Chapter 1: Internet and Protocol Basics

Internet Overview

 Definition: The Internet is a "network of networks," connecting millions of ISPs at various levels
(local, regional, and national) to enable global communication.

 Internet Structure:

o Network Edge: Consists of clients and servers, often located in data centers.

o Network Core: A mesh of interconnected routers using packet-switching and circuit-

switching to forward data.

o Access Networks: How end systems connect to edge routers, including various types
like cable-based, DSL, and wireless networks.

Access Networks and Physical Media

1. Access Networks

- Access networks connect end systems to an edge router and are crucial in providing internet services.
These networks can be wired or wireless, each suited for specific types of environments and data
requirements.

2. Types of Access Networks:

- Residential Access:

- DSL (Digital Subscriber Line): Uses existing telephone lines, offering speeds of 24–52 Mbps
downstream and 3.5–16 Mbps upstream. It connects via the central office’s DSLAM (Digital Subscriber
Line Access Multiplexer), separating data and voice traffic.

- Cable-based Access: Uses cable modems and Hybrid Fiber Coax (HFC) networks, achieving 40 Mbps
to 1.2 Gbps downstream and 30–100 Mbps upstream. Homes share the network connection to a central
cable headend.
 - Home Networks:

- Often combine both wired and wireless devices to connect to the internet, with a modem or router
that manages the connection between different devices and the ISP.

- Enterprise Networks:

- Found in businesses and institutions. They combine wired Ethernet (100 Mbps, 1 Gbps, 10 Gbps) and
wireless WiFi access points (11 Mbps, 54 Mbps, up to 450 Mbps) to provide connectivity throughout a
location.

- Devices connect to an institutional router that links to the ISP, with Ethernet switches distributing
connectivity within the network.

- Data Center Networks:

- Data centers use high-bandwidth links (10 Gbps to 100 Gbps) to connect thousands of servers,
ensuring rapid data processing and access to large volumes of information.

Wireless Access Networks

1. Overview

- Wireless Access Networks connect devices to the internet through a shared wireless access point
(base station). This technology allows mobile devices to access the internet from a variety of locations.

2. Key Types:

- WiFi (Wireless Fidelity):

- Used in homes, businesses, and public spaces, providing data rates from 11 Mbps (WiFi 1) to several
Gbps (WiFi 6).

- Cellular Networks:

- 4G and 5G Networks: Cellular networks provide mobile access, with speeds varying by technology
generation (4G provides around 100 Mbps, while 5G can reach several Gbps).

- Coverage: Cellular networks are organized into cells, each served by a base station, allowing users to
maintain connectivity over large areas by moving between cells.

Example of Wireless Access Network Functionality

- In a WiFi network:

1. A device connects to an access point.

2. The access point links the device to an edge router, which then forwards data to the wider internet.

- In a 4G/5G cellular network:

1. A mobile device connects to the nearest cellular base station.

 2. The base station relays data through the carrier's core network to access the internet.

Protocols and Standards

 Protocols: Rules governing data exchange; examples include HTTP, TCP, IP, and WiFi.

o Purpose: Provide structure for data communication by defining message formats and
exchange procedures.

 Standards:

o RFC (Request for Comments): Documents describing internet protocols and services.

o IETF (Internet Engineering Task Force): Organization developing and promoting internet
standards.

Network Layers (OSI Model)

1. Application Layer: Interfaces with applications (e.g., web browsers).

2. Transport Layer: Ensures reliable data transfer (TCP/UDP).

3. Network Layer: Manages packet routing across networks (IP).

4. Data Link Layer: Controls data flow between nodes on a network.

5. Physical Layer: Transmits raw bitstreams over physical media.

Functions of Network Core

1. Forwarding:

- Definition: The process of moving packets from a router’s incoming link to the appropriate outgoing
link based on the destination address.

- Purpose: Forwarding is a local, per-router action that ensures each packet moves closer to its
destination.

- Analogy: Like sorting letters at a post office to direct them to the correct local branch.

2. Routing:

- Definition: The process of determining the overall path packets take from the source to the
destination across a network.

- Purpose: Routing is a global action that involves building a routing table, specifying the best paths for
packets across the network.

- Analogy: Like planning the best overall delivery route for a package across cities and states.

These two functions work together to ensure efficient and accurate data delivery through complex
networks, making them fundamental to network core operations.
Throughput

1. Definition: Throughput is the rate at which bits are successfully transmitted from sender to
receiver, measured in bits per second (bps).

2. Types of Throughputs:

o Instantaneous Throughput: Rate at a specific point in time.

o Average Throughput: Average rate over a longer period.

 3. Impact of Link Capacity:

o Throughput is generally limited by the link with the lowest transmission rate
(bottleneck) between the sender and receiver.

Caravan Analogy for Packet Delay and Transmission

The caravan analogy helps explain packet delay and propagation in networks:

 Car = Bit, Caravan = Packet: Imagine cars (bits) traveling in a line (packet) from one toll booth to
another.

 Transmission Time: Each car takes time to pass through a toll booth (transmission delay).

 Propagation Time: After passing through, each car travels to the next booth, akin to a packet
traveling over a link.

Example:

 If 10 cars (bits) take 12 seconds each to pass through a toll (transmission rate), it takes 120
seconds to move the entire caravan onto the road.

 Propagation Delay: Time for the last car to travel 100 km at 100 km/h = 1 hour. Total time for all
cars to arrive: 1 hour + 120 seconds.

Connecting Millions of ISPs: Internet Hierarchy

1. Network of Networks:

o Hierarchy: The internet is composed of millions of networks (ISPs) that need

interconnection for global data transfer.

o Tiered ISP Structure:

 Tier-1 ISPs: Large, global networks (e.g., AT&T, Level 3) interconnect without
fees to cover national and international data routes.

 Tier-2 ISPs: Smaller, regional networks pay Tier-1 ISPs for connectivity.

 Access ISPs: Provide internet to end-users and connect to regional and Tier-2
ISPs.

2. Economic Agreements: ISPs make arrangements (peering or transit agreements) to ensure data
flows efficiently across networks.

1. IP Addressing (IPv4 and IPv6)

IPv4

 Structure: A 32-bit address split into four sections (octets), each ranging from 0 to 255 (e.g.,
192.168.1.1).

 Binary Form: Consists of four 8-bit sections, totaling 32 bits.

 Parts:

o Network ID: Identifies the network.

o Host ID: Identifies a specific device within that network.

IPv6

 Structure: A 128-bit address written in hexadecimal, separated by colons (e.g.,

2001:0db8:85a3:0000:0000:8a2e:0370:7334).

 Purpose: Solves IPv4 address exhaustion, supports more unique addresses, includes security
features, and allows easier configuration.

2. Network ID and Host ID

An IP address divides into:

 Network ID: Identifies the specific network segment.

 Host ID: Identifies a unique device within that network.

Example:

 IP 192.168.1.5 with subnet mask 255.255.255.0 (/24):

o Network ID: 192.168.1.0

o Host ID: .5
4. Subnetting Basics

1. Definition:

- Subnetting is a method of dividing a large IP network into smaller, more manageable subnetworks
(subnets). It improves network performance, enhances security, and allows better organization of IP
addresses.

2. IP Address Structure:

- IP Address: Composed of two parts:

- Network Part: Identifies the network.

- Host Part: Identifies individual devices (hosts) within that network.

- Subnet Mask: Used to determine which portion of the IP address refers to the network and which to
the host.

3. Subnet Mask:
 - A 32-bit number written in decimal (e.g., 255.255.255.0).

- Masks the IP address to identify the network and host portions.

- Class C Subnet Mask: Default is 255.255.255.0, indicating the first 24 bits (three octets) are for the
network, and the last 8 bits are for the hosts.

Example:

 For 255.255.255.0, the first 24 bits are for the network, and the last 8 are for hosts.

 CIDR Notation: A simplified format to denote subnet masks, using the number of network bits
after a /. For example, /24 means 24 bits are for the network, and the subnet mask is
255.255.255.0.

5. ARP (Address Resolution Protocol)

ARP maps an IP address to a MAC (Media Access Control) address. This is essential for devices on a local
network to communicate using IP addresses by translating them to physical (MAC) addresses.

ARP Process:

1. A device sends an ARP request: “Who has IP address X.X.X.X?”

2. The device with that IP responds with its MAC address.

3. The requesting device uses this MAC address to send data directly to the correct physical
machine.

6. ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol)

ICMP is used for diagnostics and error reporting in network communication, most commonly for ping
(testing connectivity) and traceroute (tracking packet routes).

Key ICMP Message Types:

  Type 0: Echo Reply (Ping response).

 Type 3: Destination Unreachable.

 Type 8: Echo Request (Ping request).

 Type 11: Time Exceeded (used in traceroute).

7. Subnetting Example Walkthrough

Suppose you have the IP 192.168.1.0/24 and want to create 4 subnets.

1. Borrow 2 Bits:

o Subnets: 22=42^2 = 422=4.

o New Subnet Mask: /26 (or 255.255.255.192).

2. Calculate Each Subnet’s IP Range:

o Subnet 1: 192.168.1.0/26

 Network IP: 192.168.1.0

 Usable IPs: 192.168.1.1 to 192.168.1.62

 Broadcast IP: 192.168.1.63

o Subnet 2: 192.168.1.64/26

 Network IP: 192.168.1.64

 Usable IPs: 192.168.1.65 to 192.168.1.126

 Broadcast IP: 192.168.1.127

o Subnet 3: 192.168.1.128/26

 Network IP: 192.168.1.128

 Usable IPs: 192.168.1.129 to 192.168.1.190

 Broadcast IP: 192.168.1.191

o Subnet 4: 192.168.1.192/26

 Network IP: 192.168.1.192

 Usable IPs: 192.168.1.193 to 192.168.1.254

 Broadcast IP: 192.168.1.255

Chapter 2: Application Layer

The application layer is the top layer in the internet protocol stack, enabling user applications to interact
with the network. It provides network services directly to user applications, like email, web browsing,
file transfer, and more.

1. Creating a Network Application

To create a network application, developers typically write programs that:

- Run on different end systems: For example, a web server application on one system communicates
with a web browser on another.

- Use network communication protocols: Applications don’t directly interact with network devices;
instead, they communicate through defined protocols like HTTP, FTP, or DNS.

- Focus on end systems only: Application software is developed for end devices, without needing
changes to network core devices (e.g., routers).

Example: A web application allows a server to communicate with users through a browser using HTTP.

2. Client-Server Paradigm

- Client-Server Architecture: A model where clients (user devices) request services from a centralized
server.

- Server: Always on, has a fixed IP address, and typically hosts data or applications. Examples include
websites, email servers, and file servers.

- Client: Initiates communication, connecting to the server on request. Clients are often intermittently
connected with dynamically assigned Ips.

Example: In web browsing, the client (browser) requests data from the web server, which responds with
the requested content.

3. Peer-to-Peer (P2P) Architecture

In P2P networks, there is no central server. Instead, devices, known as peers, communicate directly with
each other:

- Decentralized Communication: Each peer both requests and provides services.

- Scalability: New peers increase both service capacity and demand.

- Challenges: Difficult to manage, as peers may change IP addresses and be intermittently connected.

Example: File-sharing networks like BitTorrent use P2P to share files directly between users.

4. Processes Communicating

- Process: A program running on a device. Applications communicate by sending messages from one
process to another across the network.

- Inter-Process Communication:

- On the same device: Communication happens through the device’s operating system.
 - Across different devices: Processes exchange messages using network protocols.

Example: An email client process on a laptop communicates with an email server process over the
internet.

5. Sockets

A socket is the interface between the application and the transport layer, enabling data exchange:

- Analogy: A socket is like a door through which messages are sent and received.

- Operation: Applications write data to the socket, which is then transmitted over the network.

Each process has a unique socket for communication, combining the IP address and a port number to
ensure messages reach the correct application.

6. Addressing Processes

- IP Address + Port Number: An application’s network address is a combination of its device’s IP address
and a port number (e.g., HTTP uses port 80).

- IP Address: Identifies the device on the network.

- Port Number: Identifies the specific application on the device.

Example: To connect to a website, the browser uses the server’s IP address with port 80 to initiate an
HTTP connection.

7. Application Layer Protocols

An application-layer protocol defines the rules for data exchange between applications. It specifies:

- Message Types: Request and response messages (e.g., HTTP GET and POST).

- Message Syntax: The structure and fields of each message.

 - Semantics: The meaning and interpretation of information within messages.

- Communication Rules: When and how applications should send and receive messages.

- Open Protocols: Publicly documented, like HTTP and SMTP.

- Proprietary Protocols: Privately developed, such as Skype’s protocol.

8. Transport Service Needs for Applications

Different applications have varied requirements from the transport layer. Common needs include:

- Data Integrity: Applications like file transfers require error-free data.

- Timeliness: Real-time applications like VoIP need low delay.

- Throughput: Some applications need a minimum data rate for optimal functionality (e.g., video
streaming).

- Security: Applications like online banking need secure data transfer.

9. Internet Transport Protocol Services

The application layer uses two main transport protocols:

- TCP (Transmission Control Protocol):

- Provides reliable data transfer, error-checking, and congestion control.

- Suitable for applications requiring accuracy (e.g., email, file transfer).

- UDP (User Datagram Protocol):

- Offers faster, connectionless communication without reliability checks.

- Suitable for applications tolerating some data loss, like video streaming.

10. Web and HTTP

- HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol): The primary protocol for transferring web content. HTTP operates
on a client-server model and is stateless, meaning the server doesn’t retain information about past
requests.

Types of HTTP Connections:

- Non-Persistent HTTP:

- Opens a new TCP connection for each request-response pair.

- Can lead to higher delays as each object requires a separate connection.

- Persistent HTTP:

- Keeps the TCP connection open for multiple requests.

 - Reduces delays by reusing the connection for several objects.

11. HTTP Request Message Formats

An HTTP request consists of:

- Request Line: Specifies the method (GET, POST), the URL, and HTTP version.

- Header Lines: Provide additional information, like the browser type (`User-Agent`) and the acceptable
response format (`Accept`).

- Entity Body: Present in POST requests, containing data to send to the server (e.g., form submissions).

Example of an HTTP GET Request:

```

GET /index.html HTTP/1.1

Host: www.example.com

User-Agent: Mozilla/5.0

Accept: text/html

```

Common HTTP Methods:

- GET: Requests data from the server.

- POST: Sends data to the server (e.g., submitting form data).

- HEAD: Requests only the header information, used to check if the resource exists.

- PUT: Uploads data to the server, replacing existing content.

- DELETE: Deletes the specified resource on the server.

3. Application Layer Protocols

- HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol): A client-server protocol, stateless, over TCP.

- Persistent HTTP: Keeps connections open for multiple requests, reducing delay.

- SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol): Transfers email over TCP, using ASCII format.

- DNS (Domain Name System): Resolves domain names to IP addresses using a hierarchy of root, TLD,
and authoritative servers.

- DNS Record Types:

- A Record: Maps hostname to IP.

- NS Record: Identifies authoritative server.

 - MX Record: Directs mail servers.

4. Transport Services for Applications

- Data Integrity: Critical for error-free data applications, like file transfers.

- Throughput: Ensures sufficient data rates, crucial for multimedia applications.

- Latency Sensitivity: Low delay is needed for real-time applications like VoIP.

Q: how much time to distribute file (size F) from one server to N peers?

peer upload/download capacity is limited resource

Potential Exam Questions and Answers

1. Main Function of Routers

o Routers forward data between networks, selecting the optimal path to ensure data
reaches its destination efficiently.

2. Network Topologies

o Star: Central hub; scalable but fails if the hub goes down.

o Bus: Shared central cable; simple, but a break in the cable affects the whole network.

o Ring: Circular connection; predictable, but a break disrupts all communication.

o Mesh: Every device connects to every other; very reliable but complex and costly.

o
 3. Explain the transmission delay formula and its application.

- Application: Measures the time required to push a packet onto the network link. Larger packets or
slower transmission rates increase delay.

5. What role does DNS play in the Internet?

- Role: DNS translates domain names to IP addresses, enabling device connectivity through hierarchical
queries (root → TLD → authoritative servers).

6. How do HTTP and SMTP differ in their interaction model?

- HTTP: Allows clients to pull data from the server without maintaining state.

- SMTP: Enables clients to push data to the server using a persistent connection, typically for email.

Important questions

Q1: Why does an identifier include both an IP address and port number rather than just relying on an
IP address?

An IP address identifies a device on the network, but each device can run multiple applications or
services at once (like a web server, email server, or FTP server). To direct data to the correct application
on the device, we need a port number along with the IP address:

- The IP address directs the message to the right device.

- The port number specifies which application on that device should receive the data.

Example: If you connect to a web server, the IP address gets you to the right server, but the port (usually
80 or 443 for HTTP or HTTPS) tells the server to send the data to the web service specifically.

Q2: Why are Tier-1 networks directly connected to Google?

Tier-1 networks are large networks that form the backbone of the internet, handling major data routes
globally without paying any other network for traffic exchange (they "peer" freely with each other).
Google runs its own network to deliver its services reliably and efficiently to millions of users worldwide.
Connecting directly to Tier-1 networks allows Google to:

- Provide faster service by reaching users more directly, bypassing intermediary networks.

- Improve reliability by maintaining high-speed, high-capacity connections with minimal hops.

Example: If a user in Europe wants to access Google’s services, the request can go directly to Google's
network through a nearby Tier-1 network rather than routing through multiple ISPs, which would add
delays.

Q3: Suppose a link has a capacity of 1000 Mbps, and each user can connect to this link at a rate of 100
Mbps using packet switching, remaining active only 10% of the time. How many users can be
connected to the channel?

The total link capacity is 1000 Mbps, and each user uses 100 Mbps when active. Because each user is
active only 10% of the time, the effective bandwidth each user requires on average is:

Answer: Up to 100 users can be connected to this link, assuming each user is active only 10% of the
time.

Section B Paper

1. Explain the main function of routers in a network.

Routers are networking devices that forward data packets between computer networks. They route
data from one network to another by selecting the optimal path for data to travel, ensuring that data
reaches its intended destination efficiently.

2. Describe the two types of switching methods used in network cores.

Packet Switching vs Circuit Switching.

The two primary switching methods are:

-Packet Switching: Data is broken into packets, which are routed individually through the network and
reassembled at the destination. It is efficient for handling varying types of traffic.

-Circuit Switching: A dedicated communication path is established between two endpoints for the entire
duration of the communication. It’s commonly used in voice networks but less efficient for data
networks.

3. Identify and explain the role of key network protocols used in communication.

TCP (Transmission Control Protocol): Ensures reliable data transmission with error-checking, sequencing,
and acknowledgment.

IP (Internet Protocol): Handles addressing and routing of packets, so they reach the correct destination.

HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol): Used for transferring web pages over the internet.

FTP (File Transfer Protocol): Used for transferring files between devices on a network.
4. Discuss the differences between packet switching and circuit switching in terms of data handling.

Packet Switching: Data is divided into packets that take independent routes to the destination, which
increases flexibility and efficiency but may lead to packet loss or delay.

Circuit Switching: Establishes a dedicated path for data transfer, which ensures consistent quality but is
less efficient as it requires a constant connection even during idle times.

5. Describe the four main sources of packet delay in a network.

Processing Delay: Time taken by routers to process the packet header.

Queuing Delay: Time a packet spends waiting in queue before it can be transmitted.

Transmission Delay: Time taken to push all the packet’s bits onto the link.

Propagation Delay: Time taken for the packet to travel through the physical medium from sender to
receiver.

Caravan Example:

Q2. Describe the different types of network topologies, including star, bus, ring, and mesh. Summarize
the advantages and disadvantages of each topology in terms of scalability, fault tolerance, and data
transmission efficiency. Provide examples of scenarios where each topology is most effectively used.

Star Topology:

Advantages: Easy to install and manage; a failure in one link doesn’t affect others.

Disadvantages: If the central hub fails, the whole network is down.

Use Case: Used in home and office LANs.

Bus Topology:

Advantages: Simple and cost-effective for small networks.

Disadvantages: Limited scalability; a failure in the central cable brings down the network.

Use Case: Used in small, temporary network setups.

Ring Topology:

Advantages: Each device has an equal chance to send data; predictable performance.

Disadvantages: A break in the ring disrupts the network.

Use Case: Used in metropolitan area networks (MANs).

Mesh Topology:

Advantages: High fault tolerance as each device is connected to every other device.

Disadvantages: High cost and complexity due to numerous connections.

Use Case: Used in mission-critical applications where reliability is essential, such as military
communications.

Q3. A packet of size 10,000 bits is sent over a link with a transmission rate of 100 Mbps. Calculate the
transmission delay for the packet. Additionally, if the propagation speed of the link is 2 x 10^8 m/s
and the length of the link is 500 km, calculate the propagation delay. Determine the total delay
experienced by the packet.
Q4. Analyze the differences between the Client-Server and Peer-to-Peer (P2P) architectures. Examine
how each architecture manages file distribution, scalability, and network traffic.

Client-Server Architecture:

File Distribution: Centralized; files are stored and managed by a central server.

Scalability: Limited by the server’s capacity; adding more clients may require a more powerful server.

Network Traffic: Higher on the server side; data must pass through the server, creating potential
bottlenecks.

Use Case: Used in web services, email, and applications requiring centralized control.

Peer-to-Peer (P2P) Architecture:

File Distribution: Decentralized; files are distributed across multiple peers.

Scalability: More scalable as new peers add resources and distribution capacity.

Network Traffic: Spread among peers, reducing bottlenecks.

Use Case: Used in file-sharing networks, blockchain, and distributed computing.

Quiz questions

Q1: Explain the following terms with suitable examples from the given Network IP Address:
205.192.168.0.
1. Network-ID: 205.192.168.0

 The Network-ID (or Network Address) identifies the specific network to which all devices
belong. In this case, 205.192.168.0 represents the network itself. It cannot be assigned to any
individual device within the network, as it is used to route traffic to the entire network.
 Example: In a company with the IP address 205.192.168.0, all devices within this network (e.g.,
computers, printers) will communicate within this address space.

2. Broadcast-ID: 205.192.168.255

 The Broadcast-ID (or Broadcast Address) is used to send data packets to all devices on the
network. This address is the highest address in the subnet and cannot be assigned to a specific
device.
 Example: If a device sends a packet to 205.192.168.255, all devices on the network
205.192.168.0 will receive the packet.

3. Gateway: 205.192.168.1

 The Gateway (or Default Gateway) is the device (typically a router) that serves as the access
point for devices on the local network to communicate with external networks (like the internet).
The gateway allows devices to send data outside their local network.
 Example: A router with the IP address 205.192.168.1 would be responsible for directing traffic
between the 205.192.168.0 network and other networks.

4. First Usable IP: 205.192.168.2

 The First Usable IP is the first IP address available for assignment to devices within the network.
It is the first address after the Network-ID.
 Example: The first computer on the network could be assigned the IP address 205.192.168.2,
allowing it to communicate with other devices within the same network.

5. Last Usable IP: 205.192.168.254

 The Last Usable IP is the last IP address that can be assigned to a device in the network. It is the
address just before the Broadcast-ID.
 Example: The last device, such as a printer, might be assigned the IP address 205.192.168.254 to
ensure it can communicate with all other devices on the network without conflicting with the
broadcast address.
Q2: Infer the Class of each given Subnet Mask.

 255.255.255.0 – Class C
 255.0.0.0 – Class A
 255.255.0.0 – Class B
 255.255.0.0 – Class B

Q3: Give all possible examples of an invalid IP address of Class C.

 205.192.168.0 – Network-ID
 205.192.168.255 – Broadcast-ID
 205.192.168.256 – Exceeds valid range

Question: Strategies to reduce packet delay in a network:

 Reduce Network Diameter: Minimize the number of hops a packet must traverse to reach its
destination.
 Choose Efficient Routing Protocols: Use routing protocols that quickly converge and avoid
routing loops.
 Optimize Link Capacities: Ensure that links have sufficient bandwidth to handle the traffic load.
 Traffic Shaping and Policing: Control the rate at which traffic enters the network to avoid
congestion.
 Quality of Service (QoS): Prioritize certain types of traffic, such as real-time traffic, to ensure low
latency.
 Congestion Control: Implement mechanisms to detect and alleviate congestion, such as TCP
congestion control.
 High-Performance Routers and Switches: Use high-performance network devices with efficient
hardware and software.
 Reduce Processing Delay: Optimize router and switch software to minimize processing time.