + b, lim f = lim ax + b = a + b

x →1− x →1− x →1+ x →1+

For continuity at x = 1 → f (1) = lim f = lim f

x →1− x →1+

→ 3b = 5 + b → b = 5 / 2, 5 + b = a + b → a = 5

4 x , x  −1

[2] f ( x) = ax + b, − 1  x  2
− 5 x , x2


f is continuous for all x other than x=-1, 2 which needs discussion.

For continuity at x = −1 → lim 4 x = −4, lim ax + b = b − a → b − a = −4 (1)

x → −1− x → −1+

For continuity at x = 2 → lim ax + b = 2a + b, lim+ − 5 x = −10 → 2a + b = −10 (2)

x →2 − x →2

60
Solving Eqs. (1) and (2) gives; 3a = −6 → a = −2 → b = −6


 x 2 + 2, x0

[3] f ( x) = ax + b, 0  x  3
x2 − 9
 , x3
 x − 3

f is continuous for all x other than x=0, 3 which need discussion.

For f to be continuous at x=0 and 3 we have;

lim− x 2 + 2 = 2, lim+ ax + b = b → b = 2
x→0 x→0

x2 − 9 4
lim− ax + b = 3a + b, lim+ = 6 → 3a + 2 = 6 → a =
x→3 x→3 x −3 3

Theorem: The functions y = sin x and y = cos x are continuous

everywhere. All six trigonometric functions are then continuous
wherever they are defined.

Theorem: Let f be a one-to-one function defined on an open interval I.

If f is continuous, then its inverse f −1 is also continuous.

Solved Problems

(1) Find where each of the following functions are continuous:

sin x
[1] f ( x) = tan x = , f is continuous  x except for x which satisfies
cos x
cosx=0 → x = (2n + 1) / 2, n  Z .

f is continuous for x  R − (2n + 1) / 2, n  Z  .

cos x
[2] f ( x) = cot x = , sinx=0 → x = n , n  Z .
sin x

f is continuous for all x  R − n , n  Z .

1 + sin x
[3] f ( x) =
x

61
sinx is continuous over R → sin x is continuous over R

1 + sin x is continuous over R and always positive

→ 1+ sin x is continuous over R → f is continuous on R − 0.

[4] f ( x) = cos x − 1
2

sin x

sin x, cos x are continuous on R → cos 2 x − 1 is continuous on R

→ f is continuous on R − n , n  Z .

3x + sin x 3
[5] f ( x) = ( )
x

x, sin x are continuous on R → 3 x + sin x is continuous on R

→ f is continuous on R − 0 .

(2) Determine the discontinuities, if any, for each of the following

functions:
2 x + 1, x  0

[1] f ( x) = 1, 0  x 1
 x 2 + 1, x  1


Clearly f is continuous at each point in the open intervals (−,0), (0,1)

and (1, ) , since f is a polynomial in each of these intervals. Thus we
only have to check the behavior of f at x=0 and x=1.
At x=0: f(0)=1, lim f ( x) = lim (2 x + 1) = 1 , lim f ( x) = 1
x →0 − x →0 − x→0+

Then f is continuous at x=0.

At x=1: f(1)=1, lim f ( x) = lim (1) = 1 , lim f ( x) = lim+ ( x 2 + 1) = 2
x →1− x →1− x →1+ x →1

Thus, f is discontinuous at 1; in fact, f has a jump discontinuity at that

point.

62
 
x 3 , x  −1
 2
 x − 2, −1  x  1
[2] 
f ( x) = 6 − x, 1x  4
 6
 , 4 x7
7 − x
5 x + 2, x7

Since the “pieces” of f consists of polynomials and rational functions, f

is continuous at each point in the open intervals (−,−1) , (−1,1) , (1,4) ,
(4,7) , and (7,  ) . All we have to check is the behavior of f at x=-1,1,4

and 7.
At x=-1: f (−1) = (−1) 3 = −1 , lim f ( x) = lim ( x 3 ) = −1 and
x →−1− x →−1−

lim+ f ( x) = lim+ ( x 2 − 2) = −1 . Thus f is continuous at x=-1.

x →−1 x →−1

f (1) = 6 − 1 = 5 , lim− f ( x) = lim− ( x − 2) = −1

2
At x=1: and
x →1 x →1

lim f ( x) = lim+ (6 − x) = 5 . Thus, f is discontinuous at x=1.

x →1+ x →1

At x=4: f is not defined, lim f ( x) = lim (6 − x) = 2 and

x →4− x →4−

6
lim+ f ( x) = lim+ = 2 . Thus, f is discontinuous at x=4.
x →4 x →4 7−x
6
At x=7: f (7) = 5(7) + 2 = 37 , lim f ( x) = lim =  and
x →7 − x →7 − 7−x
lim f ( x) = lim+ (5 x + 2) = 37 . Thus, f is discontinuous at x=7.
x →7 + x →7

The discontinuity at x=4 is removable; if we define f(4)=2, then f will be

continuous at 4. The discontinuity at x=1 is a jump discontinuity, and the
discontinuity at x=7 is an infinite discontinuity; f(x) tends to infinity as x
approaches 7 from the left-side.

(3) Discuss continuity of the following functions:

[1] Consider the function f ( x) = 1 − x 2

63
The function is continuous on [-1,1] because it is continuous on the open
interval (-1,1), continuous from the right at -1, and continuous from left at
1. The function maps the interval [-1,1] onto the interval [0,1].

[2] Consider the function g ( x) = x 2 − 4

D( g ) = (−,−2]  [2, ) . The function is continuous on each of these
intervals since it is continuous from left at -2, and continuous from the
right at 2. The function maps (−,−2]  [2, ) onto [0, ) .

16 − x 2
[3] f ( x) =
x4 + x2 + 1

16 − x 2 is continuous on [-4,4], since it is continuous on (-4,4), and

continuous from the right at -4 ( lim 16 − x 2 = 0 = f (−4) ), and continuous

x→−4+

from the left at 4 ( lim 16 − x 2 = 0 = f (4) ), x + x + 1 is continuous on

4 2
x →4−

R → f is continuous on [-4,4].

[4] f ( x) = 9 − x
x−6

9 − x is continuous on (-  ,9], since it is continuous on (-  ,9), and

continuous from the left at 9 ( lim 9 − x = 0) .

x →9−

x − 6 is continuous on [6,  ), since it is continuous on (6,  ), and

continuous from the right at 6 ( lim x − 6 = 0) .
x →6 +

Thus, f is continuous on (6,9]. (as x=6 is a zero for the denominator)

[5] f ( x) = 2 x − 3 + x 2

x 2 is continuous on R, 2 x − 3 is continuous on [3/2,  ), since it is

continuous on (3/2,  ) and continuous from the right at 3/2, then f is

continuous on [3/2,  ).

64
 4
[6] f ( x) = 3 is continuous on R-{4} since 4, 3 x − 4 are continuous
x−4
on R.

[7] f ( x) = cos ec ( x / 3) = 1 / sin( x / 3)

sin( x / 3) is continuous on R, but sin( x / 3) = 0 at 3n  , n  Z, then f is

continuous on R-{3n  , n  Z}.

65
DIFFERENTIATION
&
APPLICATIONS
Differentiation: The derivative of a function
Definition: The derivative of a function f(x) with respect to the variable
x is the function f (x) describes how the function changes with its
independent variable and its value at x is given as
f ( x + h) − f ( x )
f ( x) = lim provided the limit exists
h →0 h
The domain of f (x) is the set of points in the domain of f(x) for which
the limit exists, and the domain of f (x) may be the same or smaller than
the domain of f(x). The domain of f (x) is a subset of the domain of f(x).
If f (x) exists at a particular x, we say that f(x) is differentiable at x (has a
derivative at x). Writing z = x + h , then h = z − x, h → 0  z → x gives the
alternative formula for the derivative as,
f ( z ) − f ( x)
f ( x) = lim provided the limit exists
z→x z−x
Definition: The derivative f (a ) for the function f(x) at a point aD(f )
is defined as;
f ( a + h) − f ( a ) f ( x) − f (a)
f (a) = lim or f (a) = lim where h = x − a
h →0 h x→a x−a
Calculating derivative from the definition
x
[1] Applying the definition, differentiate f ( x) =
x −1
x+h x
−
f ( x + h) − f ( x ) ( x + h)( x − 1) − x( x + h − 1)
f ( x) = lim = lim x + h − 1 x − 1 = lim
h →0 h h →0 h h →0 h( x + h − 1)( x − 1)
−h −1
= lim =
h→0 h( x + h − 1)( x − 1) ( x − 1) 2

[2] Find the derivative of f ( x) = x , x  0

f ( z ) − f ( x) z− x z− x
f ( x) = lim = lim = lim
z→x z−x z → x z−x z → x ( z − x )( z + x )

1 1
= lim =
z→x
z+ x 2 x

67
[3] Find the derivative of f ( x) = x 2 at x=1

f ( x) − f (1) x2 −1
f (1) = lim = lim = lim x + 1 = 2
x →1 x −1 x →1 x − 1 x →1

[4] Find the derivative of f ( x) = 1 / x at x=-2

f ( x) − f (−2) 1/ x + 1/ 2 x+2 1 −1
f (−2) = lim = lim = lim = lim =
x→−2 x − (−2) x→−2 x+2 x→−2 2 x( x + 2) x→−2 2 x 4

1 1
−
f (h − 2) − f (−2) 2 + (h − 2) − 1
or f (−2) = lim = lim − 2 + h − 2 = lim =
h →0 h h → 0 h h → 0 2h(h − 2) 4

[5] Find the derivative of f ( x) = x 3

f ( x + h) − f ( x ) ( x + h) 3 − x 3 x 3 + 3x 2 h + 3xh 2 + h 3 − x 3
f ( x) = lim = lim = lim
h→0 h h→0 h h→0 h

3x 2 h + 3xh2 + h3
= lim = lim (3x 2 + 3xh + h 2 ) = 3x 2
h→0 h h→0

[6] Find the derivative of f ( x) = sin x

f ( x + h) − f ( x ) sin( x + h) − sin x (sin x cos h + cos x sin h) − sin x

f ( x) = lim = lim = lim
h →0 h h →0 h h →0 h
cosh− 1 sinh
= lim sin x + lim cos x = 0 + cos x = cos x
h →0 h h → 0 h

Theorem: Differentiability implies continuity

If f has a derivative at x = xo , then f is continuous at x = xo . Similar
arguments with one-sided limits show that if f has a derivative from one-
side (right or left) at x = xo , then f is continuous from that side at x = xo .
The theorem states that if a function has a discontinuity at a point, then it
cannot be differentiable there. The converse of theorem is false. A
function need not have derivative at a point where it is continuous.
Finding a Tangent to the graph of a function
To find a tangent to the graph of y = f (x ) at a point P( xo , f ( xo )) we use a
dynamic procedure. We calculate the slope of the secant through P and a
68
point Q( xo + h, f ( xo + h)) . We then investigate the limit of the slope as
h→0. If the limit exists, we call it the slope of the curve at P and define
the tangent at P to be the line through P having this slope.
Definition: The slope of the curve y = f (x ) at the point P( xo , f ( xo )) is the
f ( x o + h) − f ( x o )
number, m = lim = f ( xo ) provided the limit exists
h →0 h
Geometrically the derivative f ( xo ) is the slope of the tangent line to the
graph or simply the slope of the graph of f(x) at the point ( xo , f ( xo )) .

Example: Find the tangent line to the curve y = x at x = 4

1 1 1
y = (last example), y (4) = =
2 x 2 4 4

The tangent is the line through (4,2) with slope 1/4

1 1
y = 2 + ( x − 4) → y = x + 1
4 4
Example: Find the slope of the parabola y = x 2 at P (2,4) . Write the
equation of the tangent to the parabola at this point.
f (2 + h) − f (2) (2 + h) 2 − (2) 2 h 2 + 4h
y (2) = lim = lim = lim =4
h →0 h h →0 h h →0 h
The tangent to the parabola is the line through (2,4) with slope 4
y = 4 + 4( x − 2) → y = 4 x − 4

Summary: The following ideas refer to the same thing:

1) The slope of the curve y = f (x) at x = xo
2) The slope of the tangent to the curve y = f (x) at x = xo
3) The rate of change of f (x) with respect to x at x = xo
4) The derivative of f (x) at x = xo
f ( xo + h) − f ( xo )
5) The limit of the difference quotient lim
h →0 h

69
Notation: There are many ways to denote the derivative of a function
dy df d
y = f (x ) : y  = f ( x) = = = f ( x) = D( f )( x) = Dx f
dx dx dx
The symbols d / dx and f (x) D indicate the differentiation operation and
are called differential operators. To indicate the value of the derivative at
a specified point x = xo we use the notation

dy df d
f ( xo ) = = = f ( x)
dx x = xo dx x = xo dx x = xo

df
Example: For f ( x) = x we have = 3x 2
3

dx

Example: For f ( x) = x we have

1 1 1 1
f ( x) = → f (4) = = =
2 x 2 x x=4 2 4 4

Differentiation on an Interval: One-sided Derivatives

Definition: The derivative f − (a ) from the left at a point aD(f ) is

defined as; f − (a) = lim f (a + h) − f (a) (if the limit exists)

h →0 −
h

Definition: The derivative f + (a ) from the right at a point aD(f ) is

defined as; f ( a + h) − f ( a ) (if the limit exists)

f + (a) = lim
h→0 +
h

Definition: The derivative f  of a function f at a point aD(f ) is said

to exist if and only if f − (a ) = f + (a ) . Also, it is said that the graph of the

function is smooth if f is differentiable at every point aD(f ).
Definition: A function y = f (x) is differentiable on an open interval (a, b)
(finite or infinite) if it has a derivative at each point of the interval. It is
differentiable on a closed interval [a, b] if it is differentiable on the
interior (a, b) and if the limits

70
 f ( a + h) − f ( a )
lim h
right-side derivative at a
h →0 +

f ( a + h) − f ( a )
lim h
left-side derivative at b
h →0 −

exists at the endpoints. The derivative at a point (two-sided derivative)

exist if and only if the left-side and right-side derivatives exist.

Solved Problems

[1] Find the derivative of f ( x) = x at x=0

f ( x) − f (0) x x x
f (0) = lim = lim , f + (0) = lim+ = 1, f − (0) = lim− = −1
x →0 x x →0 x x →0 x x →0 x

→ f (0) does not exist as f + (0)  f − (0)

[2] Find the derivative of f ( x) = x at x=0

The domain of f (x) is [0, )

1
For x  0 : f ( x) =
2 x

0+h − 0 h 1
At x = 0 : f ( x) = lim = lim = lim =
h →0 +
h h →0 + h h →0 + h

The right-side limit is not finite, there is no derivative at x=0.

1 − x, x0
[3] Prove that f is not differentiable at x=0 where f ( x) = 
cos x, x0

lim 1 − x = 1, lim− cos x = 1→ lim f = 1= f (0) then f is continuous at x=0.

x →0 + x →0 x →0

1 − h −1 cos h − 1
f + (0) = lim+ = −1  f − (0) = lim− =0
h→0 h h→0 h

→ f does not exist at x=0.

x 2 , x 1
[4] Find f (−3) and f (1) given that f ( x) = 

2 x − 1, x  1

71
By definition,
f (−3 + h) − f (−3) (h − 3) 2 − (−3) 2 h 2 − 6h
f (−3) = lim = lim = lim = −6
h→0 h h→0 h h→0 h

or, for all x sufficiently close to -3,

f ( x) = x 2 → f ( x) = 2 x → f (−3) = −6

f (1 + h) − f (1)
f (1) = lim
h→0 h

Since f is not defined by the same formula on both sides of 1, we will

evaluate this limit by taking one-sided limits. Note that f(1)=1.

To the left of 1,

f (1 + h) − f (1) (1 + h) 2 − 1 (1 + 2h + h 2 ) − 1
f − (1) = lim− = lim− = lim− = lim− (2 + h) = 2
h →0 h h →0 h h →0 h h →0

To the right of 1,

f (1 + h) − f (1) (2(1 + h) − 1) − 1
f + (1) = lim+ = lim+ = lim+ 2 = 2 → f (1) = 2
h →0 h h →0 h h →0

[5] Find the values of a and b such that

a
 x , x 1
f ( x) =  has a derivative at x=1
b − x , x  1
 4

a x 1
f must first be continuous → lim = a = lim (b − ) = b −
x →1− x x →1+ 4 4

→ b −1 / 4 = a (1)

Also the right and left derivatives must be equal

a 1 1 1
−a b − (1 + h) − a a + − (1 + h) − a
− −
lim 1 + h 4 a a ah 4 4
= lim+ → lim− = lim+
h →0 − h h →0 h h →0 h h →0 h

− a = −1 / 4 → a = 1 / 4 → b = 1 / 2

72
[6] Find a and b such that f (1) exists

1 + sin( x − 1), x 1
f ( x) =  2
ax + b, x 1

f (1) = a + b, lim− (1 + sin( x − 1)) = 1 = lim+ ax 2 + b = a + b → a + b = 1

x →1 x →1

1 + sin h − (a + b) sin h
f − (1) = lim− = lim− =1
h→0 h h→0 h

a(1 + h) 2 + b − (a + b) a + ah 2 + 2ah + b − (a + b)
f + (1) = lim+ = lim+ = 2a = 1
h→0 h h→0 h

→ a = 1/ 2 → b = 1/ 2

[7] Find a and b such that f is differentiable at x = 0

2 sin x + cos x, x0

f ( x) = 
ax + b, x0

f (0) = b, lim− (2 sin x + cos x) = 1 = lim+ (ax + b) = b → b = 1

x →0 x →0

2 sin h + cos h − b 2 sin h cos h − 1

f − (0) = lim− = lim− + lim− =2
h →0 h h →0 h h →0 h

ah + b − b
f + (0) = lim+ = a →a = 2
h→0 h

3x 4 , x 1
[8] Find a and b such that f ( x) =  is differentiable
ax + b, x 1

f is continuous and differentiable at x=1

lim− 3x 4 = 3 = lim+ ax + b = a + b → a + b = 3 (1)

x→1 x→1

3x 4 − 3 3( x 2 + 1)( x − 1)( x + 1)
f − (1) = lim− = lim− = 12
x →1 x −1 x →1 x −1

ax + b − 3 a( x − 1)
f + (1) = lim+ = 12 → lim+ = a → a = 12 → b = −9
x →1 x −1 x →1 x −1

73
 Types of Undifferentiability: A function has a derivative at a point
x = xo if the slopes of the secant lines through P ( xo , f ( xo )) and nearby

point Q on the graph approach a limit as Q approaches P. Whenever, the

secants fail to take up a limiting position or become vertical as Q
approaches P, the derivative does not exist. Thus, differentiability is a
"smoothness" condition on the graph of f. A function whose graph is
otherwise smooth will fail to have a derivative at a point for several
reasons;
(1) f is not continuous at a point, then, it will not be differentiable there.
 x − 2, x 1
Example: f ( x) = 
3, x =1

f is discontinuous at x=1, then f (1) does not exist.

(2) f is continuous, but the derivative does not exist due to three reasons:
y
(ii) y (iii) y
(i)
x1 / 3
x2/3 x

x x x

(i) xlim f  = lim f  = 

− +
(vertical tangent)
→a x→a

(ii) xlim f  =   , lim f  = 

− +
(vertical cusp)
→a x→a

(iii) lim f  = L, lim+ f  = M , L  M (corner point)

x →a − x→a

Solved Problems:
(1) Discuss differentiability of f at x=0

 x + 1, x0
[1] f ( x) = 
 x − 1, x0

lim x + 1 = 1  lim+ x − 1 = −1 → f is not continuous

x →0 − x →0

74
→ f is not differentiable at x=0.

 x 2 + x, x0
[2] f ( x) = 
 x, x0

lim− x 2 + x = 0 = lim+ x → f is continuous at x=0

x →0 x →0

x2 + x − 0 x−0
f − (0) = lim− = lim− x + 1 = 1, f + (0) = lim+ =1
x →0 x−0 x →0 x →0 x − 0

→ f − (0) = f + (0) → f is differentiable at x=0.

[3] f ( x) = x 4 / 5 , f is continuous at x=0

x4/5 − 0 1 x4/5 − 0 1
f − (0) = lim− = lim− 1/ 5 = −, f + (0) = lim+ = lim+ 1/ 5 = 
x→0 x−0 x→0 x x→0 x−0 x→0 x

→ f is not differentiable at x=0. (vertical tangent)

x
 , x0
[4] f ( x) =  x
0, x=0


x x
lim− = −1  lim+ = 1 → f is not continuous at x=0
x →0 x x →0 x

→ f is not differentiable at x=0.

[5] f ( x) = x 2 − 2 x = x x − 2 ,

x x−2 −0
f is continuous at x=0, f − (0) = lim = −2
x →0 −
x−0

x x−2 −0
f + (0) = lim+ = 2 → f − (0)  f + (0)
x →0 x−0

→ f is not differentiable at x=0 (corner point)

 x 4 + 1, x0
[6] f ( x) =  , lim x 4 + 1 = 1  lim x 4 = 0
 x →0 − x →0 +
x ,
4
x0

→ f is discontinuous at x=0 and then is not differentiable at x=0.

75
(2) Discuss differentiability over the domain:

2 x, x0
[1] f ( x) =  2
x , x0

2( x + h) − 2 x 2h
x  0 : f ( x) = lim = lim =2
h →0 h h →0 h

( x + h) 2 − x 2
x  0 : f ( x) = lim = 2x
h →0 h

2(0 + h) − 0 (0 + h) 2 − 0
At x=0: f − (0) = lim− = 2, f + (0) = lim+ =0
h →0 h h →0 h

x0
f (0) does not exist → f ( x) = 
2,
→ D( f ) = R − {0}
2 x, x  0

2 x − 1, x 1
[2] f ( x) =  2
x , x 1

2( x + h) − 1 − (2 x − 1) ( x + h) 2 − x 2
x  1 : f ( x) = lim = 2, x  1 : f ( x) = lim = 2x
h →0 h h →0 h

At x=1: f − (1) = lim 2(1 + h) − 1 − 1 = 2, f + (1) = lim (1 + h) − 1 = 2,

2

h→0− h h→0+ h

2, x  1

f ( x) = 2, x = 1 → D( f ) = R
2 x , x  1


[3] f ( x) = 9 − x 2 → D( f ) = [−3,3]

9 − ( x + h) 2 − 9 − x 2 9 − ( x + h) 2 + 9 − x 2
f ( x) = lim ( )( )
h →0 h 9 − ( x + h) 2 + 9 − x 2

9 − ( x + h) 2 − (9 − x 2 ) − h − 2x −x
= lim = lim = , x 3
h →0 h →0
h( 9 − ( x + h) + 9 − x )
2 2
9 − ( x + h) + 9 − x
2 2
9 − x2

where
9 − (−3 + h) 2 9 + (−3 + h) 2 81 − (−3 + h) 4 1
f + (−3) = lim+ ( ) = lim+ = + =
h →0 h 9 + (−3 + h) 2 h →0
h 9 + ( −3 + h ) 2 0

76
( f + (−3) does not exist)

9 − (3 + h) 2 9 + (3 + h) 2 81 − (3 + h) 4 1
f − (3) = lim− ( ) = lim− = + =
h →0 h 9 + (3 + h) 2 h →0
h 9 + (3 + h) 2 0

( f − (3) does not exist) → D( f ) = (−3,3)

Differentiation Rules:
Theorem: If f and g are two differentiable functions at a point x and
they have the derivatives f  and g  then
d
1) (c ) = 0 (c is a constant)
dx
d
2) (cf ) = cf  (c is a constant)
dx
d
3) ( f  g ) = f   g
dx
d
4)  + fg
( fg) = f g
dx
d
5) ( f / g ) = ( gf  − fg ) / g 2 , g0
dx
d
6) (1 / f ) = − f  / f 2 .
dx

Derivatives of Some Basic Functions

f (x) f (x )
x , nR
n nxn-1
x, x  0 x /x
sin x cos x
cos x − sin x
tan x sec 2 x
csc x − csc x cot x
sec x sec x tan x
cot x − csc 2 x

Example: Find f (x ) for each of the following:

[1] f ( x) = x − x 2 cos x → f ( x) = 1 − 2 x cos x + x 2 sin x

77
[2] f ( x) = sin x sec x → f ( x) = cos x sec x + sin x sec x tan x

1 − cos x sin x(1 + cos x) + (1 − cos x) sin x 2 sin x

[3] f ( x) = → f ( x) = =
1 + cos x (1 + cos x) 2
(1 + cos x) 2

[4] f ( x) = x1/ 3 tan x → f ( x) = x1/ 3 sec 2 x + (1 / 3) x −2 / 3 tan x

cos x − sin x( x 2 + 4) − (2 x) cos x

[5] f ( x) = → f ( x ) =
x2 + 4 ( x 2 + 4) 2

sin x − cos x
[6] f ( x) =
sin x + cos x

(sin x + cos x)(cos x + sin x) − (sin x − cos x)(cos x − sin x)

f ( x) =
(sin x + cos x) 2

(sin x + cos x) 2 + (sin x − cos x) 2

=
(sin x + cos x) 2

x + sin x x −3 ( x / x + cos x) − ( x + sin x)(−3) x −4

[7] f ( x) = → f ( x) =
x −3 x −6

1 x
x (3 x 2 x + x 2 x + ) − (x3 x + x )
x x+ x
3
2 x x
[8] f ( x) = → f= 2
x x


(1 + x ) x ,
3
x0
[9] f ( x) =  3

x x , x0

x3 x − 0 (1 + x 3 ) x − 0 1
f − (0) = lim− = 0, f + (0) = lim+ = + =
x→0 x−0 x→0 x−0 0

 2 1 + x3
 3 x x + , x0
 2 x
f ( x) = 
 2 x3 x
3 x x + x , x0

Higher Order Derivatives: If y = f ( x ) is a differentiable function,

then its derivative f ( x ) is also a function. If f ( x ) is also

differentiable, then we can differentiate f ( x ) to get a new function of x

78
denoted by f (x ) . Then f ( x) = ( f ( x)) and f (x ) is called the

second derivative of f. So long as we have differentiability, we can

continue in this manner, forming the third derivative of f, denoted f 
and so on. However, the prime notation is not used beyond the third
( 4)
derivative. For the fourth derivative of f, we write f and more
(n )
generally, the nth derivative of f is denoted f . The functions
f , f , f , f ( 4 ) ,..., f ( n ) are called the derivatives of f of orders 1, 2, 3, 4,…,

n, respectively.
Example: If f ( x) = x 5 , then
f  = 5 x 4 , f  = 20 x 3 , f  = 60 x 2 , f ( 4 ) = 120 x, f (5) = 120 .

In this case, all derivatives of order higher than five are identically zero.
In Leibniz notation the derivatives of higher order are written
d 2 y d dy d 3 y d d 2 y d n y d d n−1 y
= ( ), = ( ),..., n = ( ),...
dx 2 dx dx dx3 dx dx 2 dx dx dx n−1
d2 d d d3 d d2
or , ( f ( x )) = ( ( f ( x ))), ( f ( x )) = ( ( f ( x))),...,
dx 2 dx dx dx 3 dx dx 2

dn d d n −1
( f ( x )) = ( ( f ( x)))
dx n dx dx n −1

Example: For f ( x) = x 4 − 3x −1 + 5
f ( x) = 4 x 3 + 3 x −2 , f ( x) = 12 x 2 − 6 x −3 .
d 5
Example: ( x − 4 x 3 + 7 x) = 5 x 4 − 12 x 2 + 7
dx

d2 5 d
2
( x − 4 x 3 + 7 x) = (5 x 4 − 12 x 2 + 7) = 20 x 3 − 24 x
dx dx
−1
Example: For y = x . In Leibniz notation
2
dy −2 d y −3 d3y −4 d4y
= −x , 2
= 2x , 3
= −6 x , 4
= 24 x −5 ,...
dx dx dx dx
On the basis of these calculations, we are led to the general result

79
dny
n
= (−1) n n! x −n−1 (n! = n(n − 1)(n − 2)...3.2.1)
dx
or, in the prime notation
y  = − x −2 , y  = 2 x −3 , y  = −6 x −4 , y ( 4) = 24 x −5 , ..., y ( n ) = (−1) n n! x − n−1

The Chain Rule: Derivative of a composite function

Let y is a differentiable function of u: y=f(u) and u is a differentiable
function of x: u=g(x). Then y is a composite function of x:
y = f (u ) = f ( g ( x)) = ( f  g )( x) .
dy dy du
The derivative of y with respect to x is given by =
dx du dx

This formula is known as the chain rule, says that “the rate of change of y
with respect to x is the rate of change of y with respect to u times the rate
of change of u with respect to x.”
u −1
Example: Find dy/dx by the chain rule given that y = and u = x 2 .
u +1
dy (u + 1)(1) − (u − 1)(1) 2 du
= = , = 2x
du (u + 1) 2
(u + 1) 2
dx

dy dy du 2 4x
= = (2 x) = 2
dx du dx (u + 1) 2
( x + 1) 2

Remark: We would obtain the same result without the chain rule by first
writing y as a function of x and then differentiating.
The Chain Rule Theorem:
If g is differentiable at x and f is differentiable at g(x), then the
composition f  g is differentiable at x and
( f  g )( x) = ( f ( g ( x)) = f ( g ( x)) g ( x) .

Modified Differentiation Rules: If f is a differentiable function of x,

d ( f ( x))n d ( n f ( x) )
1) = n( f ( x))n −1 f ( x) , 2) = (1 / n) ( f ( x))1 / n −1 f ( x)
dx dx

3) d f ( x)
=
f ( x)
f ( x) , 4) d sin( f ( x)) = cos( f ( x)) f ( x)
dx f ( x) dx

80
 d cos( f ( x)) d tan( f ( x))
5) = − sin( f ( x)) f ( x) , 6) = sec2 ( f ( x)) f ( x)
dx dx
d cot( f ( x)) d sec( f ( x))
7) = − csc2 ( f ( x)) f ( x) , 8) = sec( f ( x)) tan( f ( x)) f ( x)
dx dx

9) d csc( f ( x)) = − csc( f ( x)) cot( f ( x)) f ( x)

dx

Solved Problems: Find f (x) for each of the following functions:

[1] f ( x) = ( x 2 − 1)100 → f ( x) = 100 ( x 2 − 1) 99 (2 x) = 200 x( x 2 − 1) 99

1 1 d 1 1 1
[2] f ( x) = ( x + ) −3 → f ( x) = −3( x + ) − 4 ( x + ) = −3( x + ) − 4 (1 − 2 )
x x dx x x x

[3] f ( x) = 2 x 3 ( x 2 − 3) 4

→ f ( x) = 6 x 2 ( x 2 − 3) 4 + 2 x 3 (4)( x 2 − 3) 3 (2 x) = 2 x 2 ( x 2 − 3) 3 (8 x 2 + 3( x 2 − 3))

sec x
[4] f ( x) = sec x + cos3 x → f ( x) = sec x tan x + 3 cos2 x(− sin x)
sec x

[5] 2x
f ( x) = x 2 − 1 + cot 4 (7 x + 9) → f ( x) = + 4 cot 3 (7 x + 9)(− cos ec 2 (7 x + 9))(7)
2 x −1
2

x
→ f ( x) = − 28 cot3 (7 x + 9) cos ec2 (7 x + 9)
x −1
2

[6] f ( x) = cos(3x 2 ) → f ( x) = − sin(3x 2 )(6 x) = −6 x sin(3x 2 )

[7] f ( x) = sec( x 2 + 1) → f ( x) = sec( x 2 + 1) tan( x 2 + 1)(2 x)

[8] f ( x) = tan(x +21) → f ( x) = ( x + 1) sec ( x + 1)(5x ) 4− 2( x + 1) tan(x + 1)

5 2 2 5 4 5

( x + 1) ( x + 1)

Parametric Differentiation:
Definition: Parametric Curves
If x and y are given as functions x = f (t ) , y = g (t ) over an interval of
t-values, then the set of points ( x, y ) = ( f (t ) , g (t )) defined by these
equations is a parametric curve. The equations are parametric equations
of the curve.

81
Slopes of Parametric Curves: Let x = f (t ) , y = g (t ) where f and g are
differentiable at t.
Then the parametric formula for dyldx is given as
dy dy / dt g (t )
= =
dx dx / dt f (t )

Example: For x=acost, y=asint, find y at t=/4.

dy / dt a cos t cos t 1/ 2
y = = =− , at t =  / 4 , y = − = −1
dx / dt − a sin t sin t 1/ 2

Example: For x = 2t + 3, y = t 2 − 2 find y at t=6.

dy / dt 2t
y = = = t , at t = 6 , y = 6
dx / dt 2

d 2 y dy  / dt
Parametric formula for d yldx : 2
= 2

dx 2 dx / dt
Example: For x = t − t 2 , y = t − t 3 find dyldx, d 2 y / dx 2
dy / dt 1 − 3t 2
y = =
dx / dt 1 − 2t
dy d 1 − 3t 2 2 − 6t + 6t 2
= ( )=
dt dt 1 − 2t (1 − 2t ) 2

d 2 y dy  / dt (2 − 6t + 6t 2 ) /(1 − 2t ) 2 2 − 6t + 6t 2
= = =
dx 2 dx / dt 1 − 2t (1 − 2t ) 3

Implicit Differentiation: Sometimes we encounter equations like

x 2 + y 2 − 25 = 0, x 3 + y 3 − 9 xy = 0, x 2 − y 2 = sin( xy )

These equations define an implicit relation between x and y. In some

cases we may be able to solve such an equation for y as an explicit
function (or even several functions) of x. When we cannot put an
equation F ( x, y ) = 0 in the form y = f (x) to differentiate it in the normal
way, we may still be able to find the derivative dyldx by implicit
differentiation which consists of differentiating both sides of the equation

82
with respect to x, applying the chain rule and then solving the resulting
equation for dyldx .
Example: For the implicit function y 5 + 4 y − 3x 2 = 6 x + 5 find dy/dx.
Differentiating both sides of the equation with respect to x
d 5 d d d d
( y ) + (4 y) + (−3x 2 ) = (6 x) + (5)
dx dx dx dx dx
d 5 dy dy dy dy 6( x + 1)
→ ( y ) + 4 − 6x = 6 + 0 → (5 y 4 + 4) = 6( x + 1) → =
dy dx dx dx dx (5 y 4 + 4)

Example: Use implicit differentiation to express dy/dx in terms of x and

y.
[1] 2 x 2 y − y 3 + 1 = x + 2 y
Differentiating both sides of the equation with respect to x
dy dy dy dy
2x 2 + 4 xy − 3 y 2 = 1 + 2 → (2 x 2 − 3 y 2 − 2) = 1 − 4 xy
dx dx dx dx
dy 1 − 4 xy
→ = 2
dx 2 x − 3 y 2 − 2

[2] cos( x − y ) = (2 x + 1) 3 y
Differentiating both sides of the equation with respect to x
dy dy
− sin( x − y )(1 − ) = (2 x + 1) 3 + 3(2 x + 1) 2 (2) y
dx dx
dy
(sin( x − y ) − (2 x + 1) 3 ) = 6(2 x + 1) 2 y + sin( x − y )
dx
dy 6(2 x + 1) 2 y + sin( x − y )
→ =
dx sin( x − y ) − (2 x + 1)3

[3] y = x + sin( xy )
2 2

Differentiating both sides of the equation with respect to x

dy dy dy 2 x + y cos( xy)
2y = 2 x + cos( xy)( x + y ) → =
dx dx dx 2 y − x cos( xy)

83
Implicit Differentiation of Higher Order:
d2y
for 2 x − 3 y = 8
3 2
Example: Find 2
dx
Differentiating both sides of the equation with respect to x
dy x2
6x − 6 y
2
= 0 → y = , y  0
dx y
Differentiating both sides of the equation with respect to x
d x2 2 xy − x 2 y  2 x x 4
y  = 

( )→ y = = − , y0
dx y y2 y y3
Solved Problems: Find the slope of the tangent to each of the following
curves at the indicated points:

[1] x cos y + y sin x =  / 2 at p( / 2,  / 2)

d
( x cos y + y sin x) = 0 → cos y − x sin yy + y sin x + y cos x = 0
dx

y (sin x − x sin y ) = −( y cos x + cos y ) → y  = ( y cos x + cos y ) /( x sin y − sin x)

At ( / 2,  / 2) → y  = 0.

1 1
[2] x 2 / 3 + y 2 / 3 = 1 at p( , )
2 2 2 2

d 2/3
( x + y 2 / 3 ) = 0 → (2 / 3) x −1/ 3 + (2 / 3) y −1/ 3 y = 0
dx

y  = − x −1 / 3 / y −1 / 3 → y  = −3 y / x → y (1 / 2 2 ,1 / 2 2 )
= −1

[3] x = a(t − sin t ), y = a (1 − cos t ) at t = 

dy / dt a sin t
y = = → at t =  , y = 0
dx / dt a(1 − cos t )

[4] x = 5t + 3, y = 16t 2 + 9 at t=5

dy / dt
y = = 32t / 5 → at t = 5, y  = 32
dx / dt

84
 d 2
[5] x 2 − 3xy − y 2 = 3 at (-1,1) → ( x − 3xy − y 2 ) = 0
dx

→ 2 x − 3 y − 3xy  − 2 yy  = 0 → y  = (2 x − 3 y ) /( 2 y + 3 x) → y (−1,1) = 5

Derivatives of Inverses of Differentiable functions

Theorem: If f is one-to-one function which has an interval I as domain

and f  exists and never be zero on I, then f −1 is differentiable at every
point in its domain. The value of ( f −1 ) at a point b in the domain of f −1
is the reciprocal of the value of f at the point a = f −1 (b) ,
1 1 df −1 1
( f −1 )(b) = = or =
f (a) f ( f −1 (b)) dx x = b
(df / dx)
x = f −1 (b)

Then, if the slope of y = f (x) at the point (a, f (a )) is f (a), f (a)  0 , then
the slope of y = f −1 ( x) at the point ( f (a), a) is the reciprocal (1 / f (a)) .

Solved Problems:

[1] The function f ( x) = x 2 , x  0 and its inverse f −1 ( x) = x have

1
derivatives f ( x) = 2 x and ( f )( x) =
−1

2 x

1 1 1
or using the above theorem, ( f −1 )( x) = = =
f ( f ( x))
−1 −1
2 f ( x) 2 x

1 1 1 1
f (2) = 4 → ( f −1 )(4) = = = =
f ( f (4))
−1
f (2) 2 x x = 2 4

[2] For f ( x) = x 3 − 2 find the value of df −1 / dx at x = 6 = f (2) without

finding the equation for f −1 ( x) .

df df −1 1 1
= 3x 2
= 12 → x = f (2) = =
dx x = 2 x=2 dx 12
df / dx
x=2

85
 1
[3] For f ( x) = x 3 + x calculate ( f −1 )(9) .
2

1 1
( f −1 )(9) = , f (a) = 9 → a 3 + a = 9 → a = 2
f (a) 2

1 25 1 2
Since f (2) = 3(2) 2 + = → ( f −1 )(9) = =
2 2 25 / 2 25

Inverse Trigonometric Functions:

They are the inverse functions of the trigonometric functions. Since, all
the trigonometric functions are periodic, they are not one-to-one
functions. Therefore, we must choose an interval in the domain of each
of them, such that it will have an inverse.

Inverse sine function: sin −1 x or arcsin(x)

For y = sin x, −  / 2  x   / 2 , we define its inverse as y = sin −1 x, − 1  x  1

x y x
sin sin −1
xR y  [−1,1] x  [−  2 ,  2]

-1.5 -1 -0.5 sin0-1 x 0.5 1 1.5

−1
Inverse cosine function: cos x or arc cos( x)
For y = cos x, 0  x   , y = cos −1 x, − 1  x  1

86
-1 -0.5 cos0-1 x 0.5 1
Inverse tangent function: tan −1 x or arc tan(x)
For y = tan x, −  / 2  x   / 2 → y = tan −1 x, x  R

-10 -5 tan0-1 x 5 10

Inverse cosecant function: cos ec −1 x or arc csc( x)

y = csc( x), x  (− , −  2]  (0,  / 2] , y = csc −1 ( x), x  (−,−1]  [1, )

−1
Inverse secant function: sec x or arc sec( x)

y = sec( x), x  [0,  2)  ( / 2,  ] , y = sec −1 ( x), x  (−,−1]  [1, )

Inverse cotangent function: cot −1 x or arc cot( x)

y = cot x, 0  x   , y = cot −1 x, x  R

Solved Problems

[1] Find the value of each of the following functions:

1) sin −1 (sin 47  ) = 47 

2) cos(sin −1 ( 3 / 2)) = 1 2

3) sin(tan −1 (1)) = 1 2

4) sin −1 (sin(120  )) = 60 

5) cos −1 (cos 270  ) = 90 

[2] Prove each of the following statement:

87
1) sin −1 x + cos −1 x =  2 , let sin −1 x =  → x = sin 

cos −1 x =  → x = cos  → sin −1 x + cos −1 x =  +  =  2

2) cos(sin −1 x) = 1 − x 2 , let sin −1 x =  1 

x

→ cos  = 1 − x 2 → cos(sin −1 x) = 1 − x 2 
−1
1 − x2
3) sin( 2 sin x) = 2 x 1 − x 2

Let sin −1 x =  → sin( 2 sin −1 x) = sin 2 = 2 sin  cos  → sin( 2 sin −1 x) = 2 x 1 − x 2

4) cos(2 tan −1 x) = 1 − x 2 , let tan −1 x =  → tan  = x

2

1+ x

1 x 1− x2
→ cos(2 tan −1 x) = cos(2 ) = cos 2  − sin 2  = ( )2 − ( )2 =
1+ x2 1+ x2 1+ x2

5) tan −1 x + tan −1 (1 x) =  2 
x
Let tan x =  → tan (− 1 x) = 
−1 −1


but  +  =  2 → tan −1 x + tan −1 (1 x) =  2 1

Derivative of the Inverse Trigonometric Functions:

dx
(1) y = sin −1 x, x  1, x = sin y → = cos y
dy

dy 1 dy 1 1
→ = → = =
dx cos y dx  1 − sin 2 y 1− x2

The negative sign is rejected, as cos y is positive, since y  [−  2 ,  2]

d 1 d 1 du
sin −1 x = . In general, sin −1 (u ( x)) =
dx 1− x 2 dx 1 − u 2 dx

(2) y = cos −1 x, x  1 , dx dy −1
x = cos y → = − sin y → =
dy dx sin y

dy −1 −1 d −1
= = → cos−1 x =
dx 1 − cos y
2
1− x 2 dx 1 − x2

88
 −1
In general d cos −1 (u ( x)) = du
dx 1 − u 2 dx

dx
(3) y = tan −1 x, x  R → x = tan y → = sec 2 y
dy

dy 1 1 1 d 1
→ = = = → tan −1 x =
dx sec y 1 + tan y 1 + x
2 2 2
dx 1 + x2

d 1 du
In general tan −1 (u ( x)) =
dx 1 + u 2 dx

dx
(4) y = cot −1 x, x  R → x = cot y → = − csc 2 y
dy

dy −1 −1 −1 d −1
→ = = = → cot −1 x = ,
dx csc y 1 + cot y 1 + x
2 2 2
dx 1 + x2

d − 1 du
In general cot −1 (u ( x)) =
dx 1 + u 2 dx

dx
(5) y = csc −1 x, x  1 → x = csc y → = − csc y cot y
dy

dy −1 −1 d −1
→ = = → csc−1 x =
dx csc y cot y x x − 1
2 dx x x2 −1

−1
In general d csc−1 (u ( x)) = du
dx u u − 1 dx
2

dx
(6) y = sec −1 x, x  1 → x = sec y → = sec y tan y
dy

dy 1 1 d 1
→ = = → sec−1 x =
dx sec y tan y x x − 1
2 dx x x2 −1

d 1 du
In general sec −1 (u ( x)) =
dx u u 2 − 1 dx

Solved Problems

1
[1] y = x sin −1 ( x / 2) → y = sin −1 ( x / 2) + x (1 / 2)
1 − ( x / 2) 2

89
 tan −1 x  − 2x  1
[2] y = → y  = tan −1 x  +
2 2 
1+ x 2
 (1 + x )  (1 + x )
2 2

1 −1
[3] y = sin −1 x cos−1 x → y = cos−1 x + sin −1 x( )
1− x2 1− x2
−1
[4] y = (1 + cos−1 x) 2 → y' = 2(1 + cos−1 x)( )
1− x2
−1
sin −1 x y
[5] lim sin x , let sin −1 x = y → x = sin y → lim
x →0
= lim
y →0
=1
x →0 x x sin y
−1
tan −1 x y
[6] lim tan x , let tan −1 x = y → x = tan y → → lim = lim =1
x →0 x x →0 y →0
x tan y

sin −1 x sin −1 x x
[7] lim = lim ( )( ) =1
x →0 tan −1 x x →0 x tan −1 x
[8] lim sin −1 x
x →1

lim− sin −1 x =  / 2, lim+ sin −1 x does not exist → lim sin −1 x does not exist.
x →1 x →1 x →1

L'Hopital's Rule and The Undetermined Forms

(a) The Division Form: Let f(a)=g(a)=0 where f and g are two functions
that have derivatives on an open interval I that includes point a. Assume
also that g ( x )  0 on I if x  a , then

f ( x) f ( x)
lim = lim (if the limits in the right-side exist or tend to ).
x →a g ( x) x→a g ( x)
Also, if lim f ( x) =  and lim g ( x) =  , then, L'Hopital's rule can be
x→a x→a

applied as before.

Important Remark: Before applying L'Hopital's rule we must be sure

f ( x) 0 
that lim = or else, the rule can not be applied.
x→a g ( x) 0 

Example: For f ( x) = x + 18 and g ( x) = 3 x − 2

90
 f ( x) f ( x) 1
lim = −9 but lim =
x →0 g ( x) x → 0 g ( x ) 3

The two limits are not equal as L'Hopital's rule can not be applied in this
f

0 
case, since lim or
x →0 g 0 

Solved Example: Find each of the following limits:

1+ x −1− x / 2 0 (1 / 2)(1 + x) −1 / 2 − (1 / 2) 0
[1] lim = = lim =
x →0 x2 0 x →0 2x 0

− (1 / 4)(1 + x) −3 / 2 1
= lim =−
x →0 2 8

1 − cos x 0 sin x 0
[2] lim = = lim = = 0.
x →0 x+x 2
0 x → 0 1 + 2x 1

sin x cos x 1
[3] lim + 2
= lim+ = + = .
x →0 x x →0 2x 0

x 2 − 2x 2x − 2 −2
[4] lim = lim = = 2.
x →0 x − sin x
2 x →0 2 x − cos x 0 −1

sec x  sec x tan x 1 sin x

[5] lim = = lim − = lim − = lim − sin x = 1
x → / 2 −
1 + tan x  x → / 2 sec x2 x → / 2 sec x cos x x → / 2

tan x − x sec 2 x − 1 1 − cos 2 x

[6] lim = lim = lim
x →0 x − sin x x →0 1 − cos x x →0 cos 2 x (1 − cos x)

1 + cos x 2
= lim = =2
x →0 cos 2 x 1

xn − an n x n −1
[7] lim = lim = n a n −1
x→a x−a x → a 1

5 y + 25 − 5 5 y + 25 + 5 5 y + 25 − 25
[8] lim = lim
y →0 y 5 y + 25 + 5 y → 0
y ( 5 y + 25 + 5)

91
 5 1
= lim =
y →0
5 y + 25 + 5 2

or using L'Hopital's rule,

5
5 y + 25 − 5 (5 y + 25) −1 / 2
5 1
lim = lim 2 = lim =
y →0 y y →0 1 y →0
2 5 y + 25 2

x −4 / 3 0 (−4 / 3) x −7 / 3
[9] lim = = lim
x → sin(1 / x) 0 x → cos(1 / x)(−1 / x 2 )

4 x −1 / 3 4 1
= lim = lim 1 / 3 =0
3 x →  cos(1 / x) 3 x →  x cos( 1 / x )

x 3 + 2x 2 + x 0 3x 2 + 4 x + 1 0 6x + 4 − 2 1
[10] lim = = lim = = lim = =
x → −1 x + x − x − 1 0 x →−1 3x + 2 x − 1 0 x →−1 6 x + 2 − 4 2
3 2 2

ln( x 2 + 2 x) (2 x + 2) /( x 2 + 2 x) 2x 2 + 2x 4x + 2
[11] lim = lim+ = lim+ 2 = lim+ =1
x →0 + ln x x →0 1/ x x →0 x + 2x x →0 2 x + 2

8x2 16 x 16
[12] lim = lim = lim = −16
x →0 cos x − 1 x →0 − sin x x →0 − cos x

(b) The Multiplication and Difference Forms: The forms 0   or

 −  can be transformed to 0 / 0 or  /  using algebraic operations
and then L'Hopital's rule can be applied as discussed before.

Solved Example: Find each of the following limits:

x 0 1
[1] xlim x cot x = 0   = lim+ = = lim+ =1
→0 + x →0 tan x 0 x →0 sec 2 x

1 1 x − sin x
[2] lim ( − ) =  −  = lim
x →0 sin x x x →0 x sin x

1 − cos x sin x 0
= lim = lim = =0
x →0 sin x + x cos x x →0 2 cos x − x sin x 2

92
 1
= lim+ 1 + 2x = 1
arctan x 2
[3] lim+ (cot x arctan x) = 0   = lim+
x →0 x →0 tan x x →0 sec x

1 − sin x − cos x
[4] lim (sec x − tan x) =  −  = lim = lim − =0
x → / 2 −
x → / 2 −
cos x x → / 2 − sin x

 2 1  2 − x −1 1− x −1 1
[5] lim  −  =  −  = lim 2 = lim 2 = lim =−
 x − 1 x − 1 x →1 x − 1 x →1 x − 1
x →1 2 x →1 2 x 2

x − /2 1
[6] lim ( x −  / 2) sec x = 0   = lim = lim − = −1
x → / 2 −
x → / 2 −
cos x x → / 2 − sin x

93
APPLICATIONS OF DERIVATIVES
The Mean Value Theorem

Rolle’s Theorem

If f is continuous function on [a,b]

y f ' (c ) = 0
and differentiable on (a,b) and if

f(a)= f(b) or f(a) and f(b) are both 0,

then there exists at least a number

a c b x
c  ( a, b) such that f (c) = 0

Example: Horizontal tangents of a cubic polynomial

f ( x) = x 3 − 3 is continuous at every point of [-3,3] and is differentiable at

every point of (-3,3). Since f (−3) = f (3) = 0 , Rolle's theorem says that
f  must be zero at least once in the open interval between a=-3 and b=3.

f ( x) = x 2 − 3 = 0 → x =  3 .

The Mean Value Theorem: If f is a continuous function on [a,b] and

differentiable on (a,b), then there exists at least a number c  (a, b) such
f (b) − f (a)
that; f (c) = → f (b) = f (a) + (b − a) f (c)
b−a

If we replace b by any point x  (a, b) , we have the general form;

f ( x) = f (a) + ( x − a) f (c), c  (a, x)

A Physical Interpretation: The mean value theorem says that at some

interior point the instantaneous change f (c) must equal the average
change ( f (b) − f (a)) /(b − a) over the entire interval.

Solved Examples

[1] If f ( x) = x 3 − 3x 2 + 3x + 4 , show that f satisfies the mean value

theorem in [0,2] .

95
f is continuous and differentiable on R then, there is at least a point
c  (0,2) such that f (2) = f (0) + (2 − 0) f (c) → 6 = 4 + 2 f (c) → f (c) = 1 but

1
f ( x) = 3x 2 − 6 x + 3 → 3 c 2 − 6 c + 3 = 1 → c = 1 satisfies the mean value
3
theorem in (0,2) .

[2] For f = 5 x 2 − 20 x + 7 , find c at which f  = 0 on [1,3].

f (1) = −8 = f (3) , as f is a polynomial, it is continuous and differentiable

on R, then, f (c) = 0 → 10 c − 20 = 0 → c = 2 which is on [1,3].

[3] Prove that f ( x) = x 3 − 8 x − 5 satisfies in [1,4] the conditions of the

mean value theorem and find the number c in (1,4) that satisfies the
theorem.

Since f is a polynomial, it is continuous in [1,4] and differentiable in

(1,4), then there exists a number in (1,4) such that

f (4) − f (1) = f (c)(4 − 1) → 27 − (−12 ) = (3c 2 − 8)(3) → c =  7 → c = 7  (1,4)

[4] Determine whether the conditions of the mean value theorem are
satisfied for the following functions:

1) f ( x) = x 1 / 3 , x  [−8,3] , f is continuous but is not differentiable at x=0,

then the theorem is not applied.

2) f ( x) = x 2 , x  [0,3] → f is continuous and differentiable on [0,3]. The

theorem can be applied and we get
f (3) = f (0) + (3 − 0) f (c) → 9 = 0 + 3 f (c) → f (c) = 3 → 2c = 3 → c = 3 / 2

3) f ( x) = 1 / x, x  [−2,2] , f is not continuous, and then, is not differentiable

at x = 0 → the theorem is not applied.

4) f ( x) = x , x  [−2,2], f is continuous, but is not differentiable at

x = 0, then the theorem is not applied.

96
5) f ( x) = x , x  [1,9] → f is continuous and differentiable, then the theorem
is applied and we obtain
1
f (9) = f (1) + (9 − 1) f (c) → 3 = 1 + 8 → c =2→c=4
2 c

 x, 0  x  1
6) f ( x) =  x  [0,1] , f is not continuous at x=0:
1, x=0

f (0) = 1  lim+ x = 0 , then the theorem is not applied.

x →0

Notes:

(1) If f ( x) = 0 at each point x of an open interval (a, b) , then f ( x) = C

for all x  (a, b) where C is a constant.

(2) If f ( x) = g ( x) at each point x of an open interval (a, b) , then there

exists a constant C such that f ( x) = g ( x) + C for all x  (a, b) . That is,
f − g is a constant on ( a, b) .

Example: Find the function f (x) whose derivative is sin x .

f (x) has the same derivative as g ( x) = − cos x → f ( x) = − cos x + C . The

value of the constant C can be determined from the condition
f (0) = 2 → 2 = −1 + C → C = 3 → f ( x) = − cos x + 3 .

The ability to find functions from their rates of change is one of the very
powerful tolls of calculus, named as integration.

Increasing and Decreasing Functions:

Definition: If f is defined on an interval I and x1 and x 2 are two points

in I, then

1) f is increasing on I if f ( x2 )  f ( x1 ),  x2  x1

2) f is decreasing on I if f ( x2 )  f ( x1 ),  x2  x1

97
3) f is constant on I if f ( x2 ) = f ( x1 ),  x2  x1

Note that: The interval I may be open or closed and may be finite or
infinite. The function f may be continuous or not on I.

Example: f ( x) = x 2 , decreases on (−,0] and increases on [0, ) . f is

monotonic on (−,0] and [0, ) , but is not monotonic on (−, ) .

Theorem: If f is continuous on [a, b] and differentiable on (a, b) , then

1) f is increasing on [a, b] if f ( x)  0,  x  (a, b)

2) f is decreasing on [a, b] if f ( x)  0,  x  (a, b)

3) f is constant on [a, b] if f ( x) = 0,  x  (a, b)

Example: Find the intervals in which each of the following functions is

increasing or decreasing:

[1] f = x 3 , x  R

f  = 3x 2 which is positive x  R, then, f is increasing in R.

[2] f = x 3 − 4 x 2 + 2 in R. +++++ ----------------- ++++++

f  = 3x 2 − 8 x f'
0 8/3
→ 3x 2 − 8 x  0 → x(3x − 8)  0

f is increasing on [8 3 , )  (−,0] , f is decreasing on 0, 8 3

cos x, x0
[3] f =  , on [−  2 , ) .
 x + 1, x0

− sin x, x0
→ f= , f (0) does not exist.
1, x0

f0 for [−  2 ,0)  (0, ) → f is increasing on [− / 2, )

[4] f = x 3 − 12 x − 5 in R.

98
f  = 3 x 2 − 12 = 3( x 2 − 4) = 3( x + 2)( x − 2)

f  = 0 at x=-2, 2. These two points subdivide the domain of f into:

(−,−2), (−2,2), (2, ) on which f  is either positive or negative.

Interval ( −,−2) (−2,2) (2, )

Sign of f  + - +

Behavior of f Increasing Decreasing Increasing

[5] f = x1 / 3 ( x − 4) in R.

4 1 / 3 4 −2 / 3 4 ( x − 1)
f= x − x =
3 3 3 x2/3

f  = 0 at x = 1 and undefined at x = 0 These two points subdivide the

domain of f into: (−,0), (0,1), (1, )

Interval (−,0) (0,1) (1, )

Sign of f  - - +

Behavior of f Decreasing Decreasing Increasing

Concavity and Points of Inflection:

Although the sign of f  determines whether f is increasing or

decreasing, but it does not specify the type of such increasing or
decreasing as shown

a b a b
99
(1) f   0, increasing function (2) f   0, increasing function
In case (1) f increases with a high rate at the beginning and then low rate
at the end. As we proceed along the curve in direction of increasing x,
the curve turns to our right and falls below its tangents. The slopes of the
tangents are decreasing. In case (2) f increases with a low rate at the
beginning and then high rate at the end. As we proceed along the curve
in direction of increasing x, the curve turns to our left and rises below its
tangents. The slopes of the tangents are increasing. This turning or
bending behavior defines the concavity of the curve. Curve (1) is called
concave down and the slope of its tangent is continuously decreasing.
Curve (2) is called concave up and the slope of its tangent is continuously
increasing.

Concave up
Concave down Concave down Concave up f  increasing
f  decreasing f  decreasing f  increasing

Definition: If f is differentiable in (a, b) , then the curve y = f (x ) is

called;

1) concave down on (a, b) if f  is decreasing continuously.

2) Concave up on (a, b) if f  increasing continuously.

Solved Examples: Find the intervals of increasing or decreasing and the

concavity for each of the following functions:

[1] f = sin x, on [0,2 ]

f  = cos x, f is increasing if cos x  0 and decreasing if cos x  0 .

100
 Interval (0,  2) ( 2 , 3 2) (3 2 ,2 )

Sign of f  + - +

f Increasing on Decreasing on Increasing on

[0,  2] [ 2, 3 2] [3 2 ,2 ]

Interval (0,  2) ( 2,  ) ( , 3 2) (3 2 ,2 )

f Decreasing Decreasing Increasing Increasing

Curve Concave down Concave down Concave up Concave down

[2] f = x − 1 x → D( f ) = R − 0 → f  = 1 + 1 x 2 , x  0 → f   0, x  0

f is increasing on (−,0)  (0, )

f  increases on (−,0) → the curve is concave up.

f  decreases on (0, ) → the curve is concave down.

− x 2 + 2 x , x 1 − 2 x + 2, x 1
 
[3] f =  
→ f= ,
− 1 x 2 + 1 x + 3 , x 1 − 1 x + 1 , x 1

 4 2 4 
 2 2

f   0 on (−,1) and f   0 on (1,  ) , but f  is continuously decreasing on

R.

Interval (−,1) (1,  )

f + -

f Increasing on (−,1] Decreasing on [1,  )

Interval ( −,  )

f Decreasing

Curve Concave down

101
 5 x − 10
[4] f = x5 3 − 5 x 2 3 → f  =
3x1 3

f   0 for (−,0), (2, ), f   0 for (0,2) and it is continuously decreasing

up to x = −1 but continuously increasing in (−1,  ) .

Interval (−,0) (0,2) ( 2,  )

f + - +

f Increasing Decreasing Increasing

on (−,0] on (0,2] on [2, )

Interval ( −,−1) (−1,0) (0, )

f Decreasing Increasing Increasing

Curve Concave down Concave up Concave up

The second derivative test for concavity: If f is twice differentiable in

( a, b) , then the curve y = f (x ) is concave down on ( a, b) if f   0 and

is concave up on ( a, b) if f   0 .

Solved Examples: Use the test of the second derivative to study the
concavity for:

[1] y = x 2 is concave up on (−,  ) as y  = 2 is always positive.

[2] y = sin x on [0,2 ] → y = − sin x

Interval (0,  ) ( ,2 )

f  - +

Curve Concave down Concave up

[3] f = x − 1 / x on R, D( f ) = R − 0 → f  = − 2 x 3 , x  0

102
 Interval (−,0) (0, )

f  + -

Curve Concave up Concave down

[4] f = 3x 4 − 4 x 3 + 6 → f  = 12 x 3 − 12 x 2 → f  = 36 x 2 − 24 x
→ 36 x 2 − 24 x  0 → (3x − 2) x  0 → x = 0, x = 2 / 3

Interval (−,0) (0, 2 3) (2 3 , )

f  + - +

Curve Concave up Concave down Concave up

[5] f = − x 4 + 2 x 2 + 1 → f  = −4 x( x 2 − 1)
f  = −12 x 2 + 4 → − 12 x 2 + 4  0 → −3x 2 + 1  0 → ( x − 1 / 3 )( x + 1 / 3 )  0

Interval (−, − 1 3) (− 1 3 ,1 3) (1 3 , )

f  - + -

Curve Concave down Concave up Concave down

[6] f = x 5 3 − 5 x 2 3 → f  = 5 x 2 3 − 10 x −1 3 → f  = 10 x +4 310
3 3 9x

Interval ( −,−1) (−1,0) (0,  )

f  - + +

Curve Concave down Concave up Concave up

Note that: In most case, the curves change its concavity from down to up
or from up to down. The points at which such a change occurs are called
inflection points.

Definition: The point P(c, f (c)) on the curve of y = f (x ) is called

inflection point if the following conditions are satisfied:

1) f is continuous at c.

103
2) If there exists an open interval (a, b) that contains c such that the
curve is concave down in (a, c) and concave up in (c, b) or vice versa.

L.C.

. C
L.C.
. C Infection point

U.C U.C

( . ) (
a
. )
b
a b

The following theorem gives us a way of identifying possible points of

inflection.

Theorem: If the point (c, f(c)) is a point of inflection, then either

f ( x) = 0 or f (x) does not exist.

Test for Inflection Points:

Step 1: We find the points at which f ( x) = 0 or f (x) does not exist.

Step 2: We study the sign of f  , if exists, in an open interval that

includes every point resulted in step 1.

Step 3: The point separates between two different signs of f (x) and at
which f is continuous is an inflection point.

Remark: This mean that the two conditions ( f (c) = 0 or f (x) does not
exist) are not sufficient for point c to be an inflection point and we must
check the change of sign of f  around point c.

Solved Problems

(1) Find the inflection points for each of the following functions:

[1] f = x 3 → f  = 6 x → f  = 0 at x = 0

104
f   0 for x  0 , and f   0 for x  0 → x = 0 is an inflection point.

[2] f = x 4 → f  = 12 x 2 → f  = 0 at x = 0

But f   0 for all x → f  does not change sign around x = 0 → x = 0 is

not an inflection point.

[3] f = x x → f  = 2 x → f  = 2 x / x → f  does not exist at x = 0 , but x = 0

is an inflection point for the curve as f   0, x  0 and f   0, x  0 and

where f is continuous at x = 0 . Then, the vanishing of the second
derivative is not a necessary condition for the existence of the inflection
point.

(2) Discuss concavity and find the inflection points for each of the
following functions (if exist):

1 6x 2 − 2 −1 1
[1] y = → y 
 = =0→x= ,
1+ x 2
( x + 1)
2 3
3 3

Interval (−, − 1 3) (− 1 3 ,1 3) (1 3 , )

y + - +

Curve Concave up Concave down Concave up

Points of inflection: (− 1 3 , 3 4) , (1 3 , 3 4)

[2] y = 3x 3 − 9 x 2 − 27 x + 30 → y = 9 x 2 − 18 x − 27 → y = 18 x − 18 = 0 → x = 1

Interval (−,1) (1, )

f  - +

Curve Concave down Concave up

Point of inflection: (1,−3)

[3] y = cos x → y = sin x → y = − cos x

105
→ y  = 0 for x =  2 + 2n , n  Z but sign of y changes from (-) to (+) as

passing through these points, then, x =  2 + 2n , n  Z are inflection

points.

4( x − 2) 4( x + 4)
[4] f = x1/ 3 ( x − 8) → f  = 23
→ f  =
3x 9x5 3

→ f  = 0 at x = −4 , and f  does not exist at x = 0 .

Interval ( −,−4] [−4,0] [0, )

f  + - +

Curve Concave up Concave down Concave up

→ (0,0), (−4,12 3 4 ) are inflection points.

[5] f = − x 5 − 5 x 4 → f  = −5 x 4 − 20 x 3

→ f  = −20 x 3 − 60 x 2 = −20 x 2 ( x + 3) = 0 → (−3,−162 ), (0,0)

Interval ( −,−3] [−3,0] [0,  )

f  + - -

Curve Concave up Concave down Concave up

→ (−3,−162 ) is an inflection point, but (0,0) is not an inflection point.

Maximum and Minimum Values

Local Extreme Values

Definition: We call f (c) , where c  D( f ) a local maximum for the

function f if there exists an open interval (a, b) that contains c such that
f ( x)  f (c) for all x  ( a, b) . If f ( x)  f (c) for all x  ( a, b) , we call f (c ) a

local minimum for f.

106
 y
y

f(c) f(c)

x x
a c b a c b

Conditions for the existence of local extreme of a function f :

Theorem: If f has a local maximum or minimum at an interior point c,

then, f (c) = 0 or f (c) does not exist. This interior point is called a
critical point. The existence of such a critical point is a necessary but not
sufficient for the existence of a local extreme of f.

Example: Find the critical points of f ( x) = x 5 / 3 − 5 x 2 / 3

5 10 −1 / 3 5 ( x − 2)
D( f ) = R, f ( x) = x 2 / 3 − x =
3 3 3 x1 / 3

The critical points are x=2 and x=0.

Example: Find the critical points of f ( x) = x 3 + 4 x − 1

f ( x) = 3 x 2 + 4 , then f  has no real roots and, in turn, no critical points

exist.

Note: The only places where a function f can possibly have a local
extreme value are:

1. Interior points where f  = 0 .

2. Interior points where f  is undefined.

3. Endpoints of the domain of f .

107
The First Derivative Test for Local Extreme of f :

If c is a critical point for f which is continuous at c and differentiable in

an open interval containing c regardless of c itself, then;

1) f has a local minimum at c if the sign of f  changes from negative

before c to positive after it.

2) f has a local maximum at c if the sign of f  changes from positive

before c to negative after it.

3) If f  keeps same sign before and after c, then f(c) is not a local
extreme.

Example: Find the extreme of each of the following functions:

7( x − 2)( x + 4)
[1] f ( x) = ( x − 2) 2 3 x + 5 → f ( x) =
3( x + 5) 2 / 3

Then the critical points are 2, -4,-5 and f is continuous at the three
points. Thus

Interval (-  ,-5) (-5,-4) (-4,2) (2,  )

f (x) + + - +

Point (-4,36) is a local maximum, and point (2,0) is a local minimum.

5 ( x − 2)
[2] Find the extreme of f ( x) = x 5 / 3 − 5 x 2 / 3 → f ( x) = 1/ 3
3 x

The critical points are at x=0,2

Interval (-  ,0) (0,2) (2,  )

f (x) + - +

Point (0,0) is a local maximum, point (2,-4.76) is a local minimum.

[3] f ( x) = x 5 / 3 (9 − x) → f ( x) = 27 −2 /85 x
5x

108
The critical points are 0, 27/8 and at which f is continuous.

Interval (-  , 0) (0 , 27/8) (27/8 ,  )

f (x) + + -

Point (27/8, 11.67) is a local maximum

4 − 2x2
[4] f ( x) = x 4 − x 2 , D(f )=[-2,2] → f ( x) =
4 − x2

The critical points are − 2 and 2 and at which f is continuous

Interval (-2,- 2 ) (- 2 , 2 ) ( 2 ,2)

f (x) - + -

x=- 2 is a local minimum→f (- 2 ) = -2

x= 2 is a local maximum →f ( 2 ) = 2

[5] f ( x) = x + 9 / x , D(f )=R-{0}, f ( x) = ( x 2 − 9) / x 2

The critical points are x=-3,3 and at which f is continuous

Interval (-  ,-3) (-3,0) (0,3) (3,  )

f (x) + - - +

x=-3 is a local maximum → f(-3)=-6, x=3 is a local minimum → f(3)=6

1
[6] f ( x) = x 4 − 3x 2 + 2 , D(f )=R, f ( x) = 2 x 3 − 6 x .
2

The critical points are x=0, x=  3

Interval (-  ,- 3 ) (- 3 ,0) (0, 3 ) ( 3 ,)

f (x) - + - +

x=- 3 is a local minimum→f(- 3 )=-5/2

109
x=0 is a local maximum →f(0)=2,

x= 3 is a local minimum →f( 3 )=-5/2

[7] f ( x) = x 4 − 8 x 3 + 22 x 2 − 24 x + 12 → D(f )=R, f ( x) = 4 x 3 − 24 x 2 + 44 x − 24

The critical points are x=1, 2, 3 at which f is continuous

Interval (-  ,1) (1,2) (2,3) (3,  )

f (x) - + - +

x=1 is a local minimum → f (1)=3, x=2 is a local maximum → f (2)=4

x=3 is a local minimum → f (3)=3

x 2 − 4x + 9
[8] f ( x) = → f ( x) = 8( x − 3)( x + 3) /( x 2 + 4 x + 9) 2
x + 4x + 9
2

The critical points are x=3,-3

Interval (-  ,-3) (-3,3) (3,  )

f (x) + - +

x=-3 is a local maximum → f (-3)=5,

x=3 is a local minimum → f (3)=1/5

The Second-Derivative Test for Local Extreme of f :

Suppose that f (c) = 0 and f (c ) exists, then

(1) If f (c)  0 , then f(c) is a local minimum.

(2) If f (c)  0 , then f(c) is a local maximum.

(3) If f (c) = 0 , then test fails.

Example: For f ( x) = 2 x 3 − 3x 2 − 12 x + 5 we have

f ( x) = 6 x 2 − 6 x − 12 = 6( x 2 − x − 2) = 6( x − 2)( x + 1) → f ( x) = 12 x − 6

110
The critical numbers are 2 and -1; the first derivative is 0 at each of these
points. Since f (2) = 18  0 and f (−1) = −18  0 , we can conclude from
the second-derivative test that f(2)=-15 is a local minimum and f(-1)=12
is a local maximum.

Comparing the First- and Second-Derivative Tests

The first-derivative test is more general than the second-derivative test.

For example, we can apply the first-derivative test even at critical points
where the function is not differentiable (provided, of course, that is
continuous there). In contrast, the second-derivative test has certain
limitations:

(a) It can be applied only at critical points where the function is twice
differentiable and if f (c) does exists.

(b) Information is obtained only if f (c)  0 .

Example: Consider the function f ( x) = x 4 / 3 . We have

4 1/ 3
f ( x) = x ,then f (0) = 0, f ( x)  0 for x<0, f ( x)  0 for x>0.
3

By the first-derivative test, f(0)=0 is a local minimum. We can not get

4
this information from the second-derivative because f ( x) = x −2 / 3 is not
9
defined at x=0.

Endpoint and Absolute Extreme Values

Endpoint Maxima and Minima

For functions defined on an open interval or on a union of open intervals,

the critical points are the points where the derivative is 0 or where the
derivative does not exist. Here we consider functions defined on a closed

111
or half-closed interval, [a, b], [a, b), (a, b], [a, ), or ( −, b] or on a union
of such intervals. Endpoints can give rise to what are called endpoint
maxima and endpoint minima.

Definition: Endpoint Maxima and Minima

If c is an endpoint of the domain of f, then f is said to have an endpoint

maximum at c if f (c)  f ( x) for all x in the domain of f sufficiently close
to c. It is said to have an endpoint minimum at c if f (c)  f ( x) for all x in
the domain of f sufficiently close to c.

endpoint endpoint
endpoint minimum minimum
maximum

a b a endpointb
endpoint maximum
minimum m

a b
Endpoints are usually tested either by calculating a one-sided derivative
at the endpoint or by examining the sign of the derivative at nearby
points. Suppose, for example, that a is the left endpoint and f is
continuous from the right at a. If f + (a)  0 , or if f ( x)  0 for all x
sufficiently close to a, then f decreases on an interval of the form
[a, a +  ) and therefore f (a ) must be an endpoint maximum. On the other

hand, if f + (a)  0 , or if f ( x)  0 for all x sufficiently close to a, then f

112
increases on an interval of the form [a, a +  ) and thus f (a ) must be an
endpoint minimum. Similar criteria can be used for the right endpoint at
b using the sign of f − (b) .

Absolute Maxima and Minima

Whether or not a function f has a local or endpoint extreme value at

some point depends entirely on the behavior of f for x close to that point.
Absolute extreme values, which we define, depend on the behavior of the
function on its entire domain.

Definition: Absolute Extreme Values

A function f is said to have an absolute maximum at d if

f (d )  f ( x) for all x in the domain of f,

f is said to have an absolute minimum at d if

f (d )  f ( x) for all x in the domain of f,

where d may be an interior point or an endpoint.

Example: f ( x) = cos x on [− / 2,  / 2] has an absolute maximum of (1)

and absolute minimum of (0) (twice).

Example: f ( x) = sin x on [− / 2,  / 2] has an absolute maximum of (1)

and absolute minimum of (-1) (twice).

Theorem: The Extreme Value Theorem

If f is continuous on a closed finite interval [a, b] , then f attains both an

absolute maximum value and an absolute minimum value in [a, b] .

How to find the absolute extreme of a continuous function f on a finite

closed interval:

(1) Evaluate f at all critical points and endpoints.

113
 (2) Take the largest and smallest of these values

Example: Find the absolute extreme of f ( x) = x 2 on [−2, 1]

f ( x) = 2 x = 0 → x = 0 is the only critical point. We need to check the

value of the function at x = 0 , at the endpoints x = −2, x = 1

f (0) = 0, f (−2) = 4, f (1) = 1

Then, the function has an absolute maximum of (4) at x = −2, and has an
absolute minimum of (0) at x = 0

Example: Find the absolute extreme of f ( x) = x 2 / 3 on [−2, 3]

2 −1/ 3 2
f ( x) = x = 1 / 3 has no zeros but is undefined at is x = 0 ,the only
3 3x
critical point. We need to check the value of the function at x = 0 , at the
endpoints x = −2, x = 3

f (0) = 0, f (−2) = 41 / 3 , f (3) = 3 2 / 3

Then, the function has an absolute maximum of ( 91 / 3 ) at x = 3, and has an

absolute minimum of (0) at x = 0 . At x = 1 , f has a local maximum.

In general, f takes on an absolute extreme value at a critical point or at

an endpoint. However, there are special conditions that guarantee the
existence of absolute extreme values. The absolute extreme values of a
continuous function f on a bounded closed interval [a,b] can be obtained
as follows:

Step 1: Find the critical points c1 , c2 ,... of f in the open interval (a,b).

Step 2: Calculate f (a ), f (c1 ), f (c2 ),..., f (b) .

Step 3: The largest of the numbers found in step 2 is the absolute

maximum value of f and the smallest is the absolute minimum.

114
An absolute maximum (or minimum) is also a local maximum (or
minimum). Being the largest value overall, it is also the largest value in
its immediate neighborhood. Hence, a list of local maxima will
automatically include the absolute maximum if there is one. Similarly, a
list of local minima will include the absolute minimum if there is one.

Solved Examples

[1] Find the critical points and classify all extreme values of
1 4
f ( x) = 1 + 4 x 2 − x , x  [−1,3] .
2

Since f is continuous on the bounded closed interval [-1,3], we know

that f has an absolute maximum and an absolute minimum. To find the
critical points of f in (-1,3), we differentiate:

f ( x) = 8 x − 2 x 3 = 2 x(4 − x 2 ) = 2 x(2 − x)(2 + x)

f (x ) is defined for all x  (−1,3) and f ( x) = 0 at x=0 and x=2. Thus, 0
and 2 are the critical points. The sign of f  and the behavior of f are as
follows:

Interval (−1,0) (0,2) ( 2,3)

f - + -

f Decreasing Increasing Decreasing

Therefore f (−1) = 1 + 4(−1) 2 − 1 (−1) 4 = 9 is an endpoint maximum;

2 2

f ( 0) = 1 is a local minimum; f (2) = 1 + 4(2) 2 − 1 (2) 4 = 9 is a local

2
1 7
maximum; f (3) = 1 + 4(3) 2 − (4) 4 = − is an endpoint minimum.
2 2

115
The smallest of these extreme, f (3) = −7 / 2 , is the absolute minimum; the
largest of these extreme, f (2) = 9 , is the absolute maximum.

[2] Find the critical points and classify all extreme values of the function
 2 1
 x + 2 x + 2, −  x  0
f ( x) = x − 2 x + 2 = 
2
2
 x − 2 x + 2,
2
0 x2


Since f is continuous on its entire domain, which is the bounded closed

interval [-1/2,2]. We know that f has an absolute maximum and an
absolute minimum. This function is differentiable on the open interval
 1
2 x + 2, − x0
(-1/2,2), except at x=0: f ( x) =  2

2 x − 2, 0 x2

f (0) does not exist. This makes x=0 a critical point. Since f ( x) = 0 at

x=1, then 1 is a critical point. The sign of f  and the behavior of f are as
follows:

Interval (−1 / 2,0) (0,1) (1,2)

f + - +

f Increasing Decreasing Increasing

Therefore f (− 1 ) = 1 − 1 + 2 = 5 is an endpoint minimum;

2 4 4

f (0) = 2 is a local maximum; f (1) = 1 − 2 + 2 = 1 is a local minimum;

f ( 2) = 2 is an endpoint maximum; the smallest of these extreme,

f (1) = 1 , is the absolute minimum; the largest of these extreme,

f (0) = f ( 2) = 2 , is the absolute maximum.

116
Behavior of f as x →  : We have four cases:

(1) As x → ; f ( x) →  . As x increases without bound f(x) becomes

arbitrarily large. (as x → ; x 2 →  ).

(2) As x → ; f ( x) → − . As x increases without bound f(x) becomes

arbitrarily large negative. (as x → ; − x 6 → − ).

(3) As x → −; f ( x) →  . As x decreases without bound f(x) becomes

arbitrarily large. (as x → −; 1 − x →  ).

(4) As x → −; f ( x) → − . As x decreases without bound f(x) becomes

arbitrarily large negative. (as x → −; x → − ).

3

Solved Examples

[1] As x → ; 3x 4 →   3x 4 − 100 x 3 + 2 x − 5 →  .

[2] As x → −; 5 x 3 → −  5 x 3 + 12 x 2 + 80 → − .

Finally, we point out that if f (x) →  , then f can not have an absolute
maximum value, and if f (x) → − , then f can not have an absolute
minimum value

Summary of Finding All the Extreme Values (Local, Endpoint, and

Absolute) of a Continuous Function f:

Step 1: Find the critical points- the interior numbers c at which

f (c) = 0 or f (c ) does not exist.

Step 2: Test each endpoint of the domain by examining the sign of the
first derivative nearby.

Step 3: Test each critical point c by examining the sign of the first
derivative on both sides of c (first-derivative test) or by checking the sign
of the second derivative at c itself (second-derivative test)

117
Step 4: If the domain of f is unbounded, determine the behavior of f as
x →  or as x → − .

Step 5: Determine whether any of the endpoint extremes and local

extremes are absolute extremes.

Solved Examples

[1] Find the critical points and classify all extreme values
of f ( x) = 6 x1 / 2 − x 3 / 2

3 3(2 − x)
The domain is [0, ) . On (0, ) , f ( x) = 3x −1/ 2 − x1/ 2 =
2 2 x

Since f ( x) = 0 at x=2, then 2 is a critical point. The sign of f  and the

behavior of f are as follows:

Interval (0,2) ( 2, )

f + -

f Increasing Decreasing

Therefore f (0) = 0 is an endpoint minimum; f (2) = 6 2 − 2 2 = 4 2 is a

local maximum; since f (x) → − as x →  the function has no absolute
minimum value. Since f increases on [0,2] and decreases on [2,  ) , the
local maximum is the absolute maximum.

[2] Find the critical points and classify all extreme values of

1 3
f ( x) = ( x 3 − x 2 − 6 x + 2), x  [−2, ) .
4 2

Solution

1 3
f ( x) = (3x 2 − 3x − 6) = ( x + 1)( x − 2)
4 4

118
Since f ( x) = 0 at x=-1 and x=2, the numbers -1 and 2 are the critical
points. The sign of f  and the behavior of f are as follows:

Interval ( −2,−1) (−1,2) ( 2,  )

f + - +

f Increasing Decreasing Increasing

Therefore f (−2) = 0 is an endpoint minimum; f (−1) = 11 is a local

8

maximum; f (2) = −2 is a local minimum; the function takes on no

absolute maximum value since f (x) →  as x →  ; f (2) = −2 is the
absolute minimum value of f .

[3] Find the critical points and classify all extreme values of
f ( x) = sin x − sin 2 x, x  [0,2 ] .

Solution

On (0,2 ) : f ( x) = cos x − 2 sin x cos x = cos x(1 − 2 sin x)

f ( x) = 0 when cosx=0, which gives x=π/2 and 3π/2, and when sinx=1/2,
which gives x=π/6 and 5π/6. Thus, the numbers π/6, π/2, 5π/6 and 3π/2
are critical points. The sign of f  and the behavior of f are as

Interval (0,  / 6) ( / 6,  / 2) ( / 2,5 / 6) (5 / 6,3 / 2) (3 / 2,2 )

f + - + - +

f Inc. Dec. Inc. Dec. Inc.

f ( 0) = 0 is an endpoint minimum; f ( / 6) = 1 / 4 is a local

maximum; f ( / 2) = 0 is a local minimum; f (5 / 6) = 1 / 4 is a local
maximum; f (3 / 2) = −2 is a local minimum; f (2 ) = 0 is an endpoint

119
maximum; f ( / 6) = f (5 / 6) = 1 / 4 is the absolute maximum of f, and
f (3 / 2) = −2 is the absolute minimum.

Vertical and Horizontal Asymptotes (revisited)

Definition: The vertical line x=c is a vertical asymptote for a function f

if any one of the following conditions hold:

f (x) →  or −  as x → c ; f (x) →  or −  as x → c − ;

f (x) →  or −  as x → c + .

Typically to locate the vertical asymptotes for a function f, find the values
x=c at which f is discontinuous and examine the behavior of f as x
approaches c.

Solved Examples

3x + 6 3( x + 2)
[1] The function f ( x) = = is defined and continuous
x − 2 x − 8 ( x + 2)( x − 4)
2

everywhere except at x=4 and x=-2.

lim f ( x) = −, lim+ f ( x) =  , thus x=4 is a vertical asymptote.

x →4 − x →4

1
lim f ( x) = − (exists), then f does not a vertical asymptote at x=-2.
x →−2 2

[2] The function f ( x) = tan x is defined and continuous everywhere

except at x = (2n + 1) / 2, n = 0,  1,  2,... ,

lim f ( x) = , lim f ( x) = −
x →( / 2 ) − x →( / 2 ) +

Thus the line x =  / 2 is a vertical asymptote for the tangent function.

Indeed, the lines x = (2n + 1) / 2, n = 0,  1,  2,... are all vertical asymptotes
for the tangent function.

120
It is also possible for a function to have a horizontal asymptote.

Definition: If there exists a number L such that f ( x) → L as x →  or

f ( x) → L as x → − , then the horizontal line y=L is called a horizontal

asymptote.

Solved Examples

x
[1] For the function f ( x) =
x−2

lim f ( x) = −, lim+ f ( x) =  , the line x=2 is a vertical asymptote.

x →2 − x →2

x x 1
lim f ( x) = lim = lim = lim =1
x →  x →  x − 2 x→ 2 x →  2
x(1 − ) (1 − )
x x

The line y=1 is a horizontal asymptote.

cos x
[2] For the function f ( x) =
x

lim f ( x) = −, lim+ f ( x) =  , then the line x=0 is a vertical asymptote.

x→0− x→0

cos x
lim f ( x) = lim =0 (as cos x  1 for all x).
x→ x→ x x x

The line y=0 (the x-axis) is a horizontal asymptote.

[3] Find the vertical and horizontal asymptotes, if any, of the function
x +1− x x +1− x
f ( x) = =
x 2 − 2x +1 ( x − 1) 2

The domain of f is 0  x  , x  1 .

lim f ( x) =  , thus x=1 is a vertical asymptote.

x→1

1 1 1 1
x(1 +− ) 1+ −
x +1− x x x x x
lim f ( x) = lim 2 = lim = lim =0
x → x → x − 2 x + 1 x → 2 2 1 x → 2 1
x (1 − + ) x (1 − + )
x x2 x x2

121
The line y=0 is a horizontal asymptote.

Vertical Tangents; Vertical Cusps

In this section we assume that f is continuous at c and differentiable at

x  c.

Definition: We say that the graph of f has a vertical tangent at the point
(c,f(c)) if

as x → c, f ( x) →  or f (x) → − .

Definition: We say that the graph of f has a “vertical cusp” at the point
(c,f(c)) if

as x → c − , f ( x) → − and as x → c + , f ( x) →  ,

or, as x → c − , f ( x) →  and as x → c + , f ( x) → − .

Solved Examples

[1] The graph of f ( x) = x 1 / 3 has a vertical tangent at the point (0,0) since
1 −2 / 3
f ( x) = x →  as x → 0 .
3

[2] The graph of f ( x) = (2 − x) has a vertical tangent at the point (2,0)

1/ 5

1
since f ( x) = − (2 − x) −4 / 5 → − as x → 2 .
5

[3] The graph of f ( x) = x 2 / 3 has a vertical cusp at the point (0,0) since
2 −1 / 3
f ( x) = x → − as x → 0 − and f (x) → + as x → 0 + .
3

[4] The graph of f ( x) = 2 − ( x − 1) 2 / 5 has a vertical cusp at the point (1,2)

2
since f ( x) = − ( x − 1) −3 / 5 →  as x → 1− and f (x) → − as x → 1+ .
5

122
[5] The graph of f ( x) = x 3 − 1 has a corner at x=1 (there is no vertical

− 3x 2 , x  1
tangent here and no vertical cusp) as f ( x) =  2
3x , x 1

and as x → 1− , f ( x) → − 3 and as x → 1+ , f ( x) → 3 .

Some Curve Sketching

In this section we learn how to sketch an accurate graph of a somewhat

complicated function without having to plot point after point using the
knowledge we have learned about the function as the extreme of the
function, intervals of increasing or decreasing, concavity and points of
inflection etc. Before attempting to sketch the graph of a function, we try
to gather the necessary information and record it in an organized form.
Here is an outline of the procedure we will follow.

1. Domain of f : Determine the domain of f ; identify endpoints; find the

vertical asymptotes of f ; determine the behavior of f as x →  ; find
the horizontal asymptotes.

2. Intercepts: Determine the x- and y- intercepts of the graph; the y-

intercept is the value f(0); the x- intercepts are the solutions of the
equation f(x)=0.

3. Symmetry and periodicity: If f is an even function (f(-x)=f(x)), then

the graph of f is symmetric with respect to the y-axis; and if f is an odd
function (f(-x)=-f(x)), then the graph is symmetric with respect to the
origin. If f is periodic with period p, then the graph replicates itself on
intervals of length p.

123
4. Calculate f  : Determine the critical numbers of f ; examine the sign
of f  to determine the intervals on which f increases and the intervals on
which f decreases; determine vertical tangents and cusps.

5. Calculate f  : Examine the sign of f  to determine the intervals on

which the graph is concave up and the intervals on which the graph is
concave down; determine the points of inflection.

6. Plot the points of interest in a preliminary sketch: intercept points,

extreme points (local extreme points, absolute extreme points, endpoint
extreme points), and points of inflection.

7. Sketch the graph by connecting the points in the preliminary sketch;

make sure the curve “rises,” “falls,” and “bends” in the proper way. It
will be a worthwhile exercise to verify your sketches by using a graphing
utility to plot the graph.

Solved Examples

[1] Sketch the graph of the function f ( x) = 1 x 4 − 2 x 2 + 7 .

4 4

(1) Domain: This is a polynomial function, so its domain is the set of all
1 4
real numbers. Since the leading term is x , f (x) →  as x →  .
4
There are no asymptotes.

(2) Intercepts: The y-intercepts is f (0) = 7 .To find the x-intercepts, we

4

solve the equation f ( x) = 1 x 4 − 2 x 2 + 7 = 0 → x 4 − 8x 2 + 7 = 0 → ( x 2 − 1)( x 2 − 7) = 0

4 4

→ ( x + 1)( x − 1)( x + 7 )( x − 7 ) = 0 , thus, the x-intercepts are x = 1 and x= 7.

(3) Symmetry/periodicity: Since

1 7 1 7
f (− x) = (− x) 4 − 2(− x) 2 + = x 4 − 2 x 2 + = f ( x)
4 4 4 4

124
f is an even function and its graph is symmetric with respect to the y-
axis; f is not a periodic function.

(4) First derivative: f ( x) = x 3 − 4 x = x( x 2 − 4) = x( x + 2)( x − 2)

The critical numbers of f are x = 0, x = 2 . The sign of f  and behavior

of f :

Interval ( −,−2) (−2,0) (0,2) ( 2, )

f - + - +

f Decreasing Increasing Decreasing Increasing

(5) Second derivative: f ( x) = 3x 2 − 4 = 3( x − 2 / 3 )( x + 2 / 3 )

The sign of f  and behavior of the graph of f :

Interval (−,−2 / 3 ) (−2 / 3 ,2 / 3 ) ( 2 / 3 , )

f  + - +

Curve Concave up Concave down Concave up

2
x= are points of inflection.
3

7
(6) Points of interest: (0, ) : y-intercept, (−1,0), (1,0), (− 7 ,0), ( 7 ,0) : x-
4
7 9 9
intercept, (0, ) : local maximum point, (−2,− ), (2,− ) : local and absolute
4 4 4

minimum points, (−2 / 3 ,−17 / 36), (2 / 3 ,−17 / 36) : points of inflection.

(7) Sketch the graph: Since the graph is symmetric with respect to the y-
axis, we can sketch the graph for x  0 , and then obtain the graph for x  0
by a reflection in the y-axis.

125
 y  7
 0, 
 4

-3 -2 (-1,0) (1,0) 2 3

 9
,−
 9
 − -3.14
-6.28 -4.71 2,− -1.57 cosx 2
0 1.571 
 4  3.142
44.712 6.283

[2] Sketch the graph of the function f ( x) = x 4 − 4 x 3 + 1, − 1  x  5 .

(1) Domain: The domain is [-1,5); -1 is the left endpoint, and 5 is a

“missing” right endpoint. There are no asymptotes. We do not consider
the behavior of f as x →  since f is defined only on [-1,5).

(2) Intercepts: The y-intercepts is f (0) = 1 .To find the x-intercepts, we

solve the equation x 4 − 4 x 3 + 1 = 0 . We can not do this exactly, but we can
verify that f (0)  0 and f (1)  0 and that f (3)  0 and f (4)  0 . Thus there
are x-intercepts in the interval (0,1) and in the interval (3,4). We could
find approximate values for these intercepts by the Newton-Raphson
method, but we will not do this since our aim here is a sketch of the
graph, not a detailed drawing.

(3) Symmetry/periodicity: The graph is not symmetric with respect to the

y-axis, or with respect to the origin f (− x)   f ( x) ; f is not periodic.

(4) First derivative: For x  (−1,5) , f ( x) = 4 x 3 − 12 x 2 = 4 x 2 ( x − 3)

The critical numbers of f are x = 0, x = 3 . The sign of f  and behavior of

f:

Interval (−1,0) (0,3) (3,5)

f - - +

F Decreasing Decreasing Increasing

126
(5) Second derivative: f ( x) = 12 x 2 − 24 x = 12 x( x − 2)
The sign of f  and behavior of the graph of f :

Interval (−1,0) (0,2) (2,5)

f  + - +

Curve Concave up Concave down Concave up

x = 0, x = 2 are points of inflection.

(6) Points of interest:

(0,1) : y-intercept; point of inflection with horizontal tangent.

(−1,6) : endpoint local maximum point, ( 2,−15) : point of inflection.

(3,−26 ) : local and absolute minimum point.

As x approaches the missing endpoint 5 from the left, f(x) increases

toward a value of 126 where there is a local and absolute maximum.

(7) Sketch the graph.

y

(5,126)
(-1,6) (0,1)

(2,-15)

(3,-26)

127
SOLVED PROBLEMS
(1) Find the domain of each of the following functions:

[1] y = x 2 − 1
2

D( y ) = R
x +1

2x
[2] y = D( y ) = R − {−1,2}
( x − 2)( x + 1)

1
[3] y = D( y ) = (−3, 3)
9 − x2
−−−−−+++++−−−−
x x
[4] y = D( y ) = [0, 2) 0 2
2− x

x +1 x +1
[5] y = = D( y ) = R − {−3,2}
x + x − 6 ( x + 3)( x − 2)
2

[6] y = 4 − x , for y to be a real number, we need

2

x −1

4 − x 2  0 and x  1→ − 2  x  2, x  1→ D( y ) = [−2,2] − 1

[7] y = 5 − 4 x − x 2

5 − 4 x − x 2 = 9 − ( x + 2) 2 → 9 − ( x + 2) 2  0

→ ( x + 2) 2  9 → −3  x + 2  3 → −5  x  1 → D( y ) = [−5, 1]

(2) Let f = 4 + x + 3 and g = 5 − x − 2

(a) Find the domain of f and g.

(b) Determine the domain of f + g and specify ( f + g)(x).

(c) Determine the domain of f /g and specify (f /g)(x).

(d) Determine the domain of 3 f and specify (3 f )(x).

(e) Determine the domain of 4 f -3g and specify (4 f -3g)(x).

Solution:

(a) For f : x + 3  0 → x  −3 → D( f ) = [−3, ) .

129
For g: 5 − x  0 → x  5 → D( g ) = (−,5] .

(b) D( f +g)=D( f )  D(g)= [−3, )  (−,5] = [−3,5] .

( f +g)(x)=f(x)+g(x)= 2 + x + 3 + 5 − x .

(c) For f /g we exclude from [-3,5] the values of x at which g(x)=0. It is

x=1.

D( f /g)= D ( f )  D(g)-{1}= [−3,5] − {1} .

f ( x) 4 + x + 3
( f /g)(x)= = .
g ( x) 5− x −2

(d) D(3f )=D( f )= [−3,  )

(3f )(x)= 3(4 + x + 3 ) = 12 + 3 x + 3

(e) D(3f -4g)=D( f )  D( g )= [−3,5] .

(3f - 4g)(x)=3f(x) - 4g(x)= 20 + 3 x + 3 − 4 5 − x .

(3) Find the limits of each of the following functions:

x 3 − 27 ( x − 3)( x 2 + 3x + 9) x 2 + 3x + 9 9
[1] lim 2 = lim = lim =
x →3 x − 9 x →3 ( x − 3)( x + 3) x →3 x+3 2

( x + h) 2 − x 2 x 2 + 2hx + h 2 − x 2 2hx + h 2
[2] lim = lim = lim = lim (2 x + h) = 2 x.
h →0 h h →0 h h →0 h h →0

x2 − 4 0
[3] xlim = =0
→ −2 x2 + 4 8

x2 + x − 2 ( x − 1)( x + 2) x+2
[4] lim = lim = lim which does not exist as;
x →1 ( x − 1) 2 x →1 ( x − 1) 2 x →1 x − 1

x+2 x+2
lim− = −, lim+ =
x →1 x −1 x →1 x − 1

x−2 + + + + − − − − − −x+ + + +
[5] lim does not exist as f is not x
x →2
x2 − 4 -2 2

130
defined in the left neighborhood of x=2.

x2 − 4 ( x − 2)( x + 2) x+2
[6] lim = lim = lim = −4.
x →2 x − 5 x + 6 x →2 ( x − 2)( x − 3) x →2 x − 3
2

[7] lim x + 3 − 3 = lim x + 3 − 3 ( x + 3 + 3 )

x →0 x →0x x x+3+ 3

x +3−3 1 1
= lim = lim =
x →0
x( x + 3 + 3 ) x →0
x+3+ 3 2 3

1 4 x+2−4 x−2 1 1
[8] lim ( − 2 ) = lim 2 = lim = lim =
x →2 x−2 x −4 x → 2 x −4 x → 2 ( x − 2)( x + 2) x → 2 x+2 4

x2 + 5 − 3 x2 + 5 − 3 x2 + 5 + 3
[9] lim = lim ( )
x →2 x 2 − 2x x →2 x 2 − 2x x2 + 5 + 3

x2 − 4 ( x − 2)( x + 2) 4 1
= lim = lim = =
x →2
( x − 2 x)( x + 5 + 3)
2 2 x →2
x( x − 2)( x + 5 + 3)
2 2(6) 3

[10] lim ( x 2 + x − x) = lim ( x 2 + x − x)( x + x + x ) = lim x + x − x

2 2 2

x → x → x →
2
x +x+x
2
x +x+x

x (1 / x) 1 1
= lim = lim = . ( x2 = x )
x →
x 2 + x + x (1 / x) x→ 1 + 1 / x + 1 2

3x − 7
[11] lim does not exist.
x→2 x2 − 4

3x − 4 1 /( x 2 / 3 ) 3x 1 / 3 − 4 / x 2 / 3 3x 1 / 3 − 4 / x 2 / 3
[12] lim 2/3
= lim = lim = .
x → 3
x 2 − 1 1 /( x ) x → 3 ( x 2 − 1) / x 2 x →
1 − 1/ x 2

2 x + 1 (1 / x) 2 + 1/ x 2 + 1/ x
[13] lim = lim = lim =2
x → 3
x 3 − 2 (1 / x) x→ 3 ( x 3 − 2) / x 3 x→ 3 1 − 2 / x 3

3x + 2 (1 / x) 3+ 2/ x 3+ 2/ x
[14] = lim = lim = −3 ( x = − x)
2
lim
x → − → − → −
x − 1 (1 / x)
2 x
− ( x − 1) / x
2 2 x
− 1 − 1/ x 2

[15] xlim (3x 4 − x 2 + x − 7) = lim 3x 4 = 

→ − x → −

[16] xlim (2 x 3 − 12 x 2 + x − 7) = lim 2 x 3 = −

→ − x → −

131
[17] lim (2 x 11 − 5 x 6 + 3x 2 + 1) = lim 2 x 11 = 
x → x →

2 x + 5 (1 / x 2 ) 2 / x + 5 / x2
[18] lim = lim =0
x → x 2 − 7 x + 3 (1 / x 2 ) x → 1 − 7 / x + 3 / x 2

3x 2 − 4 x + 2 3
[19] lim =
x → 7x2 + 5 7

4 x 5 − 1 (1 / x 3 ) 4x 2 − 1/ x3
[20] lim = lim =
x → 3 x 3 + 7 (1 / x 3 ) x → 3 + 7 / x 3

4 x − 1 (1 / x) 4 − 1/ x 4 − 1/ x
[21] lim = lim = lim = 4.
x → x → x →
x +2
2 (1 / x ) ( x + 2) / x
2 2
1+ 2/ x 2

4 x − 1 (1 / x) 4 − 1/ x 4 − 1/ x
[22] lim = lim = lim = −4
x →−
x 2 + 2 (1 / x) x→− − ( x 2 + 2) / x 2 x→− − 1 + 2 / x 2

x 2 + 5 (1 / x 2 ) ( x 2 + 5) / x 4 1/ x 2 + 5 / x 4
[23] lim = lim = lim =0
x → 3x 2 − 2 (1 / x 2 ) x→ 3 − 2 / x 2 x → 3 − 2 / x2

7 x − 4 (1 / x 3 / 2 ) 7 / x1 / 2 − 4 / x 3 / 2
[24] lim 3/ 2
= lim =0
x →
x 3 + 5 (1 / x ) x→ ( x 3 + 5) / x 3

3
[25] lim
x →4 x−4
3 3 3
lim+ = , lim− = − → lim does not exist.
x →4 x−4 x →4 x − 4 x →4 x − 4

1 1
[26] lim = lim
x →3 x − 7 x + 12 x →3 ( x − 3)( x − 4)
2

1 1 1
lim = , lim+ = − → lim 2 does not exist.
x →3 − ( x − 3)( x − 4) x → 3 ( x − 3)( x − 4) x → 3 x − 7 x + 12

1
[27] lim = .
x →3 ( x − 3) 2

7 x − 2, x  2
[28] lim f, f =
x→2
3x + 5, x  2

132
lim f = lim− 3x + 5 = 11, lim+ f = lim+ 7 x − 2 = 12
x →2 − x →2 x →2 x →2

lim f does not exist.

x→2 3-
[29] Find lim f , lim f ,
x →2 + x →2 −
2-
1-
where f is as shown.
2 x
lim f = 1, lim− f = 3
x →2 + x →2

x6 + 5 + x3 ( x 6 + 5) − x 6
[30] lim ( x 6 + 5 − x 3 ) = lim ( x 6 + 5 − x 3 )( ) = lim
x → x → x →
x6 + 5 + x3 x6 + 5 + x3

5 5 / x3
= lim = lim =0 ( x 6 = x 3 for x>0)
x →
x +5 + x
6 3 x →
1+ 5 / x +1 6

x 6 + 5x 3 + x 3
[31] lim ( x 6 + 5 x 3 − x 3 ) = lim ( x 6 + 5 x 3 − x 3 )
x → x →
x 6 + 5x 3 + x 3

( x 6 + 5x 3 ) − x 6 5x 3 5 5
= lim = lim = lim =
x → x → x →
x 6 + 5x 3 + x 3 x 6 + 5x 3 + x 3 1 + 5 / x3 + 1 2

x 6 − 3 sin x (1 / x 6 ) (1 − 3 sin x / x 6 ) 1
[32] lim = lim =
x → 3x 2 + 4 x 6 (1 / x 6 ) x→ (3 / x 4 + 4) 4

tan 3 2 x sin 3 2 x 8 sin 2 x 3 1

[33] lim 3
= lim 3 3
= lim ( ) .8 = (1)(1)(8) = 8
x →0 x x → 0 (2 x) cos (2 x) x → 0 2x (cos 2 x) 3

4x 3 − 1 1 4 x 3 − 1 sin(1 / x)
[34] lim sin( ) = lim
x → 3x 2 + 2 x x → 3 x 3 + 2 x (1 / x)

= lim
4x 3 − 1
lim
sin(1 / x)
= (4 / 3)(1) = 4 / 3 ( lim sin(1 / x) = lim sin  = 1)
x → 3 x + 2 x x → (1 / x)
3 x→ 1/ x  →0 

| x |, x  0
[35] lim f ( x), f ( x) =  → lim f = lim | x |= 0.
x→0
1, x=0 x →0 x →0

sin x sin x
[36] lim +
= lim+ x = 1.0 = 0
x→0 x x→0 x

133
 sin( x −  / 4) sin( x −  / 4) 1
[37] lim = lim
x → / 4 ( x −  / 4) 2 x → / 4 ( x −  / 4) ( x −  / 4)

sin( x −  / 4) 1 1
= lim lim = (1) lim (does not exist)
x → / 4 ( x −  / 4) x → / 4 x −  / 4 x → / 4 x −  / 4

x2 x 2 sec x + 1 x 2 (sec x + 1) x 2 (sec x + 1)

[38] lim = lim = lim = lim
x →0 sec x − 1 x →0 sec x − 1 sec x + 1 x →0 sec 2 x − 1 x →0 tan 2 x

x 2 cos 2 x(sec x + 1) x2
= lim 2
= lim ( 2
)(cos 2 x)(sec x + 1) = (1)(1)(2) = 2
x →0 sin x x → 0 sin x

(4) Find the value of c such that f(x) is continuous:

 x 2 − 16
x4
[1] f ( x) =  x − 4
,
c, x=4


f is defined at x=4, f (4) = c.

x 2 − 16 ( x + 4)( x − 4)
lim f = lim = lim =8→c =4
x →4 x →4 x−4 x →4 ( x − 4)

 x2 − c2
xc
[2] f ( x) =  x − c
,
0, x=c


f is defined at x=c and f(c)=0.

x2 − c2
lim f = lim = lim x + c = 2c → 2c = 0 → c = 0.
x →c x →c x−c x →c

 7x + 2 − 6x + 4
[3] f ( x) =  , x2
x−2
k , x=2


7 x + 2 − 6x + 4 is defined for x  −2 / 7

f is defined at x=2, f(2)=k

7 x + 2 − 6x + 4 7x + 2 + 6x + 4 (7 x + 2) − (6 x + 4)
lim f = lim = lim
x →2 x →2 x−2 7x + 2 + 6x + 4 x →2
( x − 2)( 7 x + 2 + 6 x + 4 )

134
 x−2 1 1
= lim = →k =
x →2
( x − 2)( 7 x + 2 + 6 x + 4 ) 8 8

(5) Find the values of c and d such that f is continuous for all x.

3x 2 − 1, x0

f ( x) = cx + d , 0  x 1

 x + 8, x 1

f (0) = d , f (1) = c + d

lim− f = lim− (3x 2 − 1) = −1 , lim f = lim (cx + d ) = d = f (0) → d = −1

x →0 x →0 x →0 + x →0 +

lim (cx + d ) = c − 1 = f (1) , lim+ x + 8 = 3 → c − 1 = 3 → c = 4.

x → 1− x →1

(6) Find the discontinuities for each of the following functions:

3x + 3 3( x + 1)
[1] f ( x) = =
x − 3x − 4 ( x + 1)( x − 4)
2

f is undefined at x=-1 and x=4.

but lim f = − 3 and lim f does not exist.

x → −1 5 x→4

Discontinuities are: at x=-1 (hole) and at x=4 (infinite discontinuity)

 x + 1, x2

[2] f ( x) = 2 x − 1, 1 x  2
 x − 1, x 1


f (1) = 0, f (2) = 3

lim f = lim− ( x − 1) = 0, lim+ f = lim+ (2 x − 1) = 1

x →1− x →1 x →1 x →1

→ lim f does not exist → f is discontinuous at x=1.

x →1

lim f = lim− (2 x − 1) = 3, lim f = lim+ ( x + 1) = 3 ,

x→2− x →2 x→2+ x→2

f (3) = lim f → f is continuous at x=2.

x →2

135
(7) For what values of x in the domain of definition is each of the
following functions continuous:

x
[1] f ( x) = , f is continuous for all x  1 .
x −1
2

1 + cos x
[2] f ( x) = , f is continuous for all x.
3 + sin x

[3] f ( x) = 4 10 + x , f is continuous for all x>-10 and since it is continuous

from the right at x=-10, then it is continuous for x  −10 .

x− x
[4] f ( x) = , f is continuous for all x  0 .
x

x − x
 , x0
[5] f ( x) =  x , f is continuous for all x  0 . Then since
2, x=0


x− x x+x
lim− = lim− = lim− 2 = 2 = f (0)
x →0 x x →0 x x →0

It follows that f(x) is continuous (from the left) at x=0. Thus f(x) is
continuous for all x  0 (that is everywhere in the domain of definition).

x
[6] f ( x) = x csc x = , f is continuous for all x  0,   ,2 ,... .
sin x

[7] f ( x) = x csc x, f (0) = 1

x
Since lim x csc x = lim = 1 = f (0) , we see that f(x) is continuous for all x
x →0 − x →0 − sin x
except   ,2 ,3 ... .

sin x  3 5
[8] f ( x) = tan x = , f is continuous for all x   , , ,... .
cos x 2 2 2

[9] f ( x) = 9 − x
2

x +1

136
 9 − x2 is continuous on [-3,3], since it is continuous on (-3,3), and
continuous from the right at x=-3, and continuous from the left at x=3,
x + 1 is continuous on R and equals 0 at x=-1, then f is continuous on

[-3,3]-{-1}.

(8) Find the derivative for each of the following functions:

[1] f ( x) = 4 − 4 + x

1 1 1 1
f  = (4 − 4 + x ) −1 / 2 (− (4 + x) −1 / 2 ) = −
2 2 4 4− 4+ x 4+ x

[2] f ( x) = (4 x 2 − 3) 2 ( x + 5)3

f  = (4 x 2 − 3) 2 (3)( x + 5) 2 + ( x + 5) 3 (2)(4 x 2 − 3)(8 x)

= (4 x 2 − 3)( x + 5) 2 (28 x 2 + 80 x − 9)

[3] f ( x) = 3 (1 + x 2 ) 4

4 8
f = (1 + x 2 ) 4 / 3 → f  = (1 + x 2 )1/ 3 (2 x) = x(1 + x 2 )1/ 3
3 3

[4] f = cot 2 x → f  = 2 cot x(− csc 2 x) = −2 cot x csc 2 x

[5] f = x 2 cos 2 x → f  = 2 x cos 2 x − 2 x 2 sin 2 x

sin x x cos x − sin x

[6] f ( x) = → f=
x x2

[7] f ( x) = sin( x o ) → f ( x) = sin(  x) → f ( x) =  cos(  x)

180 180 180

2 1
[8] y = arcsin (2 x − 3) → y  = =
1 − (2 x − 3) 2 3x − x 2 − 2

((1 − x) − (1 + x)(−1))
[9] y = arc cot  1 + x  → y  = −1
=
−1
1 − x  1 + x  (1 − x) 1+ x2
2 2

1+  
1 − x 

137
 6x 6x
[10] y = arctan (3x 2 ) → y  = =
1 + (3x )
2 2
1 + 9x 4

[11] y = x arc csc( 1 ) + 1 − x 2

x

 
 
 −1 −1  1 1 1

y =x ( 2 ) + arc csc( ) + (1 − x 2 ) −3 / 2 (−2 x) = arc csc( )
1 1 x  x 2 x
 −1 
x x 
2

[12] y = x a 2 − x 2 + a 2 arcsin( x / a)

x 2 1 1
y = (a − x 2 ) −1 / 2 (−2 x) + (a 2 − x 2 ) 1 / 2 + a 2 = 2 a2 − x2
2 1 − ( x / a) 2 a

− 2x
[13] y = arccos( x 2 ) → y  =
1− x4

1 − 1/ x 2 1 1
[14] y = arctan( x) + arctan(1/ x) → y = + = − = 0.
1 + x 1 + (1 / x)
2 2
1+ x 1+ x2
2

1 −1
[15] y = sec −1 x + csc −1 x → y  = + = 0.
x x2 −1 x x2 −1

[16] y = x tan −1 x → y = tan −1 x + x

1 + x2

1 1 1
[17] y = sin −1 x → y = =
1 − ( x )2 2 x 2 x 1− x

(9) Find y  for each of the following functions:

2x
x2 +1 − x
[1] y = x 2 + 1 → y  = 2x x 2 x2 +1 1
= → y  = =
2 x2 +1 x2 +1 ( x 2 + 1) 2 ( x + 1) 3 / 2
2

[2] y = x sin 3x → y = ( x)(3) cos 3x + sin 3x

y  = 3( x(−3) sin 3 x + cos 3 x) + 3 cos 3 x = −9 x sin 3 x + 6 cos 3 x

(10) Find d (t d (cos t 2 ))

dt dt

138
d d d2 dt d
(t cos t 2 ) = t 2 cos t 2 + cos t 2
dt dt dt dt dt

d
=t (−2t sin t 2 ) − 2t sin t 2 = t (− sin t 2 )(2) + t (2t )(− cos t 2 )(2t ) − 2t sin t 2
dt

= −4t sin t 2 − 4t 3 cos t 2

(11) dy / ds given that y = 3u + 1, u = x −2 , x = 1 − s

dy du dx
= 3, = −2 x −3 , = −1
du dx ds

dy dy du dx
→ = = (3)(−2 x −3 )(−1) = 6 x −3 = 6(1 − s) −3
ds du dx ds

u+2
(12) dy / dt at t=9 given that y = , u = (3s − 7) 2 , s = t
u −1

dy −3 du ds 1
= , = 6(3s − 7), =
du (u − 1) ds
2
dt 2 t

At t=9, we have s=3 and u=4, so that

dy 1 du ds 1
=− , = 12, =
du 3 ds dt 6

dy dy du ds 1 1 2
Thus, at t=9, = = (− )(12)( ) = −
dt du ds dt 3 6 3

(13) For xy + y 2 = 1 find y' and y''.

−y
Using implicit differentiation; xy + y + 2 yy = 0 → y =
( x + 2 y)

( x + 2 y )(− y ) − (− y )(1 + 2 y ) y − xy 
y  = =
( x + 2 y) 2
( x + 2 y) 2

 −y 
y − x 
 x + 2 y  y ( x + 2 y ) + xy 2( xy + y 2 ) 2
Substitute for y', y = = = =
( x + 2 y) 2
( x + 2 y) 3
( x + 2 y) 3
( x + 2 y)3

(14) Find y' for tan( xy ) = y

139
Using implicit differentiation; sec 2 ( xy )( xy + y ) = y

but sec 2 xy = 1 + tan 2 xy = 1 + y 2 → (1 + y 2 )( xy + y ) = y

y (1 + y 2 )
→ y ( x(1 + y 2 ) − 1) = − y (1 + y 2 ) → y  =
(1 − x(1 + y 2 ))

(15) Find y' for sec 2 y + cot 2 x = 3

Using implicit differentiation;

cot x csc 2 x
2(sec y )(sec y tan y ) y  + 2 cot x(− csc x) = 0 → y  =
2

sec 2 y tan y

(16) Express d 2 y / dx 2 in terms of x and y given that y 3 − x 2 = 4 .

dy
Differentiation with respect to x gives 3 y 2 − 2x = 0 (1)
dx

Differentiating again with respect to x, we have

d dy dy d d2y dy
3y 2 ( ) + ( ) (3 y 2 ) − 2 = 0 → 3 y 2 2 + 6 y ( ) 2 − 2 = 0 (2)
dx dx dx dx dx dx

From (1) we get dy / dx = 2 x / 3 y 2 then (2) becomes

d2y 2x 2 d 2 y 6 y 3 − 8x 2
3y 2 + 6 y ( ) − 2 = 0 → =
dx 2 3y 2 dx 2 9y5

(17) If the curve sin y = x 3 − x 5 passes through (1,0) find y' and y'' at (1,0).

Using implicit differentiation;

(cos y ) y  = 3 x 2 − 5 x 4 , at (1,0): y  = −2

(cos y ) y  − (sin y ) y  2 = 6 x − 20 x 3 , at (1,0); y  = −14

(18) Find differential y (dy) for each of the following functions:

[1] y = x 3 + 4 x 2 − 5 x + 6

dy = d ( x 3 ) + d (4 x 2 ) − d (5 x) + d (6) = (3x 2 + 12 x − 5)dx

140
 3
[2] y = (2 x 3 + 5) 3 / 2 → dy = (2 x 3 + 5)1 / 2 (6 x 2 )dx = 9 x 2 (2 x 3 + 5)1 / 2
2

x3 + 2x + 1
[3] y =
x2 + 3

 ( x 2 + 3)(3x 2 + 2) − 2 x( x 3 + 2 x + 1)  x 4 + 7x 2 − 2x + 6
dy =  
 dx = ( ) dx
 ( x 2 + 3) 2  ( x 2 + 3) 2

[4] y = cos 2 2 x + sin 3x

dy = (−4 cos 2 x sin 2 x + 3 cos 3 x)dx = (−2 sin 4 x + 3 cos 3 x)dx

[5] x 3 y 2 − 2 x 2 y + 3 xy 2 − 8 xy = 6

d ( x 3 y 2 ) − d (2 x 2 y ) + 3d ( xy 2 ) − 8d ( xy ) = d (6)

2 x 3 ydy + 3x 2 y 2 dx − 2 x 2 dy − 4 xydx + 6 xydy + 3 y 2 dx − 8 xdy − 8 ydx = 0

dy 8 y − 3 y 2 + 4 xy − 3x 2 y 2
=
dx 2 x 3 y − 2 x 2 + 6 xy − 8 x

 
[6] 2 x − 3 y = 8 → 2 ydx −2 xdy  − 3 xdy −2 ydx  = 0 → dy = 2 x y2 + 3 y 3
2 2

y x  y   x  dx 3xy + 2 x

[7] x = 3 cos − cos 3 , y = 3 sin  − sin 3

dy cos − cos 3
dx = (−3 sin  + 3 sin 3 )d , dy = (3 cos − 3 cos 3 )d → =
dx − sin  + sin 3

(19) Find the slope of the tangent of the curve given by

x = t 2 + 2t , y = 2t 3 − 6t at t=0.

dx dy dy / dt 6(t 2 − 1)
= 2t + 2, = 6t 2 − 6 → y = = = 3(t − 1)
dt dt dx / dt 2(t + 1)

At t=0: y = −3 .

(20) Find the slope of the curve 2 x 3 + 2 y 3 = 9 xy at the point (1,2).

Differentiating both sides of the equation with respect to x

141
 dy dy dy dy dy 3 y − 2 x 2
6x 2 + 6 y 2 = 9x + 9 y → 2x 2 + 2 y 2 = 3x + 3 y → =
dx dx dx dx dx 2 y 2 − 3x

dy 4
At x=1, y=2, we have = .
dx 5

The slope of the curve at the point (1,2) is 4/5.

(21) A point is moving on the curve y = x 3 − 3x + 5 according to the law

t
x= + 3 where t is the time. What is the rate of change of y at t=4.
2

dy dy dx 1 dy 49
= = (3x 2 − 3)( ) . At t = 4 → x = 4 → =
dt dx dt 4 t dt 8

(22) A particle is moving along a path whose parametric equations are

given by x = cos 2t , y = 3 sin 2t . Find the magnitude of the velocity and
acceleration vectors at t=1/6.

Let the position vector of the particle be given by

      
  dr
r = x i + y j = cos 2t i + 3 sin 2t j → v = = −2 sin 2t i + 6 cos 2t j
dt
   
 d 2 r dv
→a = 2 = = −4 2 cos 2t i − 12 2 sin 2t j
dt dt
     
At t=1/6: v = − 3 i + 3 j , a = −2 2 i − 6 3 2 j
 
v = (− 3 ) 2 + (3 ) 2 = 2 3 , a = (−2 2 ) 2 + (−6 3 2 ) 2 = 4 7 2

(23) A particle is moving along a path whose parametric equations are

given by x = 2 − t , y = 2t 3 − t . Find the magnitude of the velocity and
acceleration vectors at t=1.

Let the position vector of the particle be given by

    
r = x i + y j = (2 − t ) i + (2t 3 − t ) j

142
      
 dr  d 2 r dv
v= = − i + (6t − 1) j → a = 2 =
2
= 12t j
dt dt dt
      
At t=1: v = − i + 5 j , a = 12 j → v = (1) 2 + (5) 2 = 26 , a = 12

(24) Find the slope of the tangent to the curve x 2 + 2 xy − 3 y 2 = 9 at (3,2).

x+ y
2 x + 2( y + xy) − 6 yy = 0 → x + y = (3 y − x) y → y =
3y − x

5
At (3,2) → y = .
3

(25) Find the equations of the tangent and normal lines to the curve
y = x 3 − 2 x 2 + 4 at the point (2,4).

Equation of the tangent with slope m at ( xo , yo ) : y − yo = m( x − xo )

Equation of the normal at ( xo , yo ) : y − yo = − 1 ( x − xo )

m

The slope of the tangent m is given by y = 3x 2 − 4 x and at (2,4): m=4.

Equation of tangent: y − 4 = 4( x − 2) → y = 4 x − 4

1
Equation of normal: y − 4 = − ( x − 2) → x + 4 y = 18
4

(26) Find the equations of the tangent and normal lines to the curve
x 2 + 3xy + y 2 = 5 at the point (1,1).

Differentiating with respect to x yields

2x + 3y
2 x + 3 y + 3xy + 2 yy = 0 → y = − =m
3x + 2 y

and at (1,1): m=-1.

Equation of tangent: y − 1 = −1( x − 1) → x + y = 2

Equation of normal: y − 1 = 1( x − 1) → x − y = 0

143
(27) Find the equations of the tangent and normal lines to the curve
x 2 − y 2 = 7 at the point (4,-3).

Differentiating with respect to x

x
2 x − 2 yy = 0 → y = = m and at (4,-3): m=-4/3.
y

4
Equation of tangent: y + 3 = − ( x − 4) → 4 x + 3 y = 7
3

3
Equation of normal: y + 3 = ( x − 4) → 3 x − 4 y = 24
4

(28) Find the intervals of increasing or decreasing for each of the

following functions:

−x
[1] f = 1 − x 2 , D( f ) = [−1,1] → f  = → f  = 0 at x=0
1− x2

Interval (−1,0) (0,1)

f + -

F Increasing Decreasing

1 −1
[2] f = → f  =
x x2

Interval (−,0) (0,  )

f - -

f Decreasing Decreasing

4
[3] f = x 5 − 3x 4 − 4 x 3 + 22 x 2 − 24 x + 6
5

f  = 4 x 4 − 12 x 3 − 12 x 2 + 44 x − 24 = 4( x 4 − 3x 3 − 3x 2 + 11x − 6)

= 4( x + 2)( x − 1) 2 ( x − 3)

144
 Interval (−,−2) (−2,1) (1,3) (3,  )

f + - - +

f Increasing Decreasing Decreasing Increasing

Since f is everywhere continuous, then it is increasing in the intervals

( −,−2] and [3,  ) and decreasing in the intervals [-2,1] and [1,3].

x3 , x 1

[4] f = 1
 x + 2, x  1
2

3x 2 , x 1
f is not continuous at x=1. Differentiation gives f  =  1
 , x 1
2

f  does not exist at x=1.

Interval (−,1) (1,  )

f + +

f Increasing Increasing

f increases in the intervals (−,1] and [1, ) .

(29) Find the maximum and minimum values for each of the following
functions:

[1] f ( x) = 3 x 5 / 3 − 3x 2 / 3 → f  = x 2 / 3 − 2 x −1 / 3 = x −1 / 3 ( x − 2) = ( x −1 / 32)
5 x

There are 2 critical points at x=0 and x=2.

2 −1 / 3 2 −4 / 3 2 −4 / 3 2 ( x + 1)
f ( x) = x + x = x ( x + 1) =
3 3 3 3 x4/3

At x=2: f (2)  0 → there is a local minimum where

9
f (2) = 3(4)1 / 3 (−3 / 5) = − (4)1 / 3
5

145
At x=0: f  is positive to the left of x=0 and negative to its right → f 
changes sign from positive to negative which means that there is a local
maximum for f at x = 0 → f = 0.

[2] f ( x) = 3x5 − 5 x3 + 1

f ( x) = 15 x 4 − 15 x 2 = 15 x 2 ( x 2 − 1) = 15 x 2 ( x − 1)( x + 1)

f ( x) = 15(4 x 3 − 2 x) = 30 x(2 x 2 − 1)

The critical values are: x = 0,  1.

f (1) = 30  0 → there is a local minimum at x = 1 → f (1) = −1 .

f (−1) = −30  0 → there is a local maximum at x = −1 → f (−1) = 3 .

Since f is negative around x=0, there is no local maximum or minimum.

[3] f ( x) = x 4 − 2 x 2 + 1

f ( x) = 4 x 3 − 4 x = 4 x( x 2 − 1) = 4 x( x − 1)( x + 1) → f ( x) = 12 x 2 − 4

The critical points are: x = 0,  1.

f (0) = −4  0 → there is a local maximum and f (0) = 1.

f (1) = 8  0 → there is a local minimum and f (1) = 0.

[4] f ( x) = x 4 − 6 x 2 + 8 x + 8

f  = 4 x 3 − 12 x + 9 = 4( x 3 − 3x + 2) → f  = 12 x 2 − 12 = 12 ( x 2 − 1) = 12 ( x − 1)( x + 1)

Let f  = 0 → x 3 − 3x + 2 = 0.
x = 1 is one of the roots and using division we obtain

x 3 − 3x + x = ( x − 1)( x 2 + x − 2) = ( x − 1) 2 ( x − 2)

The critical points are: x = 1,−2.

f (−2) = 36  0 → there is a local minimum; f (−2) = −16.

146
At x = 1, f  = 0, then we use the first derivative test. Since f  is positive
around x=1, then there is no local maximum or minimum at x=1.

[5] f ( x) = x 3 − 8

f  = 3x 2 → x = 0 is a critical point. As f   0 for x<0 or x>0, then no

local maximum or minimum exists.

[6] f ( x) = x → f ( x) = x / x

f   0 at any value x but it does not exist at x=0 which is the only critical

point. As f   0 for x<0 and f   0 for x>0, then there is a local

minimum at x=0.

[7] f ( x) = x 4 / 3 (1 − x)1/ 3

x1/ 3 (4 − 5 x)
f= , f  = 0 → x = 0,4 / 5,1 (the critical points).
3(1 − x) 2 / 3

For x<0, f   0 , but for 0<x<4/5, f   0 , then there is a local minimum

at x=0 and f(0)=0.

For 4/5<x<1, f   0 , then there is a local maximum at x=4/5 and

4
f (4 / 5) = 3
.
25 20

For x>1, f   0 , then there is no local maximum or minimum at x=1.

[8] f ( x) = x(12 − 2 x) 2 → f = 4 x 3 − 48 x 2 + 144 x

f  = 12 ( x 2 − 8 x + 12 ) = 12 ( x − 2)( x − 6) → f  = 12 (2 x − 8)

f  = 0 → the critical points are at x = 2, 6.

f (2)  0 → there is a local maximum and f (2) = 128 .

f (6)  0 → there is a local minimum and f (6) = 0.

147
 250 250 500
[9] f ( x) = x 2 + → f  = 2 x − 2 → f  = 2 + 3
x x x

f  = 0 → the critical point is x = 5 , f (5)  0 → there is a local minimum

and f (5) = 75 .

2 2
[10] f ( x) = ( x − 2) 2 / 3 → f  = ( x − 2) −1/ 3 → f  = − ( x − 2) −4 / 3
3 9

f  does not exist at x=2, then the critical point is x = 2 but at which f 
is undefined and therefore the second derivative test fails. Using the first
derivative test, f   0 for x<2 and f   0 for x>2, then there is a local
minimum at x=2 and f (2) = 0.

x ( x + 1) 2 − x(2)( x + 1) ( x + 1) − 2 x 1− x
[11] f = → f= = =
( x + 1) 2
( x + 1) 4
( x + 1) 3
( x + 1) 3

( x + 1)3 (−1) − (1 − x)(3)( x + 1) 2 ( x + 1) + 3(1 − x) 2( x − 2)

f  = = =
( x + 1)6 ( x + 1) 4 ( x + 1) 4

x=1 is the critical point, f (1)  0 → there is a local maximum at

1
x = 1, f (1) = .
4

2x 2 ( x − 2)( x − 6)(4 x) − 2 x 2 (2 x − 8) 16 x(3 − x)

[12] f ( x) = → f = =
( x − 2)( x − 6) ( x − 2) ( x − 6)
2 2
( x − 2) 2 ( x − 6) 2

( x − 2) 2 ( x − 6) 2 (48 − 32 x) − 16 x(3 − x)(2)( x − 2)( x − 6) 2 16(2 x3 − 9 x 2 + 36)

f  = =
( x − 2) 4 ( x − 6)4 ( x − 2)3 ( x − 6)3

There are two critical points: x = 0, x = 3 .

f (0)  0 → local minimum, f (0) = 0 ,

f (3)  0 → local maximum, f (3) = −6.

(30) Find the intervals of increasing or decreasing and the local maximum
and minimum values for each of the following functions:

148
[1] f = x 4 + 2 x3 − 3x 2 − 4 x + 4

f  = 4 x 3 + 6 x 2 − 6 x − 4 = 2( x + 2)(2 x + 1)( x − 1) → f  = 0 → x = −2,−1 / 2,1

Interval (−,−2) (−2,−1 / 2) (−1 / 2,1) (1,  )

f - + - +

f Decreasing Increasing Decreasing Increasing

f has local minimum values at x = −2, x = 1. Since f  changes from

negative to positive and f (−2) = 0, f (1) = 0 . f has a local maximum at
x = −1 / 2 → f (−1 / 2) = 81 / 16 as f  changes from positive to negative.

1 1
[2] f = x3 + x 2 − 6 x + 8 → f  = x 2 + x − 6 = ( x + 3)( x − 2)
3 2

→ f  = 0 → x = −3, 2

Interval (−,−3) (-3,2) ( 2, )

f + - +

f Increasing Decreasing Increasing

For critical point: x=-3, f has a local maximum as f  changes from

positive to negative. For critical point x=2: f has a local minimum as f 
changes from negative to positive and f (−3) = 43 / 2, f (2) = 2 / 3.

1 −1
[3] f = → f= but since f is undefined at x=2 there is no
x−2 ( x − 2) 2

critical points. x=2 is used for determining increasing and decreasing

intervals.

Interval (−,2) ( 2, )

f - -

f Decreasing Decreasing

149
 2
[4] f = 2 + x 2 / 3 → f  = , then there is a critical point at x=0 and
3 x1 / 3
discussing the sign of f  gives

Interval (−,0) (0,  )

f - +

F Decreasing Increasing

At x=0 there is a local minimum and f(0)=2.

(31) Discuss concavity and find the inflection points for each of the
following functions:

[1] f = 3x 4 − 10 x3 − 12 x 2 + 12 x − 7

f  = 12 x 3 − 30 x 2 − 24 x + 12 → f  = 36 x 2 − 60 x − 24 = 12(3x + 1)( x − 2)

Let f  = 0 → x = −1 / 3, 2

Interval (−,−1 / 3] [−1 / 3,2] [ 2,  )

f  + - +

Curve Upper concave Lower concave Upper concave

Points of inflection: (−1 / 3, 322 / 27), (2,−63) .

[2] f = x 4 − 6 x + 2 → f  = 4 x 3 − 6, f  = 12 x 2

f  = 0 → x = 0 (possible inflection point)

Interval (−,0] [0, )

f  + +

Curve Upper concave Upper concave

No inflection points exist.

3 −6
[3] f = 3x + ( x + 2) 3 / 5 → f  = 3 + → f  =
5( x + 2) 2/5
25( x + 2) 7 / 5

150
 f  = 0 → x = −2 (possible inflection point).

Interval (−,−2] [−2, )

f  + -

Curve Upper concave Lower concave

(-2, -6) is the point of inflection.

[4] f = x 4 − 6 x 3 + 12 x 2 − 8 x → f  = 4 x 3 − 18 x 2 + 24 x − 8

→ f  = 12 x 2 − 36 x + 24 = 12 ( x − 1)( x − 2)

f  = 0 → x = 1,2 (possible inflection point).

Interval (−,1] [1,2] [ 2,  )

f  + - +

Curve Upper concave Lower concave Upper concave

(1,2) and (2,0) are inflection points.

[5] f = x 3 − 6 x 2 + 9 x + 1 → f  = 3x 2 − 12 x + 9 → f  = 6 x − 12 = 6( x − 2)

f  = 0 → x = 2 (possible inflection point).

Interval (−,2] [ 2,  )

f  - +

Curve Down concave Upper concave

(2,3) is a point of inflection.

10 −1 / 3
[6] f = 3x 5 / 3 − 5 x → f  = 5 x 2 / 3 − 5 → f  = x and does not exist at x=0.
3

Interval (−,0) (0,  )

f  - +
Curve Lower concave Upper concave
(0,0) is an inflection point.

151
(32) Find the Find the vertical and horizontal asymptotes, if any, of the
5 − 3x 2
function f ( x) =
1 − x2

lim− f ( x) = , lim+ f ( x) = − , the line x=1 is a vertical asymptote.

x→1 x→1

lim f ( x) = −, lim+ f ( x) =  , the line x=-1 is a vertical asymptote.

x→−1− x→−1

5 − 3x 2
lim f ( x) = lim = 3 , the line y=3 is a horizontal asymptote.
x→ x→ 1 − x 2

(33) Find each of the following limits:

1
−1
= lim 1 − x = lim
sin x 2 1
[1] lim =1
x →0 x x → 0 1 x → 0
1− x2

sin −1 x 1/ 1 − x2 1+ x2
[2] lim −1 = lim = lim =1
x →0 1 /(1 + x 2 )
x →0 tan x x →0
1− x2

1
cos x
[3] lim sin x = lim 2 x = lim+ cos x = 1
x →0 + x x →0 + 1 x →0

2 x

1 − cos x sin x
[4] lim (csc x − cot x) = lim (
+ +
) = lim+ = 0.
x →0 x →0 sin x x →0 cos x

1 x x − 1 − x( x − 1)
[5] lim ( − ) = lim+
x →1 +
x −1 x − 1 x→1 ( x − 1) x − 1

1
− (2 x − 1)
2 x −1 1 − 2 x − 1(2 x − 1)
= lim+ = lim+ =
x →1 x −1 x →1 3( x − 1)
x −1 +
2 x −1

a sin bx − b sin ax ab cos bx − ab cos ax

[6] lim 3
= lim
x →0 x x →0 3x 2

− ab 2 sin bx + a 2 b sin ax − ab 3 cos bx + a 3 b cos ax ab(a 2 − b 2 )

= lim = lim =
x →0 6x x →0 6 6

152
 x sin 2 x sin 2 x + 2 x sin x cos x sin 2 x + x sin 2 x
[7] lim = lim = lim
x →0 sin 2 x − 2 sin x x →0 2 cos 2 x − 2 cos x x →0 2 cos 2 x − 2 cos x

sin 2 x + 2 x cos 2 x 4 cos 2 x − 4 x sin 2 x 4 2

= lim = lim = =−
x →0 − 4 sin 2 x + 2 sin x x→0 − 8 cos 2 x + 2 cos x − 8 + 2 3

1 sin x − x cos x
[8] lim ( − cot x) = lim
+ +
x →0 x x →0 x sin x

cos x − cos x + x sin x x cos x + sin x 0

= lim+ = lim+ = =0
x →0 sin x + x cos x x →0 2 cos x − x sin x 2

tan x − 1 sec 2 x
[9] xlim = lim =2
→ / 4 x −  / 4 x → / 4 1

153