Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP)

●
Internetworking protocol (lP) does not have an inbuilt mechanism for sending error and control messages.
●
The IP protocol has no error-reporting or error-correcting mechanism.
●
It provides unreliable and connectionless datagram delivery.
●
The IP protocol also lacks a mechanism for host and management queries.
MODULE 4 – A host sometimes needs to determine if a router or another host is alive. And sometimes a network
administrator needs information from another host or router.
ICMP has been designed to compensate for the above 2 deficiencies.
Network Layer in the Internet ●

– IP depends on Internet Control Message Protocol(ICMP) to provide an error control.

– It is used for 1. reporting errors and 2.management queries.
– ICMP is a supporting protocol and is used by network devices like routers for sending error messages
and operations information.
– e.g. the requested service is not available or that a host or router could not be reached.
– ICMP is used for error reporting if two devices connect over the internet and some error occurs, So,
the router sends an ICMP error message to the source informing about the error.

ICMP’s Message Format ●

The next 32 bits of the ICMP Header are Extended Header which has the work of pointing
out the problem in IP Message. Byte locations are identified by the pointer which causes the
problem message and receiving device looks here for pointing to the problem.
●
The ICMP protocol always reports the error messages to the original source.
●
For example, when the sender sends the message, if any error occurs in the message, then the
router reports to the sender rather than the receiver as the sender is sending the message.
●
The last part of the ICMP packet is Data or Payload of variable length.

●
Type: It is an 8-bit field. It defines the ICMP message type.
●
Type 0 – Echo reply
●
Type 3 – Destination unreachable
●
Type 5 – Redirect Message
●
Type 8 – Echo Request
●
Type 11 – Time Exceeded
●
Type 12 – Parameter problem
●
Code: It is an 8-bit field that defines the subtype of the ICMP message. This field carries
some additional information about the error message and type.
●
Checksum: It is a 16-bit field to detect whether the error exists in the message or not.
1. Error reporting messages 1. Destination unreachable
●
One of the main responsibilities of ICMP is to report errors ●
The destination unreachable error occurs when the packet does not reach the
●
ICMP does not correct errors - it simply reports them. destination.
●
Error correction is left to the higher-level protocols.
●
Suppose the sender sends the message, but the message does not reach the destination,
then the intermediate router reports to the sender that the destination is unreachable.
●
ICMP always reports error messages to the original source.
Types of Error Reporting messages
The error reporting messages are broadly classified into the following categories:

2. Source quench message 3. Parameter problem

●
Source quench message is a request to decrease the traffic rate for messages sending to ●
Whenever packets come to the router, then the calculated header checksum should be equal to the received header checksum.
the destination host. Then only the packet is accepted by the router.
●
If there is a mismatch, packet will be dropped by the router.
●
Or we can say when receiving host detects that the rate of sending packets (traffic rate) to
it is too fast, it sends the source quench message to the source to slow down so that no ●
ICMP will take the source IP from the discarded packet and informs to the source by sending a ‘parameter problem message’.
packet can be lost. 4. Time exceeded
– ICMP will take the source IP from the discarded packet and informs the source by sending a source ●
Sometimes the situation arises when there are many routers that exist between the sender and the receiver.
quench message. ●
When the sender sends the packet, then it moves in a routing loop.
– Then source will reduce the speed of transmission so that router will be free from congestion.
●
The time exceeded is based on the time-to-live (TTL) value.
– When the congestion router is far away from the source the ICMP will send hop by hop source
quench message so that every router will reduce the speed of transmission.
●
When the packet traverses through the router, then each router decreases the value of TTL by one.
●
Whenever a router decreases a datagram with a time-to-live value to zero, then the router discards the datagram and sends the
time exceeded message to the original source.
5. Redirection 2. ICMP Query Messages
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When the packet is sent, then the routing table is gradually augmented and updated. 1. Echo-request and echo-reply message
●
The tool used to achieve this is the redirection message. ●
A router or a host can send an echo-request message.
●
For example, A wants to send the packet to B, and there are two routers exist between A and B. ●
It is used to ping a message to another host that "Are you alive".
●
If the hostA tries to send data through a router R1 and R1 sends data on a router R2 and there is a direct way ●
If the other host is alive, then it sends the echo-reply message.
from the hostA to R2.
●
An echo-reply message is sent by the router or the host that receives an echo-request message.
●
Then R1 will send a redirect message to inform the host that there is the best way available to the destination
directly through R2 .
●
The hostA then sends data packets for the destination directly to R2.
●
The router R2 will send the original datagram to the intended destination,ie,hostB.

●
2. Timestamp-request and timestamp-reply message
●
The timestamp-request and timestamp-reply messages are also a type of query messages.
●
Suppose the computer A wants to know the time on computer B, so it sends the timestamp-request message to
computer B.
●
The computer B responds with a timestamp-reply message.

ADDRESS RESOLUTION PROTOCOL (ARP)

●
Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) is a communication protocol used to find the MAC
(Media Access Control) address of a device from its IP address.
●
This protocol is used when a device wants to communicate with another device on a Local
Area Network (LAN) or Ethernet.
WORKING OF ARP
●
ARP relates an IP address with the physical address.
●
1. When a host tries to interact with another host, an ARP request is initiated. If the IP address is for
●
On a typical physical network such as LAN, each device on a link is identified by a the local network, the source host checks its ARP cache to find out the hardware address of the
physical address, usually printed on the network interface card (NIC). destination computer.
●
A physical address can be changed when NIC on a particular machine fails. ●
2. If the correspondence hardware address is not found, ARP broadcasts the request to all the local
hosts.
●
The IP Address cannot be changed. ARP can find the physical address of the node when its
internet address is known.
●
3. All hosts receives the broadcast request and check their own IP address. If no match is discovered,
the request is ignored.
●
ARP provides a dynamic mapping from an IP address to the corresponding hardware ●
4. The destination host that finds the matching IP address sends an ARP reply(in unicast manner) to
address. the source host along with its hardware address, thus establishing the communication.
●
Need: When one host wants to communicate with another host on the network, it needs to ●
5. The ARP cache is then updated with the hardware address of the destination host.
resolve the IP address of each host to the host's hardware address.
 Important ARP terms
●
ARP Cache: After resolving the MAC address, the ARP sends it to the cache stored
in a table for future reference.
– The subsequent communications can use the MAC address from the cache
table.
– ie, no need of requesting again
●
ARP Cache Timeout: It is the time for which the MAC address in the ARP cache
can reside.
●
ARP request: Broadcasting a packet over the network to validate whether we came
across the destination MAC address or not.
●
ARP response/reply: The MAC address response that the source receives from the
destination aids in further communication of the data.

ARP message format

Reverse Address Resolution Protocol (RARP)
●
Reverse Address Resolution Protocol (RARP) is a network-specific standard
protocol.
●
Some network hosts, such as a diskless workstation, do not know their own IP
address when they are booted.
●
Hardware Type (16-bit field): Defining the type of the network on which ARP run. Eg: Ethernet is given as type 1.
●
To determine their own IP address, they use a mechanism similar to ARP, but now the
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Protocol type (16-bit field): Defining the Protocol. Eg: for IPV4 protocol, the value of this field is 0800H. hardware address of the host is the known parameter, and the IP address is the queried
●
Hardware length (8-bit field) : Used to define the length of physical address in bytes. Eg: For Ethernet, value is 6.
parameter.
(ie, 6*8=48 bits)
●
The reverse address resolution is performed the same way as the ARP address
●
Protocol length (8-bit field): Define the length of the IP address in bytes. For IPV4 protocol, value is 4 (ie, 4*8=32
bits) resolution. The same packet format is used.
●
Operation(16-bit field) : Define the type of packet. The possible type of packets are 1. ARP Request (field value-1),
2. ARP Reply (field value-2)
●
Sender hardware address : Defining the physical address of the sender.
●
Sender protocol address: Defining the logical address of sender.
●
Target Hardware address : Define the physical/MAC address of the target.
– For ARP request packet, the field contains all zeros because the sender doesn’t know the receivers physical address or MAC address
●
Target protocol address : Define the logical address of the target(IP Address)
RARP: Method
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Source Device Generates RARP Request Message – The source device generates a RARP
Request message.
●
Source Device Broadcasts RARP Request Message – The source broadcasts the RARP Request
message on the local network.
●
Local Devices Process RARP Request Message – The message is received by each device on
the local network and processed.
– Some devices who act as RARP servers will only give reply to RARP request.
– Devices that are not configured to act as RARP servers ignore the message.
●
RARP Server Generates RARP Reply Message - Any device on the network that is a RARP
server responds to the broadcast from the source device. It generates a RARP Reply
●
RARP Server Sends RARP Reply Message - The RARP server sends the RARP Reply message
unicast to the device looking to be configured.
●
Source Device Processes RARP Reply Message - The source device processes the reply from
the RARP server.
– It then configures itself using the IP address in the ‘Target Protocol Address’field supplied by
the RARP server.

Differences between ARP and RARP

RARP Packet format : ARP RARP

ARP stands for Address Resolution Protocol. RARP stands for Reverse Address Resolution Protocol.

A protocol used to map an IP address to a physical (MAC) A protocol used to map a physical (MAC) address to an IP
address address

Host1 broadcasts its IP address and requests a MAC Client broadcasts its MAC address and requests an IP
address, and the host2 responds with the corresponding address, and the server responds with the corresponding IP
MAC address address

Through ARP, (32-bit) IP address mapped into (48-bit) Through RARP, (48-bit) MAC address of 48 bits mapped
MAC address. into (32-bit) IP address.

Request 1 and Reply 2 Request 3 and Reply 4

The primary use of the ARP reply is to update the ARP The primary use of the RARP reply is to configure the local
table. host’s IP address.

Widely used in modern networks to resolve IP addresses to Rarely used in modern networks as most devices have a pre-
MAC addresses assigned IP address

The ARP table is maintained or managed by the local host. The RARP table is maintained by the RARP Server.
 Problem of RARP BOOTSTRAP PROTOCOL (BOOTP)
●
Bootstrap Protocol (BOOTP) is a basic protocol that automatically provides each
participant in a network connection with a unique IP address for identification and
●
Broadcasting is done at the data link layer. authentication as soon as it connects to the network.
●
The physical broadcast address doesn’t pass the boundaries of network. – This helps the server to speed up data transfers and connection requests.
– Ie, RARP server must be located within the same physical network.
●
Bootstrap Protocol (BOOTP) is a networking protocol which is used by networking
●
This means that if a network is split into multiple subnets, it need to assign a RARP
administration to give IP addresses to each member which participates in the network
server for each network or subnet. to communicate with other networking devices
●
This is the reason that RARP is almost outdated. ●
BOOTP is used during the bootstrap process when the computer is initially starting up,
●
Two protocols are commonly used for replacing RARP hence the name.
– 1) BOOTP ●
BOOTP was intended for diskless systems because they require such a protocol, in
– 2) DHCP order to contact a server to obtain a network address and some information the
operating system will use.

●
Summary: As soon as a device connects to the network, the Bootstrap Protocol How does BOOTP Work
(BOOTP) immediately provides each member in the connection a distinct IP ●
When a BOOTP client is started, it has no IP address,it only knows its MAC
address address.
●
When a BOOTP client is started, it has no IP address,it only knows its MAC ●
So, it broadcasts a message containing its MAC address onto the network.
address. ●
This message is called a “BOOTP request” and it is picked up by the BOOTP
●
BOOTP message are encapsulated in a UDP packet, and the UDP packet itself server, which replies to the client with the following information that the client
encapsulated in an IP packet. needs:
– The client’s IP address, subnet mask, and default gateway address
– The IP address and host name of the BOOTP server
– The IP address of the server that has the boot image, which the client needs to load its
operating system
●
When the client receives this information from the BOOTP server, it configures and
initializes its TCP/IP protocol stack, and then connects to the server from which the
boot image is shared.
●
The client loads the boot image and uses this information to load and start its
operating system
 BOOTP message format

●
Operation Code: Specifies the type of message. A value of 1 indicates a request
(BOOTREQUEST message) while a value of 2 is a reply (BOOTREPLY message).
●
Hardware Type:Denotes the type of hardware technology being used. For example, if the
hardware type is Ethernet, this field holds the value 1.
● Hardware Address Length: Specifies how long hardware addresses are in this message.
For Ethernet or other networks using IEEE 802 MAC addresses, the value is 6.
●
Hops: Specify the number of relay agents or routers through which the message has to
travel between client and the server .client sets it to 0 before transmission and is
incremented at each router.
●
Transaction Identifier: A 32-bit identification field generated by the client, to allow it to
match up the request with replies received from BOOTP servers.

●
Seconds: This field contains the number of seconds “elapsed since the client
started trying to boot”.
– This is supposed to provide information to BOOTP servers to help them
decide which requests to respond to first. ●
Client Hardware Address: The hardware (layer two) address of the client sending
a BOOTREPLY.
●
Client IP Address: If the client has a current IP address that it plans to keep
using, it puts it in this field. By filling in this field, the client is committing to – It is used both to look up a device's assigned IP address and also possibly in delivery of
a reply message
responding to unicast IP datagrams sent to this address.
●
Server Name: The server sending a BOOTREPLY may optionally put its name in this field.
– Otherwise, it sets this field to all zero to tell the server it wants an address
assigned. – This can be a simple text “nickname” or a fully-qualified DNS domain name (such as
“myserver.organization.org”).
●
Your IP Address: The IP address that the server is assigning to the client. This – Name is a unique label that identifies the server.
may be different than the IP address currently used by the client
●
Vendor-Specific Area: Originally created to allow vendors to customize BOOTP to the
●
Server IP Address: The IP address of the BOOTP server sending needs of different types of hardware, this field is now also used to hold additional vendor-
a BOOTREPLY message. independent configuration information.
●
Router IP Address: The IP address of the Router(Relay agent).
Important Features of Bootstrap Protocol
●
Bootstrap Protocol (BOOTP) is a basic protocol that automatically provides each participant in a Uses of Bootstrap Protocol
network connection with a unique IP address for identification and authentication as soon as it
connects to the network. ●
Bootstrap (BOOTP) is primarily required to check the system on a network the first
– This helps the server to speed up data transfers and connection requests. time you start your computer.
●
BOOTP uses a unique IP address algorithm to provide each system on the network with a
completely different IP address in a fraction of a second.
– Records the BIOS cycle of each computer on the network to allow the
computer’s motherboard and network manager to efficiently organize the data
●
This shortens the connection time between the server and the client.
transfer on the computer as soon as it boots up.
●
It starts the process of downloading and updating the source code even with very little information.
●
BOOTP uses a combination of DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol) and UDP (User
●
BOOTP is mainly used in a diskless environment and requires no media as all data
Datagram Protocol) to request and receive requests from various network-connected participants is stored in the network cloud for efficient use.
and to handle their responses.
●
BOOTP is the transfer of a data between a client and a server to send and receive
●
In a BOOTP connection, the server and client just need an IP address and a gateway address to
establish a successful connection.
requests and corresponding responses by the networking server.
●
Typically, in a BOOTP network, the server and client share the same LAN, and the routers used in ●
BOOTP supports the use of motherboards and network managers, so no external
the network must support BOOTP bridging. storage outside of the cloud network is required.
●
A great example of a network with a TCP / IP configuration is the Bootstrap Protocol network.
●
Whenever a computer on the network asks for a specific request to the server, BOOTP uses its
unique IP address to quickly resolve them.

Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP)

●
Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) is a network management protocol
used to ‘dynamically’ assign an IP address to any device, or node, on a network, DHCP does the following
so they can communicate using IP (Internet Protocol). ●
DHCP manages the provision of all the nodes or devices added or
●
DHCP automates and centrally manages these configurations. dropped from the network.
– There is no need to manually assign IP addresses to new devices. ●
DHCP maintains the unique IP address of the host using a DHCP server.
– Therefore, there is no requirement for any user configuration to connect to a ●
It sends a request to the DHCP server whenever a client/node/device,
DHCP based network.
which is configured to work with DHCP, connects to a network.
●
DHCP can be implemented on local networks as well as large enterprise networks. ●
The server acknowledges by providing an IP address to the
●
DHCP maintains the unique IP address of the host using a DHCP server. client/node/device.
●
DHCP is the default protocol used by the most routers and networking equipment. ●
DHCP is also used to configure the proper subnet mask, default gateway
●
DHCP is also called RFC (Request for comments). and DNS server information on the node or device.
How DHCP works
●
DHCP runs at the application layer of the TCP/IP protocol stack to dynamically assign IP addresses
to DHCP clients/nodes and to allocate TCP/IP configuration information to the DHCP clients.
– Information includes subnet mask information, default gateway, IP addresses and domain name
system addresses.
●
DHCP is based on client-server protocol in which servers manage a pool of unique IP addresses, as
well as information about client configuration parameters
– DHCP server assign addresses to clients out of those address pools.
●
The DHCP Messages
●
1. DHCP Discover Message:
– This is the first message generated in the communication process between the server and
the client.
– This message is generated by the Client host in order to discover if there is any DHCP
server/servers are present in a network or not.
– This message is broadcasted to all devices present in a network to find the DHCP server.
– This message is 342 or 576 bytes long.

●
2. DHCP Offers A Message:
●
5. DHCP Negative Acknowledgment Message:
– The server will respond to the host in this message specifying the unleased IP address and other
TCP configuration information. – Whenever a DHCP server receives a request for an IP address that is invalid according to the scopes
that are configured, it sends a DHCP Nak message to the client.
– The size of the message is 342 bytes.
– Eg-when the server has no IP address unused or the pool is empty, then this message is sent by
– If there is more than one DHCP server present in the network then the client host will accept the the server to the client.
first DHCP OFFER message it receives.
●
6. DHCP Decline:
●
3. DHCP Request Message: – If the DHCP client determines the offered configuration parameters are different or invalid, it sends a
– When a client receives an offer message, it responds by broadcasting a DHCP request message. DHCP decline message to the server.
– The client will produce a gratuitous ARP in order to find if there is any other host present in the – When there is a reply to the gratuitous ARP by any host to the client, the client sends a DHCP
network with the same IP address. decline message to the server showing the offered IP address is already in use.
– If there is no reply from another host, then there is no host with the same TCP configuration in the ●
7. DHCP Release:
network and the message is broadcasted to the server showing the acceptance of the IP address. – A DHCP client sends a DHCP release packet to the server to release the IP address and cancel any
●
4. DHCP Acknowledgment Message: remaining lease time.
– In response to the request message received, the server will make an entry with a specified client ●
8. DHCP Inform:
ID and bind the IP address offered with lease time. – If a client address has obtained an IP address manually then the client uses DHCP information to obtain
– Now, the client will have the IP address provided by the server. other local configuration parameters, such as domain name.
– In reply to the DHCP inform message, the DHCP server generates a DHCP ack message with a local
configuration suitable for the client without allocating a new IP address.
– This DHCP ack message is unicast to the client.
Components of DHCP
●
DHCP Server: DHCP server is a networked device running the DCHP service that holds IP
Advantages of DHCP
addresses and related configuration information. ●
Simplifies the IP address assignment process of network administrators, as the whole process of IP address
assignment can be automated.
– This is typically a server or a router but could be anything that acts as a host, such as an SD-WAN
appliance. – Using DHCP, devices can get their IP addresses and network related parameters automatically on boot up,
without manual intervention
●
DHCP client: DHCP client is the endpoint that receives configuration information from a ●
DHCP optimally uses IP address space, as DHCP mandates periodic renewal of assigned IP addresses.
DHCP server. – Those assigned IP addresses that are not renewed can be used for new end nodes.
– This can be any device like computer, laptop, IoT endpoint or anything else that requires connectivity ●
DHCP supports both static and dynamic modes of IP addresses assignment and both these modes can coexist
to the network. together.
– Most of the devices are configured to receive DHCP information by default. – On a need basis, some nodes could always be assigned the same static IP addresses, based on their device
identity like MAC addresses, while rest of the nodes could be assigned dynamic addresses from a pool of IP
●
IP address pool: IP address pool is the range of addresses that are available to DHCP addresses configured on the DHCP server.
clients. ●
DHCP can be used to assign not only IP addresses, but also a wide range of additional network parameters like
default gateway, DNS server address etc.
– IP addresses are typically handed out sequentially from lowest to the highest. ●
DHCP framework permits vendor specific options to be included inside DHCP messages, so that end nodes can be
●
Subnet: Subnet is the partitioned segments of the large IP networks. assigned even vendor specific parameters.
●
With routers acting as DHCP relay agents, even end nodes that do not have a DHCP server in their network, can
– Subnet is used to keep networks manageable. communicate with remote DHCP servers, to get their IP address and other network related parameters.
●
Lease: Lease is the length of time for which a DHCP client holds the IP address ●
DHCP supports both IPV4 and IPV6 address assignments.
information. Disadvantage -
– When a lease expires, the client has to renew it. ●
IP conflict can occur

Open Shortest Path First (OSPF) protocol OSPF Areas

●
OSPF divides the autonomous systems into areas where the area is a collection of networks, hosts, and routers.
●
Open Shortest Path First (OSPF) is a link-state routing protocol that is used to find the best path ●
Like internet service providers divide the internet into a different autonomous system(collection of n/w with same
between the source and the destination router using its own Shortest Path First algorithm. routing policy) for easy management and OSPF further divides the autonomous systems into Areas.
– A link-state routing protocol is a protocol that uses the concept of triggered updates, i.e., if there is ●
Routers that exist inside the area flood the area with routing information
a change observed in the learned routing table then the updates are triggered only, not like the ●
In Area, the special router also exists. The special routers are those that are present at the border of an area, and
distance-vector routing protocol where the routing table is exchanged at a period of time. these special routers are known as Area Border Routers.
●
It is an intradomain protocol, which means that it is used within an area or a network. ●
This router summarizes the information about an area and shares the information with other areas.
●
It is a protocol which aims at moving the packet within a large autonomous system or routing domain. ●
All the areas inside an autonomous system are connected to the backbone routers, and these backbone routers are
routers of a primary area.
Criteria –
●
The role of a primary area is to provide communication between different areas.
●
To form a neighborship in OSPF, there is a criterion for both routers:
– It should be present in the same area.
– The router I’d be unique.
– The subnet mask should be the same.
– Hello, and the dead timer should be the same.
– The stub flag must match.
– Authentication must match.
How does OSPF work? OSPF Message types
There are three steps that can explain the working of OSPF: There are certain messages that the OSPF uses to establish communication between all the routers that operate the OSPF. They are:
●
1. Hello Message
●
Step 1: The first step is to become OSPF neighbors. The two – It is a type of keep-alive message that the OSPF uses for neighbour discovery or recovery. This message is exchanged every 10
secs. It is used to test the reachability of neighbours.
connecting routers running OSPF on the same link creates a neighbor ●
2. Database Description (DBD)
relationship. – It consists of the topology description of the routing domain (an area or an Autonomous System). Neighbouring routers exchange
DBD
●
Step 2: The second step is to exchange database information. ●
3. Link State Request (LSR)
– It is sent by a router that needs information about a specific route.When a DBD is received by a router, it compares that DBD with
– After becoming the neighbors, the two routers exchange the LSDB its own DBD. Thus, in case the DBD that it has received consists of more updates than the DBD of its own, then its neighbour
receives the LSR.
information with each other.
●
4. Link State Update (LSU)
●
Step 3: The third step is to choose the best route. – A router responds with this message whenever it receives LSR. It consists of all the requested details.
●
5. Link State Acknowledgement
– Once the LSDB information has been exchanged with each other, – This message provides the link-state exchange process with reliability. This message is like the acknowledgement of the LSU
the router chooses the best route to be added to a routing table message.
6. Link State Advertisement (LSA)
based on the calculation of SPF.
●

– An LSA is a data packet of OSPF that consists of all the information on link-state routing. It is only shared with those routers that
have formed an adjacency.

OSPF Message Format ●

Version: It is an 8-bit field that specifies the OSPF protocol version.
●
Type: It is an 8-bit field. It specifies the type of the OSPF packet.
– There are five different types of packets in OSPF
●
Hello
●
Database Description
●
Link state request
●
Link state update
●
Link state Acknowledgment
●
Message: It is a 16-bit field that defines the total length of the message, including the header.
– The total length = length of the message + length of the header.
●
Source IP address: It defines the address from which the packets are sent. It is a sending routing IP address.
●
Area identification: It defines the area within which the routing takes place.
●
Checksum: It is used for error correction and error detection.
●
Authentication type: There are two types of authentication, i.e., 0 and 1.
– Here, 0 means for none : specifies no authentication is available
– 1 means for pwd : specifies the password-based authentication.
●
Authentication: It is a 32-bit field that contains the actual value of the authentication data.
 BGP (Border Gateway Protocol) Characteristics of Border Gateway Protocol (BGP):
●
It is an interdomain routing protocol, and it uses the path-vector routing.
●
It is a gateway protocol that is used to exchange routing and reachability ●
Inter-Autonomous System Configuration: The main role of BGP is to provide communication between two
autonomous systems by exchanging network reachability information
information among the autonomous system on the internet.
– BGP constructs a graph of AS based on information exchanged between BGP routers.
●
Protocol used to communicate between two different autonomous number systems ●
BGP supports the Next-Hop Paradigm : Supplies next hop info for each destination.
is known as BGP (Border Gateway Protocol). ●
Path Information: BGP advertisements also include path information, along with the reachable destination and next
●
The BGP is the only protocol that is running on the internet backbone or used to destination pair.
exchange the routes between two different autonomous number systems. ●
Runs Over TCP : uses TCP for all communication.
●
BGP maintains a separate routing table based on shortest path and various other ●
BGP conserves network Bandwidth.
attributes ●
BGP also supports Security: Allows a receiver to authenticate messages,so that the identity of the sender can be
verified
●
Flexibility.
●
Coordination among multiple BGP speakers within the AS (Autonomous System).
●
BGP support CIDR-Classless addressing
●
Policy Support: BGP can implement policies that can be configured by the administrator. For ex:- a router running
BGP can be configured to distinguish between the routes that are known within the AS and that which are known from
outside the AS.s

Functionality of Border Gateway Protocol (BGP)

●
Overall activity BGP route information management can be considered as 4 main
tasks ●
The BGP chooses the best route based on the attributes of the path.
– Route storage
– Route update
●
Path-vector routing is used in the border gateway routing protocol,
– Route selection
which contains the routing table that shows the path information.
– Route advertisement
●
The path attributes provide the path information.
●
The first function consists of initial peer acquisition and authentication. Both the – The attributes that show or store the path information are
peers established a TCP connection and performed message exchange that known as path attributes.
guarantees both sides have agreed to communicate. – This list of attributes helps the receiving router to make a better
●
Also verifies that the peers and the network connection between them are decision
functioning correctly.
●
Then mainly focuses on sending negative or positive reachability information.
 ●
OPEN:
BGP Messages – Opens communications between peers
– first message sent by each side after a TCP connection is established
– Authenticates sender
●
UPDATE:
– provide routing updates to other BGP systems
– UPDATE message is used to perform updates if there is any changes in the routes.
– Advertises new path (or withdraws old)
●
KEEP ALIVE:
– keep BGP connections, ensures neighbours are still alive or active, keep the
sessions from expiring
●
NOTIFICATION:
– notification message is sent when an error condition is detected
– used to Close a connection

Types of Border Gateway Protocol

BGP packet header format ●
External BGP: It is used to interchange routing information between the routers in different
autonomous systems, it is also known as eBGP(External Border Gateway Protocol). The below
image shows how eBGP interchange routing information.

●
Internal BGP: It is used to interchange routing information between the routers in the same
●
Marker: It is a 32-bit field which is used for the authentication purpose. autonomous system, it is also known as iBGP(Internal Border Gateway Protocol). Internal routers
●
Length: It is a 16-bit field that defines the total length of the message, including the header. also ensure consistency among routers for sharing routing information.
●
Type: It is an 8-bit field that defines the type of the packet.
 Internet Multicasting
Exterior Gateway Protocol (EGP) ●
Multicasting is when a group of devices all receive the same messages or packets.
●
The Exterior Gateway Protocol (EGP) was a routing protocol used to connect different
●
Multicast communications refers to one to many communications
autonomous systems on the Internet from the mid-1980s until the mid-1990s, when it was ●
IP multicasting refers to the implementation of multicast communication in Internet.
replaced by Border Gateway Protocol (BGP).
●
Exterior Gateway Protocol (EGP) is a defunct routing protocol used in autonomous systems to
exchange data between surrounding gateway sites.
●
Internet hosts used EGP for data table routing exchanges before BGP was introduced. Available
routers, addresses, cost metrics, and each optimal route selection path are all listed in the EGP
routing table. The EGP model is designed to automate limited events, actions, and transitions.
●
Multicast is driven by receivers.Receivers indicate interest in receiving data.
●
Multicasting works by sharing an IP address between multiple devices.
●
The EGP mechanisms are as follows − ●
Any network traffic directed at that IP address will reach all devices that share the IP address, instead of just one device.
– Obtain neighbors ●
This is much like when a group of employees all receive company emails directed at a certain email
– Keep an eye on your neighbor and check status of neighbours(if they are alive/reachable)
●
A set of receivers for a multicast transmission is called a multicast group.
– Inform neighbours of the networks that reachable within their AS’s. ie, Data is exchanged via update
messages. ●
An user that wants to receive multicast transmissions joins the corresponding multicast group and become a member of
that group.
●
EGP allows neighboring routers in different domains to share information, whereas Interior ●
After an user joins, the network builds the necessary routing paths so that the user receives the data sent to the multicast
Gateway Protocols are utilized within a domain. group.

IGMP -Internet group management protocol

●
IGMP General Membership Query (MQ) messages :
●
IGMP is a network layer protocol used to set up multicasting on networks that use the Internet
– Sent by a multicast router to the entire connected network of devices to update mulitcast
Protocol version 4 (IPv4).
group membership for all groups in the network.
●
IGMP allows devices to join a multicasting group.
– This query helps the routers to maintain accurate multicast group membership information.
●
The Internet Group Management Protocol (IGMP) is a protocol that allows several devices to
share one IP address so they can all receive the same data
●
IGMP Group-specific Multicast Query (MQ) messages
– Routers send these messages to a specific multicast group instead of entire network.
●
IGMP is not a multicasting routing protocol; it is a protocol that manages group
membership. – Used to determine the members of a particular multicast group.

●
It is used by the hosts and routers to support multicasting.
●
IGMP Membership Report messages :
– Sent by hosts to a multicast router to indicate their interest in joining a multicast group.
●
The IGMP protocol gives the multicast routers information about the membership status of
hosts (routers) connected to the network. – This report informs the router of the presence of a host that wants to receive multicast traffic.

IGMP Messages ●
IGMP Leave Group (LG) messages :
– Sent by hosts to a router indicating that they are leaving a multicast group.
– This message informs the router that the host no longer wants to receive traffic for that
group.
IGMP Message Format Operations of IGMP
1. Joining a Group
●
A host or a router can join a group.
●
A host maintains a list of processes that have membership in a group.
●
When a process wants to join a new group, it sends its request to the host.
●
The host adds the name of the process and the name of the requested group to its list.
●
Type
●
If this is the first entry for this particular group, the host sends a membership report message.
– This is an 8-bit field and is mainly used to define the type of the message. The value of the type can be in both
●
If this is not the first entry, there is no need to send the membership report.
hexadecimal as well as binary notations. 2. Leaving a group
●
Maximum Response Time
●
When a host sees that no process is interested in a specific group, it sends a leave report.
– The size of this field is also 8 bit and it mainly defines the amount of time in which query must be answered. The
●
Similarly, when a router sees that none of the networks connected to its interfaces is interested in a
value of this field is ‘nonzero’ in the query message; while its value is ‘zero’ in the other two types. specific group, it sends a leave report about that group.
●
Checksum ●
However, when a multicast router receives a leave report, it cannot immediately remove that group from
its list.
– The size of this field is 16 bit and it carries the checksum. The checksum is mainly calculated over the 8-byte
message. ●
This is because the report comes from just one host or router and there may be other hosts or routers that
are still interested in that group.
●
Group Address
●
To make sure, the router sends a special query message and wait for a specified time for any host or
– The value of this field is ‘0’ in the case of the general query message. router to respond.
– In the case of a special query, membership report, and leave messages the value of this field defines the groupid. ●
If during this time, no interest (membership report) is received, the router assumes that there are no loyal
members in the network and remove the group from its list.

Working of IGMP
3. Monitoring Membership ●
IGMP works on devices that are capable of handling multicast groups and dynamic multicasting.
●
The multicast router is responsible for monitoring all the hosts or routers in a
●
These devices allows the host to join or leave the membership in the multicast group.
LAN to see if they want to continue their membership in a group. ●
This communication protocol is operated between host and local multicast router.
●
The router periodically (by default, after every 125 s) sends a general query
●
When a multicast group is created, the multicast group address is in range of class D (224-239) IP
addresses and is forwarded as destination IP address in the packet.
message.
●
The router expects an answer for each group in its group list; even new groups
may respond.
●
The query message has a maximum response time of 10 s
●
query message must be sent by only one router (normally called the query ●
L2 or Level-2 devices such as switches are used in between host and multicast router for IGMP
router), also to prevent unnecessary traffic snooping.
●
IGMP snooping is a process to listen to the IGMP network traffic in controlled manner.
●
Switch receives the message from host and forwards the membership report to the local multicast
router.
●
The multicast traffic is further forwarded to remote routers from local multicast routers using PIM
(Protocol Independent Multicast) so that clients can receive the message/data packets.
●
Clients wishing to join the network sends join message in the query and switch intercepts the
message and adds the ports of clients to its multicast routing table.
●
IP address
All the computers of the world on the Internet network communicate with each other with
Working of IP addresses
●
Your device directly requests your Internet Service Provider which then
underground or underwater cables or wirelessly.
grants your device access to the web.
●
If I want to download a file from the internet or load a web page or literally do anything related to
the internet, my computer must have an address so that other computers can find and locate mine ●
And an IP Address is assigned to your device from the given range available.
in order to deliver that particular file or webpage that I am requesting. ●
Your internet activity goes through your service provider, and they route it
●
In technical terms, that address is called IP Address ( Internet Protocol Address ). back to you, using your IP address.
●
An Internet Protocol (IP) address is the unique identifying number assigned to every device
connected to the internet.
●
Your IP address can change. For example, turning your router on or off can
change your IP Address.
– Let us understand it with another example, like if someone wants to send you a letter, then he/she must have
your home address. ●
When you are out from your home location your home IP address doesn’t
– Similarly, your computer too needs an address so that other computers on the internet can communicate with accompany you. It changes as you change the network of your device.
each other without the confusion of delivering information to someone else’s computer.
– And that is why each computer in this world has a unique IP Address. Types of IP Address
– This address is just a string of numbers written in a certain format. ●
IPV4
– It is generally expressed in a set of numbers for example 192.155.12.1. Here each number in the set is from 0
to 255 range.
●
IPV6
– Or we can say that a full IP address ranges from 0.0.0.0 to 255.255.255.255.

IPV4 : Internet Protocol version 4

Q1:
●
Internet Protocol Version Four (Ipv4) is the most widely used system for identifying devices on a network.
●
An IPv4 address is a 32-bit address that uniquely and universally defines the connection of a device (for
example, a computer or a router) to the Internet.
Notations
●
There are 2 notations to show an IPv4 address:
a. Binary Notation
●
In binary notation, the IPv4 address is displayed as 32 binary bits.
– Eg: 01110101 10010101 00011101 00000010
b. Dotted-decimal notation.
●
To make the IPv4 address more compact and easier to read, Internet addresses are usually written in decimal
form with a decimal point (dot) separating the bytes. ANS:
– Eg: 117.149.29.2 ●
We replace each group of 8 bits with its equivalent decimal number and add dots
●
Each number in dotted-decimal notation is a value ranging from 0 to 255 for separation.
a. 129.11.11.239 b. 193.131.27.255
c. 231.219.139.111 d. 249.155.251.15
 Q2: IPV4 Header format

●
VERSION: Version of the IP protocol (4 bits), which is 4 for IPv4 .ie, 0100
●
HLEN: IP header length (4 bits), which is the number of 32 bit words in the header. The
minimum value for this field is 5 and the maximum is 15. But actual header length =
HLEN*4 ●
Time to live: Datagram’s lifetime (8 bits), It prevents the datagram to loop through the network by
●
Type of service: Defines additional properties/services of packet like Low Delay, High restricting the number of Hops taken by a Packet before delivering to the Destination and thus avoids
Throughput, Reliability,cost (8 bits) . Eg: If low delay is to be maintained, set value of D to 1. congestion.
●
Total Length: Length of header + Data (16 bits), which has a minimum value 20 bytes and
●
Protocol: Name of the protocol to which the data is to be passed (8 bits) .ie,name of upper layer
protocol that is also involved in packet transmission. eg: TCP,UDP,ICMP etc
the maximum is 216 = 65,535 bytes.
●
Header Checksum: 16 bits header checksum for checking errors in the datagram header itself. Eg:
●
Identification: Unique Packet Id for identifying the group of fragments of a single IP Error: change of address.
datagram (16 bits) ●
Source IP address: 32 bits IP address of the sender
●
Flags: 3 flags of 1 bit each : reserved bit (must be zero), do not fragment flag, more ●
Destination IP address: 32 bits IP address of the receiver
fragments flag Flags (3 bits): These bits are used for controlling and identifying packet ●
Option: Optional information such as source route, record route. Used by the Network administrator to
fragmentation. check whether a path is working or not. The option field is used if extra information need to be added
to the packet. This is not a mandatory field.
●
Fragment Offset: Represents the number of Data Bytes ahead of the particular fragment in
the particular Datagram. It specifies the position of the fragment within the original packet. It
is used to reassemble fragmented packets correctly.
Classes of IPv4 Address:
●
There are around 4.3 billion IPv4 addresses and managing all those
addresses without any scheme is next to impossible.
●
For easier management and assignment, IP addresses are organized in
numeric order and divided into the following 5 classes : A,B,C,D and E.
●
If the address is given in binary notation, the first few bits can
immediately tell us the class of the address.
●
If the address is given in decimal-dotted notation, the first byte defines
the class.

Q1 : ●
Each IP address has two parts
– Network id part - the network, the IP address belongs to.
– Host id part - the host identifier of the device for the network
●
The netid determines the network address while the hostid determines the host connected to that network.
●
In class A, one byte defines the netid and three bytes define the hostid.
●
In class B, two bytes define the netid and two bytes define the hostid.
●
In class C, three bytes definethe netid and one byte defines the hostid.
Q2 :

Solution:
●
a. First bit is 0. Thus, class A
●
b. First 2 bits are 1 and 3rd bit is 0. Thus, class C
●
c. First bit is 1 and second bit is 0. Thus, class B
●
d. First 4 bits are 1. Thus, class E
 Subnets ●
To understand subnetting better let's look at a simple scenario.
●
A college has four departments: Information Technology, Computer Science,
●
Subnetting is a process of dividing a single network into multiple sub networks. Mechanical, and Civil.
●
When a bigger network is divided into smaller networks, to maintain security, then that
is known as Subnetting. ●
There are 50 students in each department.
●
The number of sub networks created depends upon the requirements. ●
The institution used a private class C IP network(with network ID 192.168.1.0).
Uses of Subnetting ●
All computers will work in a single huge network if there is no subnetting.
●
Maintenance is easier for smaller networks. For example, if we consider a class A
address, the possible number of hosts is 224 for each network, it is obvious that it is
●
It becomes complex for the institution admin to handle the task because if he
difficult to maintain such a huge number of hosts, but it would be quite easier to broadcasts some message to the system, it will forward to all the departments.
maintain if we divide the network into small parts. ●
To solve this type of problem, we use subnetting.
●
Subnetting helps in organizing the network in an efficient way which helps in
expanding the technology for large firms and companies.
●
Reduces traffic and maintain order and efficiency.
●
Reduces network complexity
●
Subnetting enhances the network's overall performance by removing redundant traffic.
●
Increases network security .
●
Simplified management

Subnet ID- Subnet mask

●
Each subnet has its unique network address known as its Subnet ID. ●
A subnet mask is a 32-bit number which is used to identify the subnet of an IP address.
●
The subnet ID is created by borrowing some bits from the Host ID part of the IP Address. ●
The mask can help us to find the netid and the hostid.
●
The number of bits borrowed depends on the number of subnets created. ●
It helps to identify how many bits are given to network and how many bits are given to hosts
●
Network id: Every subnet will have its first starting IP in subnet range as the network id with which it will
●
Subnetting works by taking bits from the host part of an IP address in order to create subnet connect to network.
identifier bits .
●
Broadcast id: Every subnet will have its last IP in subnet range as the broadcast id to communicate with all
●
We then use these subnet bits to calculate the number of subnets available. other hosts in that network.
●
The subnet mask is a combination of 1’s and 0’s.
●
1’s represents network and subnet ID, while 0’s represents the host ID.
●
For eg, Given subnet mask is, 11111111.11111111.11111111.11000000 or 255.255.255.192
●
So in order to get the network which a destination address :- 200.1.2.20 belongs to, we have to bitwise AND the
destination address with subnet mask.
●
11111111.11111111.11111111.11000000 (subnet mask)
&& 11001000.00000001.00000010.00010100 (destination addr)
-----------------------------------------------------
11001000.00000001.00000010.00000000
●
From this, it is made clear that the address belongs to, 11001000.00000001.00000010.00000000 ie, 200.1.2.0
●
Another example, say the destination IP Address is 192.168.1.152 and the Subnet ●
A subnet mask is a 32-bit binary string of 1’s followed by some numbers of
Mask is 255.255.255.0 then − 0’s.
●
It is used to identify the network and host portion of the IP address.
●
The subnet mask is made by setting network address bits to all 1s and host
address bits to all 0s.
●
The default subnet mask of class A, B, and C cannot be changed.
Default subnet mask
●
This way the Subnet Mask helps to extract the Network ID and the Host from an IP
Address.
●
It can be identified now that 192.168.1.0 is the Network number and the given
destination IP address 192.168.1.152 is the address of a host in that network.

Types of Subnetting-
Summary:
●
How it works
– A subnet mask performs a logical AND operation with the destination IP address of the incoming
packet to determine the correct subnet to direct that packet.
●
How it's written 1. Fixed Length Subnetting-
– A subnet mask is initially written in binary format, with ones representing network bits and zeros Fixed length subnetting also called as classful subnetting divides the network into subnets where-
representing host bits.
– All the subnets are of same size.
●
The internal router will forward the packet to the network through an interface . The
interface will be identified by the routing table residing in the router. – All the subnets have equal number of hosts.
– Routing table
– All the subnets have same subnet mask.
●
If the network id doesn’t matches with any, then the packet will be sent to default entry.
●
Default entry has network id as 0.0.0.0. 2. Variable Length Subnetting-

Variable length subnetting also called as classless subnetting divides the network into subnets where-

– All the subnets are not of same size.

– All the subnets do not have equal number of hosts.

– All the subnets do not have same subnet mask.

Q1 : What is the maximum number of IP addresses that can be assigned to hosts on a local subnet that uses the Q3: You have been allocated a class C network address of 211.1.1.0 and are using the default subnet mask
255.255.255.192 subnet mask? of 255.255.255.0. How many hosts can you have?
a. 62 b. 30 c. 32 d. 64 ANS:
Ans: A class ‘C’ address has 8 bits of the host which will give 2 8 -2 =254 hosts
Given subnet mask=255.255.255.192 Q4: A network on the Internet has a subnet mask of 255.255.240.0. What is the maximum
Ie, 11111111 11111111 11111111 11000000
number of hosts it can handle?
ANS:
Thus, maximum no.of IP addresses that can be assigned to hosts = 2 no.ofhostbits – 2 = 64-2 = 62
Q2: Address of class B is to be split into 6 bit subnet number. What is the maximum no.of hosts in each subnet? Binary representation of 255.255.240.0 is
ANS: 11111111. 11111111. 11110000. 00000000
Given class = B
So by default, 16 bits are assigned as netword id part and last 16 bits are assigned as hostid part. No: of bits in network id =number of 1’s=20
Given no.of subnet bits =6 No: of bits in host id =number of 0’s=12
Thus no.of subnets=26 = 64 subnets maximum number of hosts it can handle= 212 = 4096 host addresses exist
Since, no of subnet bits=6, no.of hostbits=16-6 = 10
Thus, no.of hosts in each subnet=210 – 2 = 1022 hosts Total number of hosts that can be configured =212- 2=4094

Q5: If the subnet mask 255.255.255.128 belongs to class C, find- Q6:One needs to subnet a network that has 5 subnets , each with atleast 16
– a. Number of subnets hosts. Which of the following can be true?
– b. Number of hosts in each subnet
ANS:
Given subnet mask = 255.255.255.128
= 11111111.11111111.11111111.10000000
Number of Host ID bits = Number of 0’s = 7
It is given that subnet mask belongs to class C.
Ans:
So, Number of Net ID bits = 24 and Number of Subnet ID bits= 1
255.255.255.224 classful subnet mask can be used
Thus, Number of subnets = 21 = 2
Number of hosts per subnet = 27 – 2 = 126 hosts
Q7 : You currently use the default mask for your IP network 192.168.1.0. You need Step 3: Calculate the Number of Bits for Networks
to subnet your network so that you have 30 additional networks, and 4 hosts per ●
Next, calculate the number of bits needed for the networks. You need 30 networks:
network. Is this possible, and what subnet mask should you use? ●
2m ≥ Number of Networks, Where m is the number of bits for the networks.
ANS: ●
For 30 networks: 2m≥30
25=32 ⇒ m=5
Step 1: Calculate Hosts Required
●
Since you need 4 hosts per network, and you need to account for the network Step 4: Calculate Total Bits and Subnet Mask
and broadcast addresses, you actually need 6 addresses (4 usable + 2 reserved). ●
The default subnet mask for a Class C address (like 192.168.1.0) is 255.255.255.0,
Step 2: Calculate the Number of Bits for Hosts which uses 24 bits for the network.
●
You are using: 5 bits for networks and 3 bits for hosts
●
To find the number of bits needed for the hosts, use the formula:
2n−2 ≥ Number of Hosts, where n is the number of bits for the hosts.
●
The total number of bits used will be : 24+5=29 bits for the network
●
This leaves : 32−29=3 bits for hosts
●
For 6 addresses: 2n−2 ≥ 6
23−2 = 6 ⇒ n=3
●
So, you need 3 bits for the hosts Step 5: Determine the Subnet Mask
●
In decimal format, the subnet mask is: 255.255.255.248

Q8: You have sub-netted your class C network 192.168.1.0 with a subnet mask of 255.255.255.240. Q9: You have sub-netted your class C network 200.138.1.0 with a subnet mask of
Please list the following: 255.255.255.252. Please list the following: number of networks, number of hosts per
1. Number of networks network, the full range of the first three networks, and the usable address range from those
first three networks. Additionally, identify the broadcast addresses for each network
2. Number of hosts per network
3. The full range of the first three networks ANS:
4. The usable address range from those first three networks.
●
Number of networks = 64
ANS: ●
Number of hosts = 2
1. Number of networks = 16 ●
Full Range for first three networks:
2. Number of hosts = 14 200.138.1.0- 200.138.1.3
3. Full Range for first three networks: 200.138.1.4- 200.138.1.7
192.168.1.0-192.168.1.15 200.138.1.8- 200.138.1.11
192.168.1.16-192.168.1.31 ●
Usable Range for first three networks:
192.168.1.32-192.168.1.47 200.138.1.1-200.138.1.2
4. Usable Range for first three networks: 200.138.1.5-200.138.1.6
192.168.1.1- 192.168.1.14 200.138.1.9-200.138.1.10
192.168.1.17-192.168.1.30 ●
Broadcast Addresses for first three networks: 200.138.1.3, 200.138.1.7, 200.138.1.11
192.168.1.33-192.168.1.46
 Q11: Subnet the Class C IP Address 195.1.1.0 So that you have 10 subnets each with a Q12: Subnet the Class C IP Address 205.11.2.0 so that you have 30 subnets.
maximum 12 hosts on each subnet. List the Address on host 1 on subnet 0,1,2,3,10
What is the subnet mask for the maximum number of hosts?
ANS:
How many hosts can each subnet have?
Current default mask= 255.255.255.0
What is the IP address of host 3 on subnet 2 ?
Subnet Bits needs for 10 subnets =4
So, no.of possible subnets = 2 4 =16 possible subnets ANS:
Current mask= 255.255.255.0
Host Bits needs for 12 hosts = 4
Bits needs for 30 subnets =5 since 25 =32 is the next possible no.of subnets
So, no.of possible hosts = 2 4 -2 = 16-2=14 possible hosts.
Bits left for hosts = 8-5= 3
So our mask in binary =11111111 11111111 11111111 11110000 ie, 255.255.255.240
Thus,no.of possible hosts = 23 -2 = 8-2 = 6 possible hosts.
Subnet 0 : host 1: IP address = 195.1.1.1 (0000 0001)
So our mask in binary =11111111 11111111 11111111 11111000
Subnet 1 : host 1: IP address = 195.1.1.17 (0001 0001)
Ie, Final Mask =255.255.255.248
Subnet 2 : host 1: IP address = 195.1.1.33 (0010 0001)
Address of host 3 on subnet 2 is
Subnet 3 : host 1: IP address = 195.1.1.49 (0011 0001)
Subnet 2 : Host 3 IP address = 205.11.2.19 (00010 011)
Subnet 10 : host 1: IP address =195.1.1.161 (1010 0001)

(Kerala PSC : Poly IT lecturer) IPV6- Internet Protocol version 6

●
Next generation internet Protocol designed as a successor to IPv4
●
Overcoming many of the weakness of IPv4
●
The Main reason of IPv6 was the address depletion as the need for
electronic devices rose quickly
●
IPv6 is the latest version of the Internet Protocol (IP) used for
identifying and locating computers on the Internet.
ANS:
Given class C address =196.125.56.0 ●
IPv6 is a 128-bit address having an address space of 2128, which is way
5 subnets needed. Thus no.of subnet bits required to create atleast 5 bigger than IPv4 (232).
subnets=3
Given,no.of hosts = 25
●
IPv6 uses a Hexa-Decimal format separated by a colon (:).
Thus, no.of hostid bits = 5
So, subnet mask =11111111 11111111 11111111 11100000 = 255.255.255.224
 IPv6 header
Components in IPv6 Address Format ●
The IPv6 header is the first part of an IPv6 packet, containing essential information
for routing and delivering the packet across networks.
●
There are 8 groups and each group represents 2
●
IPv6 introduces a more simplified header structure compared to IPv4, and its ability
Bytes (16-bits). to handle a larger address space is essential for the future of networking.
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Each Hex-Digit is of 4 bits (1 nibble)
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Delimiter used – colon (:)

IPv6 Fixed Header

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The IPv6 header is a part of the information sent over the internet. Flow Label (20-bits)
●
It’s always 40 bytes long and includes details like where data should go and how it should ●
Flow Label field is used by a source to label the packets belonging to the same flow in
get there. order to request special handling by intermediate IPv6 routers, such as non-default
Version (4-bits) quality-of-service or real-time service.
●
The size of this field is 4-bit. Indicates the version of the Internet Protocol, which is ●
In order to distinguish the flow, an intermediate router can use the source address, a
always 6 for IPv6, so the bit sequence is 0110. destination address, and flow label of the packets.
Traffic Class(8-bit) ●
Between a source and destination, multiple flows may exist because many processes
●
The Traffic Class field indicates class or priority of IPv6 packet which is similar to might be running at the same time.
Service Field in IPv4 packet. ●
Routers or Host that does not support the functionality of flow label field and for
●
It helps routers to handle the traffic based on the priority of the packet. default router handling, flow label field is set to 0.
●
If congestion occurs on the router then packets with the least priority will be discarded. Payload Length (16-bits)
●
As of now, only 4-bits are being used (and the remaining bits are under research), in
which 0 to 7 are assigned to Congestion controlled traffic and 8 to 15 are assigned to
●
It is a 16-bit (unsigned integer) field, indicates the total size of the payload which tells
Uncontrolled traffic. routers about the amount of information a particular packet contains in its payload.
– Uncontrolled data traffic is mainly used for Audio/Video data. So we give higher priority to ●
The payload Length field includes extension headers(if any) and an upper-layer packet.
Uncontrolled data traffic.
 Source Address (128-bits)
●
Source Address is the 128-bit IPv6 address of the original source of the packet.
Next Header (8-bits)
Destination Address (128-bits)
● Next Header indicates the type of extension header(if present) immediately following the
IPv6 header.
●
The destination Address field indicates the IPv6 address of the final destination.
●
All the intermediate nodes can use this information in order to correctly route the packet.
●
Whereas in some cases it indicates the protocols contained within upper-layer packets,
such as TCP, UDP. Extension Headers
Hop Limit (8-bits)
●
In order to rectify the limitations of the IPv4 Option Field, Extension Headers are introduced in IP
version 6.
●
Hop Limit field is the same as TTL in IPv4 packets. ●
This contains supplementary info used by network devices to decide how to direct or process an IPV6
●
It indicates the maximum number of intermediate nodes IPv6 packet is allowed to travel. packet
●
Its value gets decremented by one, by each node that forwards the packet and the packet is ●
The next Header field of IPv6 fixed header points to the first Extension Header and this first extension
discarded if the value decrements to 0. header points to the second extension header and so on.
●
This is used to discard the packets that are stuck in an infinite loop because of some ●
Eg: Routing,Authentication, Encapsulation, Destination options(optional info to be examined by the
routing error. destination node

Advantages
●
Large Address Space: An IPv6 address is 128 bits long. Compared with the 32 bit address of IPv4,
this is a huge increase in the address space.
●
The IPv6 header is a crucial part of the IPv6 protocol, designed ●
Better Header Format: IPv6 uses a new header format in which options are separated from the
base header and inserted, when needed, between the base header and the upper layer data . This
to make data transmission more efficient and support the simplifies and speeds up the routing process because most of the options do not need to be checked
growing number of devices on the Internet. by routers.
●
New Options: IPv6 has new options to allow additional functionalities.
●
It includes fields like version, traffic class, flow label, payload ●
Allowance for extension: IPv6 is designed to allow the extension of the protocol if required by new
length, next header, hop limit, source address, and destination technologies or applications.
address. ●
Realtime Data Transmission: In IPv6,the type of service field has been removed, but two new
fields, traffic class and flow label have been added to enables the source to request special handling
●
These fields help to ensure that data is routed accurately and of the packet. This mechanism can be used to support traffic such as real-time audio and video.
– Example : Live streaming services such as cricket matches, or other tournament that are streamed on web
efficiently. exactly as soon as it happens with a maximum delay of 5-6 seconds.
●
Support For more Security: The encryption and authentication options in IPv6 provide
confidentiality and integrity of the packet.
Differences Between IPv4 Header and IPv6 Header Difference Between IPv4 and IPv6