Chapter 3 Structure and

bonding
Oscar
States of matter
• Solids
• Fixed shape and volume, cannot be compressed
• Liquids
• Fixed volume but can flow and change the shape. Occupy slightly more space
than water (except water and ice)
• Gases
• No fixed shape or volume, can be compressed easily.
Properties of matter
• Particle theory
• The movement of the particles
• The average distance between particles
• How to explain due to the theory? (homework)
Changing state
• Melting point
• solid turns into liquid; liquid freezes or solidifies back into the solid
• Boiling point
• liquid turns into gas; gas condense back into liquid
• Each change of state is reversible
• Energy transfer
• surroundings -> substances
• substances -> surroundings
• The simple particle model and its limitation
Bonding
• Covalent bonding: sharing electrons
• Ionic bonding: transferring electrons
Atoms to ions
• Positive ions (cations): losing electrons
• Negative ions (anions): gaining electrons
• Represent the ionic bonding:
• Electronic structure
• Dot and cross diagram
Ionic bonding
• Ionic bonding:
• The ions formed are held next to each other by very strong forces of
attraction between the oppositely charged ions. This electrostatic force of
attraction, which acts in all direction, is called ionic bonding.
• Giant structure (giant lattice)
• The ionic bonds between the charged particles result in an arrangement of
ions.
• Related to the periodic table:
• Group 1 -> +1, Group 2 -> +2, Group 3 -> +3
• Group 4 -> not form ions (except tin, Sn and lead, Pb at the bottom of Group 4)
• Group 5 -> -3, Group 6 -> -2, Group 7 -> -1
• Group 0 never form ions in compounds
Giant ionic structures
• Ionic compound consists of a giant structure of ions arranged in a
lattice, the attractive electrostatic forces between the oppositely
charged ions act in all directions and are very strong.
• Need a lot of energy to break the structure
• Lots of strong ionic bonds need to break
• Means high melting and boiling points
• Ionic solid melts/ molten ionic compounds (structure breaks)
• Ions are free, conduct the electricity
• Solid ionic compound cannot conduct electricity since ions are held in fixed
positions, they can only vibrate ‘on the spot’
Ionic solid Molten ionic compound Ionic compound in solution
Ions are fixed in position in High temperature provides enough Water molecules separate ions
a giant lattice. They vibrate but energy to overcome the many from the lattice. Ions are free to
cannot move around strong attractive forces between move around within the solution.
It does not conduct electricity ions. Ions are free to move around
within the molten compounds. It does conduct electricity.

It does conduct electricity

Covalent bonding
• Covalent bonds:
• The atoms in the molecules are then held together by the shared pairs of
electrons. These strong bonds between the atoms are called covalent bonds.
Giant covalent structures
• Huge numbers of atoms are held together by a network of covalent
bonds. These giant covalent structures are sometimes referred to as
macromolecules.

• Diamonds:
• Each carbon atom forms four covalent bonds with its neighbour
Structure of simple molecules
• Models
• 2D and 3DBall and stick model
• Dot and cross diagrams; displayed formula showing bonds
• Intermolecular forces
• Covalent bonds are very strong
• The force of attraction between the individual molecules in a covalent
substance is relatively small, which are weak intermolecular forces.
• Intermolecular forces increase with the size of the molecules.
• E.g. polymer
Giant covalent structures
• Huge networks of atoms held together by strong covalent bonds in
giant covalent structures.
• Examples:
• Diamonds, graphite and silicon dioxide
• Properties
• High melting points and boiling points
• Insoluble in water
• Apart from graphite, they are hard and do not conduct electricity
Giant covalent structures
• Graphite
• Carbon atoms are only bonded to three other carbon atoms, arranged in
giant layers. The carbon atoms are arranged in hexagons.
• No covalent bonds, only weak intermolecular forces
• Delocalised electrons:
• Good conductivity (electrical and thermal)
Fullerenes and graphene
• Fullerenes
• Footballs (C60), rugby balls, doughnuts, onions (spheres within speheres) and
cones or tubes.
• The general name for all these hollow-shaped molecules of carbon are the
fullerenes.
• Cylindrical fullerenes called carbon nanotubes, can also be produces:
• high tensile strength (leading to their use in reinforcing composite materials,
such as those used in making tennis rackets)
• high electrical conductivity and high thermal conductivity (because their
bonding is like the bonding in graphite, giving them delocalise, electrons,
resulting in their use in the electronics industry).
• Graphene
• Single layer of graphite (2D material)
• Excellent conductor of thermal energy and electricity
• Application:
• Computer chips
Bonding in metals
• Metal crystals:
• Layer upon layer in a regular pattern
• Metallic bonding
• Giant structures
• The outer electrons form a ‘sea’ of free moving electrons surrounding the
positively charged ion metals, which are delocalised electrons.
Nanoparticles
• Nanoscience
• 1nm=1,000,000,000m
• Particulate matter (PM), um(micrometer)
• Calculation
• SA:V (surface area to volume ratio)
• Higher SA:V means higher reactivity -> sustainable approach
Application
• Glass can be coated with titanium oxide nanoparticles
• Titanium oxide and zinc oxide nanoparticles
• Cosmetic industry
• Future development:
• Nanowires, nanotubes
• Risks
• Explosion (if a spark)
• smaller particles -> health (lung)
• environment
Nanoparticles
• Gold nanoparticles
• Can be injected and absorbed by tumours
• Laser to warm the gold and destroy the tumour cells
• Silver nanoparticles
• Inhibit the growth of microorganism
• Antibiotic coating, spray
Revision
• State of matter
• Solid, liquid, gas
• Change of state: reversible, melting point, boiling point
• Ionic bonding
• Structure (how to plot)
• Giant ionic structure
• Covalent bonding
• Structure (how to plot)
• Giant covalent structure
• Metal
• Delocalised ions
• Nanoparticles