Semiconductor Electronics: Materials, Devices And Simple Circuits

Chapter - 14
Semiconductor Electronics: Materials,
Devices And Simple Circuits
Electronics is a branch of physics which studies about the motion of charges in electronic
devices such as vacuum tubes and semiconductor devices.
A branch of electronics which deals with vacuum or gas filled devices (like diode, triode,
tetrode, pentode) is called vacuum tube electronics.
A branch of electronics which deals with semiconductor (transistor, thermistor) devices
are called solid state electronics.

Band Theory of solids

Conduction band: It is the region in which electrons available for conduction are present (the
bands with higher energies) are called conduction bands.
Valance band: The region in which valence electrons are present (the energy bands which are
completely filled) are called valence bands.
Forbidden band: The energy gap between the valence band and the conduction band is called
forbidden energy band.

Energy Band Diagram of Metals or Conductors

 Conduction band is partially filled and the valence band is partially empty or the
conduction and valence band overlap.
 Due to overlap, electrons can easily move into the conduction band. This situation makes
a large number of electrons available for electrical conduction.
 When the valence band is partially empty, electrons from their lower levels can move to
higher levels making conduction possible.

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Energy Band Diagram for Semiconductors

 There is a small energy gap between conduction
band and valance band. (Eg < 3eV)
 At room temperature, some electrons from valence
band cross the energy gap and enter the conduction band.

Energy Band Diagram for Insulators

 There is a large energy gap between
conduction band and valance band. (Eg > 3
eV)
 Since there are no electrons in the conduction
band, no electrical conduction is possible.
 The electron cannot be excited from the valence band to the conduction band by thermal
excitation.
Differences Between Metals (Conductors), Semiconductors and Insulators
Metals Semiconductors Insulators
These are the substances These are the substances These are the substances
1 which allow the charges which just allow the charges which not allow the charges
easily to pass through them. to pass through them. to pass through them.
It consists of more number of It consists of only a few free
2 There are no free electrons.
free electrons. electrons.
Resistance is in between
3 Resistance is less Resistance is high
metals and insulators
Resistance is directly Resistance is inversely
Resistance is independent
4 proportional to absolute proportional to absolute
of absolute temperature.
temperature. temperature.
Conductance is in between
5 Conductance is high Conductance is less
metals and insulators
There is a small energy gap There is a large energy gap
The conduction band overlaps
6 between conduction band the between conduction band
on the valance band
valance band the valance band
Example: Gold, silver, iron Example: Germanium, Example: wood, plastic,
7
etc., silicon, thermistor etc., glass etc.,

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Semiconductors: It is a substance whose electrical properties lie in between that of conductors

and insulators.
Semiconductors are of two types.
1. Intrinsic Semiconductors: A pure semiconductor is called intrinsic semiconductors.
2. Extrinsic Semiconductors: A impure semiconductor is called extrinsic semiconductors
or the semiconductors which are doped are called extrinsic semiconductors.
There are two types of extrinsic semiconductors.
a. n-type semiconductor: In which electrons are the majority charge carriers.
b. p-type semiconductor: In which holes are the majority charge carriers.
Distinguish Between Intrinsic Semiconductor and Extrinsic Semiconductor
Intrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor
1 It is a pure semiconductor. It is an impure semiconductor.
Number of free electrons is equal to the Number of free electrons and number of
2
number of holes (ne = nh). holes are unequal (ne ≠ nh).
3 Conductivity is low. Conductivity is high.
Conductivity depends both on temperature
4 Conductivity depends only on temperature.
and impurity added.
Conductivity due to electrons and holes is Conductivity is mainly due to majority
5
nearly equal. charge carriers.
6 It does not conduct at zero Kelvin. It conducts at zero Kelvin.
Structure of Germanium or Silicon Semiconductor and its Action of Conductivity
Germanium or Silicon is a
tetravalent element i.e., it is having four
valence electrons, but it is having a
tendency to have eight valence electrons.
Therefore it shares another four valence
electrons from four neighbouring atoms and
forms a bond called covalent bond.
At very low temperature these bonds
are not broken and hence there are no free electrons. Therefore at low temperature
semiconductor acts as insulators.
As temperature increases, bonds are broken and the electrons come out by creating holes.
Thus conductivity of a semiconductor increases with increase in temperature. Therefore at room
temperature semiconductors acts as conductors.

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Note: In intrinsic semiconductors the number of electrons is equal to the number of holes.
In semiconductors electrons are – ve charge where as holes are + ve charge.
The direction of hole movement is opposite to the direction of electron movement.
Ge(32) – 1s2, 2s2 2p6, 3s2 3p6 3d10, 4s2 4p2
Si(14) – 1s2, 2s2 2p6, 3s2 3p2

n-type Semiconductor
1. Ge or Si is a tetravalent
element and its bonding
structure is as shown
2. There are some impurities
which are having five
valence electrons, these are
called pentavalent or donor
impurities such as
phosphorus, arsenic, antimony etc.,
3. When pentavalent is added to the tetravalent, it replaces one of the tetravalent elements. The
four valence electrons of pentavalent are shared by four tetravalent elements and one
electron is left free. Thus it is available for conduction. Therefore even at low temperatures
it acts as a conductor.
4. As temperature increases the bonds are broken, electrons come out by creating holes. Here
the number of electrons is in more number compared to holes. Hence this type of
semiconductor is called n-type semiconductor.
Note: The electron in the n-type semiconductor is represented by

p-type Semiconductor
1. Ge or Si is a tetravalent element
and its bonding structure is as
shown
2. There are some impurities which
are having three valence electrons,
these are called trivalent or
acceptor impurities such as boron,
indium, gallium etc.,

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3. When trivalent is added to the tetravalent, it replaces one of the tetravalent elements. The
three valence electrons of trivalent are shared by three valence electrons of tetravalent
elements but fourth place is left vacant and this is called hole. Thus it is available for
conduction. Therefore even at low temperatures it acts as a conductor.
4. As temperature increases the bonds are broken, electrons come out by creating holes. Here
the number of holes is in more number compared to electrons. Hence this type of
semiconductor is called p-type semiconductor.
Note: The hole in the p-type semiconductor is represented by
Distinguish Between n-type and p-type Semiconductor
n-type Semiconductor p-type Semiconductor
1 Electrons are the majority charge carriers Holes are the majority charge carriers
2 Holes are the minority charge carriers Electrons are the minority charge carriers
It is obtained by doping with pentavalent It is obtained by doping with trivalent
3
impurity impurity
4 It is called as a donor impurity It is called as a acceptor impurity
5 It is represented by It is represented by

p-n Junction
Junction between a p-type semiconductor and an n-type semiconductor is called p-n junction.
It is a single crystal of germanium or silicon
with its one half doped with pentavalent impurities
and other half with trivalent impurities. The plane
separating the two regions is known as p-n
junction.
The n-side of p-n junction has more
electrons and the p-side has more holes. When the
junction is formed electron diffuse from n to p region and holes diffuse from p to n region. Then
free electrons and holes combine to produce a very narrow region at the junction known as
depletion region. The width of the depletion region is about 10-6 m and it contains immobile
positive and negative ions. This region opposes further flow of electrons across the junction.
Due to the immobile ions, an electric potential difference is developed across the junction called
junction potential or barrier potential.
Note: The junction potential and the width of depletion region depend upon the doping
concentration.

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p-n Junction diode under Forward bias

A p-n junction is said to be under forward bias,
when p-region is connected to + ve of the battery and
n-region is connected to – ve of the battery.
Consider a p-n junction which is connected
due to + ve polarity of the battery, the holes in the p-
region are repelled and pushed towards the n-region. Due to the – ve polarity of the battery the
electrons in the n-region are repelled and pushed towards the p-region. When the potential of the
external battery is increased gradually the junction potential decreases and the width of the
depletion layer also decreases. When external voltage is further increased the holes and
electrons start moving across the junction in different directions and thus a steady flow of free
electrons and holes occur inside the semiconductor and a continuous current is established in the
circuit. Hence a p-n junction under forward bias conducts.

p-n Junction diode under Reverse bias

If p-region is connected to – ve of the battery
and n-region is connected to + ve of the battery then
it is said to be reverse biased.
The – ve polarity of the external battery
attracts the holes and repels the electrons. The + ve
polarity of the external battery attract electrons and
repels the holes, as a result the junction potential increases and the width of the depletion region
also increases. Due to this the free electrons and holes cannot cross the junction and hence p-n
junction under reverse bias does not conduct.
However when the potential of the battery is increased a small current flows through the
circuit and this is due to the flow of minority charge carriers across the junction.
When the applied reverse voltage is further gradually increased the current through the
circuit practically remains constant but at particular value of the applied reverse voltage called
break down voltage, the p-n junction conducts heavily and a large current is established and this
is called Avalanche effect.

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Voltage – Current (V-I) Characteristics of a Junction Diode

Note: Knee voltage (VK) for Germanium it is 0.3 V and for Silicon 0.7 V.

Schematic symbol of a Junction Diode

The arrow head points from p-side to n-side it signifies that the direction
of conventional current flows from p-side to n-side.

Rectification
The process of converting alternating current or voltage into direct current or voltage is
called rectification. The device used for rectification is known as rectifier.
There are two types of rectifiers (i) Half-wave rectifier
(ii) Full-wave rectifier
Half-Wave Rectifier

Construction: It consists of a transformer, across the primary of the transformer the AC which
is to be rectified is applied. Across secondary of transformer a diode D and a load resistance R L
are connected in series. Across RL the output is taken.

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Working
 During first + ve half cycle of AC ‘A’ becomes + ve and B becomes – ve, therefore the
diode D is in forward bias condition and it conducts the first + ve half cycle. It is
obtained across RL.
 During first - ve half cycle of AC ‘A’ becomes - ve and B becomes + ve, therefore the
diode D is in reverse bias condition and it will not conducts the first - ve half cycle i.e.,
the – ve half cycle is suppressed.
 Again during second + ve half cycle of AC ‘A’ becomes + ve and B becomes – ve,
therefore the diode D is in forward bias condition and it conducts the second + ve half
cycle. It is obtained across RL.
 Like this only + ve half cycles are obtained across RL and the diode acts as half-wave
rectifier.
Full −Wave Rectifier

Construction: The AC which is to be rectified is applied across the primary of the transformer.
The two terminals of the secondary transformer are connected to the + ve ends of diodes D1 and
D2. The – ve terminals are connected to the one end of the RL, the other end of RL is centre tap
of the secondary transformer.
Working
 During first + ve half cycle of AC ‘A’ becomes + ve and B becomes – ve, i.e., D1 is in
forward bias condition and D2 is in reverse bias condition, hence D1 conducts the + ve
half cycle along the direction MN and obtained across RL.
 During - ve half cycle of AC ‘A’ becomes - ve and B becomes + ve, i.e., D1 is in reverse
bias condition and D2 is in forward bias condition, hence D2 conducts the - ve half cycle
along the direction MN and obtained across RL.

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 Like this for all + ve half cycles diode D1 is in forward bias condition, for all – ve half
cycles diode D2 are in forward bias condition. Hence both + ve and – ve half cycles are
obtained across RL and the diode acts as full-wave rectifier.

Zener Diode
It can operate in the reverse breakdown voltage region continuously without being damaged.

 It is a heavily doped p-n junction. Due to this, depletion

region formed is very thin and the electric field of the
junction is extremely high, even for a small reverse bias
voltage.
 The I−V characteristics of a zener diode are shown in the figure below.
 It is widely used to regulate the voltage across the circuit.

Zener Diode as Voltage Regulator

 Zener diode and a resistor are connected
to a fluctuating dc supply such that the zener
diode is reverse biased.
 After the break down voltage, small
change in voltage across the zener diode
produces a large change in current through the
circuit.
 If voltage is increased beyond zener voltage, then the resistance of the zener diode drops
considerably.
 When the voltage across the diode tends to increase, the current through the diode rises
out of proportion and causes a sufficient increase in voltage drop across the resistor.
Therefore, the O/P voltage lowers back to normal.

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Photodiode
It is a p-n junction diode under reverse bias which conducts when it is illuminated with light.

p-n junction under reverse bias practically does not conduct. However a small current known as
reverse saturation current or dark current flows through the circuit due to minority charge
carriers in p and n regions. When the junction is illuminated with light of suitable frequency
more electron - hole pairs is produced and hence the reverse current increases.
Consider a semiconductor diode under reverse bias. When the applied voltage crosses the
breakdown voltage, a small reverse current known as dark current is established in the circuit.
When light of suitable frequency is made to fall on the junction, Reverse voltage
it creates many numbers of electron hole pairs and thus the current
Dark current
through the circuit increases. When the intensity of light increases Current
the strength of the current also increases. The characteristic curves
for photo diode are as shown in the graph.
Applications of Photodiodes
1. They are used in photo detectors.
2. They are used in optical communication system.
3. They are used in switching circuits.
4. They are used for demodulation.
5. They are used in logic circuits.
Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs)
It is an opto electronic device which emits light when forward biased.
Principle: When energy is supplied to a semiconductor, it produces an electron – hole pairs.
Conversely when energy is releases there should be recombination of an electron and hole.
The normal semiconductors like Ge or Si the energy released during the recombination is
dissipated as heat, but in semiconductors like gallium, arsenide, gallium posphide, gallium
arsenide phosphide the energy released appears in the form of light.
It is a device in which a semiconducting diode under forward bias emits light. The p-n
junction has a window at the top of the surface through which light is emitted.

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Working: When a semiconducting diode in which gallium arsenide

is used, is connected to an external battery, it starts emitting light.
In a forward biased diode free electrons which are the
majority charge carriers in the n-region crosses the junction and
combines with the holes in p-region.
During the process the electrons fall from a higher to lower
energy level. The difference in energy is radiated in the form of light. The colour of light
depends on the composition of the semiconductor.
Uses
1. They are used in display devices such as calculators, digital watches, digital meters, mobiles
etc.,
2. They are used in the traffic signals.
3. They are used in burglar alarm systems.
4. They are used in CD players and stereo-amplifiers.
5. They are used in optical fibre communications.
6. They are used as indicators in stero amplifiers, batteries and other electronic equipment.
7. They are used optical switching devices where fast switching on and off are required.
Solar Cell
It is a semi-conductor device used to
convert photons of solar light into
electricity.
 It generates emf when solar radiations
fall on the p-n junction.
 A p- Si wafer of about 300 μm is taken,
over which a thin layer n - Si is grown on one side by diffusion process.
 The generation of emf by a solar cell when light falls on it is due to following three
processes:
1. Generation of e - h pairs due to light close to the junction
2. Separation of electrons and holes due to electric field of the depletion region
3. The electrons reaching the n-side are collected by the front contact and holes reaching p-
side are collected by the back contact. Thus, p-side becomes positive and n -side becomes
negative giving rise to photo voltage.
 Semi-conductors with band gap close to 1.5 eV are ideal materials for solar cell
fabrication.

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Digital Electronics and Logic Gates

In circuits like amplifiers and oscillators the signal is in the form of continuous time varying
voltage or current. Such signals are called continuous or analog signals as shown in figure (a). In
digital signals as shown in figure (b) only discrete values of voltages are possible. The low level
is represented as 0 and high level is reprehended as 1. It is convenient to use binary numbers to
represent such signals. In digital circuits only two values of the input and output voltage they are
represented as 0 and 1.

Logic Gates
Logic circuits: A circuit which obeys a set of logic rules.
Logic gates: It is a digital circuit which makes logic decisions.
Truth table: It is a list of output for different possible input combinations.
NOT, AND, OR, NAND, NOR are the five common logic gates.

NOT Gate: It is logic gate which performs a basic logic function called
Truth table
inversion. It has only one input and one output, where the output is
A ̅
opposite of the input.
0 1
Symbol
1 0
A ̅
OR Gate: It is logic gate which performs a logical addition. It has two inputs and one output.
Symbol Truth table
A+B A B A+B
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1

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AND Gate: It is logic gate which performs a logical multiplication. It has two inputs and one
output. Truth table
A
Symbol A.B A B A.B
B
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1
NOR Gate: It is the combination of OR and NOT gate.
Symbol Truth table
̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ A B ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅

0 0 1
OR 0 1 0
A+B 1 0 0
` ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
1 1 0

NAND Gate: It is the combination of AND and NOT gate. Truth table
Symbol A A B ̅̅̅̅̅
̅̅̅̅̅
B 0 0 1
OR 0 1 1
A A.B ̅̅̅̅̅
1 0 1
B
1 1 0

Questions
1. Give the differences between metals, semiconductors and insulators.
2. What is a semiconductor? Give the types of semiconductor.
3. Explain p-n junction as a forward bias.
4. Explain p-n junction as a reverse bias.
5. Define rectifier. Explain half-wave rectifier.
6. Give the symbolic representation of zener diode.
7. Give the uses of photodiodes.
8. Give the symbol and truth table for NOT gate.
9. Give the symbol and truth table for OR gate.
10. Give the symbol and truth table for AND gate.
11. Give the symbol and truth table for NOR gate.

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12. Name the semiconductor device that can be used as a voltage regulator. Draw the I –V
characteristics of this device. (M.Q.P-I (2m))
13. Classify metals, semiconductors and insulators on the basis of energy bands. (M.Q.P-I
(3m))
14. Write the neat circuit diagram of a full wave rectifier and explain its working. Draw the
input and output waveforms. (M.Q.P-I (5m), July-14 (5m), March-18 (5m))
15. Define energy band gap in solids. (M.Q.P-II (1m))
16. Write the circuit symbol of a zener diode. Draw its I-V characteristics. Explain its
working as a voltage regulator. (M.Q.P-II (5m))
17. Write the truth table of logic OR gate. (March-14 (1m))
18. How zener diode is used as voltage regulator? (March-14 (3m), July-18 (3m))
19. Explain the formation of energy bands in solids. On the basis of energy bands distinguish
between a metal, a semiconductor and an insulator. (March-14 (5m))
20. Write the circuit symbol of AND gate. (July-14 (1m), July-17 (1m))
21. Mention any one application of light emitting diode [LED]. (July-14 (1m), July-17 (1m))
22. Give any three differences between n-type and p-type semiconductors. (July-14 (3m),
July-16 (3m), March-17 (3m), March-18 (3m), March-19 (2m))
23. What is photodiode? Mention its one use. (March-15 (2m))
24. Distinguish between conductor and semiconductor on the basis of band theory of solids.
(March-15 (3m))
25. Inputs of NAND gates are A = 1, B = 0. What is the output? (July-15 (1m))
26. What are intrinsic semiconductors? Name the element used as a dopant to obtain P – type
semiconductor. (July-15 (2m))
27. What is rectification? With relevant circuit diagram and wave forms, explain the working
of p - n junction diode as a full wave rectifier. (July-15 (5m), March-16 (5m), March-17
(5m))
28. Write the logic symbol and truth table of NAND gate. (March-16 (2m))
29. Write the truth table of NAND gate. (July-16 (1m))
30. What is NAND gate? Give its logic symbol. (March-17 (2m))
31. Explain the use of Zener diode as a voltage regulator. (July-17 (3m))
32. What is ‘depletion region’ in a semiconductor diode? (March-18 (1m))

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33. What is the output of this combination? (March-18 (1m))

34. Write any two advantages of Light Emitting Diode (LED) over conventional
incandescent low power lamps. (July-18 (2m))
35. Describe with suitable block diagrams, action of pn-junction diode under forward and
reverse bias conditions. Also draw I-V characteristics. (July-18 (5m))
36. Explain ‘Conduction band’ ‘Valance band’ and ‘Energy gap’ in semiconductors.
(March-19 (3m))
37. What is NAND gate? Write its logic symbol and truth table. (June-19 (3m))
38. What is Rectification? Describe with a circuit diagram the working of a p-n junction
diode as half wave rectifier with input and output waveforms. (June-19 (5m), March-
2020 (5m))
39. Draw the logic symbol of NOR gate. (March-2020 (1m))
40. Give three differences between intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors. (March-2020
(3m))
41. Which logic gate is used as inverter? (September-2020 (1m))
42. What are optoelectronic devices? Name any two optoelectronic devices. (September-
2020 (3m))
43. What is a Zener diode? Explain the action of Zener diode as a voltage regulator with a
relevant circuit diagram. (September-2020 (5m))

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