Ramallah Friends School

11 IB – Chemistry
Tools:
Measurement and data processing.
Significant Figures

Significant figures: refer to the number of digits reflecting a given measurement's precession.
The greater the number of significant figures in a quantity, the greater its certainty.

1- All digits from 1 to 9 are significant.

Example: 123: 3 significant figures.

2- If the zeros precede the first non zero digit, they are not significant.
Example: 001.23: 3 significant figures.

3- If the zeros are between non zero digits, they are significant.
Example: 1.01: 3 significant figures. 1.030 has 4 significant figures

4- If the zeros follow non zero digits, they are significant if a decimal point is given.

Examples:
a- 1.20: 3 significant figures.
b- 100: 1 significant figure.
c- 5300. :4 significant figures.
d- 5300 :2 significant figures

How many s.f?

0.00100 (3 s.f)
56.040 (5 s.f)

5- Conversion factors will not change the number of significant figures.

Example: 100.0 cm3 / 1000 = 0.1000 dm3 (4 s.f)

25.000 g /1000 = 0.025000 kg ( 5 s.f)

Units conversions and mole :mole ratio don’t affect number of significant figures.

A : B
mol: mol ratio 4 : 2
0.02400 : x
x = 0.02400 (2) = 0.01200 mol (4 s.f)
(4)

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6- For addition and subtraction, the number with the fewest decimal places used in the
calculation, determines how many decimal places should be used when quoting the answer.

Example: 4.371 + 302.5 = 306.871 = 306.9

865.9-2.8121=863.0879=863.1

7- For multiplication and division, the number the fewest significant figures used in the
calculation, determines how many significant figures should be used when quoting the answer.

Examples:

a- 2.54 X 8.3 = 21.082 = 21. ( 2 s.f)

b- 3.142 / 8.05 = 0.390310559 = 0.390 ( 3 s.f)

8- Significant figures associated with logarithms( logs):

8- Rounding off: If the digit following the last reportable digit is:

a-Less than 5, you drop it. Ex 0.2413 rounds to have 3S.F 0.241
b- 5 or more than 5, you increase the last reportable digit by one. Ex. 5.379 round to have 3.S.F 5.38

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9- Scientific notation:

Examples:

Uncertainty and error in measurement:

Precision: refers to how close several experimental measurements of the same quantity are to each
other.

Accuracy: refers to how close a precise reading is to the true value (or the generally accepted or
literature value).

• if a single student obtained a series of precise results, the procedure or method is described as
repeatable. If the same procedure or method is carried out by a number of different students
and precise results are obtained, the procedure is described as reproducible.

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Experimental error:

Systematic error: effect on the accuracy of the result.

These errors may be due to the apparatus itself (personal error, instrumental error), or they may be
due to the way in which the readings are taken (experimental methodology error) . Systematic errors
are due to identifiable causes and can, in principle, be identified, quantified and, if possible,
eliminated.
Quantitative chemistry involves measurement. A measurement is a method by which some quantity
or property of a substance is compared with a known standard. If the instrument used to take the
measurements has been calibrated wrongly or if the person using it consistently misreads it, then the
measurements will always differ by the same amount. Such an error is known as a systematic
error. An example might be always reading a pipette from the sides of the meniscus rather than
from the middle of the meniscus.

Examples:
1- Using a poorly calibrated mercury thermometer that reads 101 oC when immersed in pure boiling
water and 1 oC when immersed in ice water at 1 atmosphere pressure would result in measured values
that are consistently too high by 1 oC.

2- Calibration errors may also be present in pH meters, voltmeters, balances, and ammeters. Exact
color of a solution and its end point

3- The plungers of gas syringes may stick or leak because of inadequate sealing. Use of volumetric
glassware at temperatures above or below calibrated temperature (typically 20 oC) will introduce a
systematic error.

4- A parallax error occurs when the markings of a scale are not physically touching the object, (that
is, when there exists a distance between the marking and the object) and the marking is not viewed
directly from above. Parallax errors must also be avoided when using a measuring cylinder, burette
or pipette.

5- A parallax error occurs when the markings of a scale are not physically touching the object, (that
is, when there exists a distance between the marking and the object) and the marking is not viewed
directly from above. Parallax errors must also be avoided when using a measuring cylinder, burette
or pipette.

6- Reading the meniscus from mercury thermometer and the volume readings for dilute aqueous
solutions or water. Volume of aqueous solution should always be taken at the bottom of the meniscus
while temperature using mercury thermometer should always be taken at the top of the meniscus).

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 Random error : effect the precesion of result.

A random error occurs if there is an equal probability of the reading being high or low from
one measurement to the next. Random errors are due to chance variations over which you,
as a student, have little or no control. They cannot always be identified. Because they are
random, they can be reduced through repeated measurements, whereas repeated
measurements will not reduce a systematic error.
Random uncertainties occur if there is an equal probability of the reading being too high or too low
from one measurement to the next. These might include variations in the volume of glassware due
to temperature fluctuations or the decision about exactly when an indicator changes colour during
an acid–base titration
Examples:

1- Random errors might include variations in the volume of the glassware due to temperature
fluctuations.

2- Random errors might include the decision on when an indicator changes color during an acid –
base titration.

3- Other sources of random errors include temperature and concentration variations in solutions.

4- The electrical circuits in computerized data collection suffer from noise which is a source of small
random errors in the measurements.

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5- The unpredictable fluctuations in the weighing of a hot crucible (bad practice) due to convection
currents or mechanical vibrations because of movements within the laboratory by other students.

6- Experiments that involve measuring volumes of gases will be slightly affected by changes in the
surrounding temperature and atmospheric pressure.

A measuring cylinder used to measure exactly 25 cm3 is likely to be much less accurate than a
pipette that has been carefully calibrated to deliver exactly that volume. Note that it is possible to
have very precise readings that are inaccurate due to a systematic error. For example, all the
students in a class may obtain the same or very close results in a titration (precise), but if the
standard solution used in all the titrations had been prepared wrongly beforehand the
results would be inaccurate due to the systematic error. Systematic errors cannot be reduced by
repeated readings because they are always either too high or too low. However, random errors can
be reduced by repeated readings because there is an equal probability of them being high or low
each time the reading is taken. When taking a measurement, it is usual practice to report the reading
from a scale as the smallest division or the last digit capable of precise measurement, even though it
is understood that the last digit has been rounded up or down so that there is a random error or
uncertainty of ±0. 5 of the last unit.

Validity is concerned with whether something measures what it is meant to measure. Measuring pH
with an improperly calibrated pH probe will result in an invalid measurement. A methodology or
analysis is valid when it addresses the research question appropriately.
Reliability is connected to whether doing the same investigation again produces the same results.
Reliability can be assessed in terms of repeatability: the agreement of results when trials are
repeated using identical methods, carried out under the same conditions and by the same
experimenter.

Uncertainties of measurement:

All measuring apparatus, such as thermometers and graduated glassware have a level of precision.

Precision depends partly on the fineness of the divisions on the scale of the measuring device, and
partly on how well the observer can interpolate between divisions on the scale.

Any experimental result should be reported in the form:

Estimating uncertainties from analogue and digital readings:

1) Analogue scales (such as rulers, thermometers, and volumetric glassware):

(Reading ± Half the smallest scale division)

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2) Digital readings (such as digital balance, stopwatches, pH meter,)

(Reading ± the smallest division or last digit).

Absolut and relative uncertainties:

EX….

Consider measuring 25.0 cm3 with a 25 cm3 pipette that measures to ± 0.1 cm3. The absolute
uncertainty is 0.1 cm3, and the percentage of relative uncertainty:

= 0.4 %.

Note that relative uncertainty is not given to more than one significant figure.

If we are simply adding or subtracting two volumes or two masses, then the absolute uncertainties
can be added.

The maximum absolute uncertainty is the sum of the individual uncertainties.

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For example,
Suppose we add two volumes of 25.0 cm3 ± 0.1 cm3, the final answer will be equal to 50.0 cm3 ± 0.2
cm3.

If we are using multiplication, division or powers then percentage uncertainties should be used
during the calculation and then converted back into an absolute uncertainty when the final result is
presented.
The maximum percentage uncertainty is the sum of the percentage uncertainties for each of the
individual quantities. When experimental measurements are raised to a power, you multiply the
fractional or percentage uncertainty by the power.

Note that:

1. The final answer cannot have more decimal points than in the absolute uncertainty.
2. Relative uncertainties are not given to more than one significant figure.

Worked examples:

1- In an experiment to measure the enthalpy change of reaction the following measurements

were made:

Mass of water = 50.0 g ± 0.05 g

Initial temperature of water / oC ± 0.1 oC 20.0

o o
Final temperature of water / C ± 0.1 C 30.0
o o
Temperature change of water / C ± 0.2 C 10.0

Heat released = mass of water X specific heat capacity of water X change in temperature
= 50.0 g X 4.18 J g-1 K-1 X 10.0 K = 2.09 x 103 J

Percentage uncertainty in heat released = sum of percentage uncertainties in (mass of water + change
in temperature + specific heat capacity of water)

The percentage uncertainty in the mass = = 0.1 %

The percentage uncertainty in the temperature = 0.2/10 *100 = 2 %
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No uncertainty is given in the specific heat capacity of water.

The percentage uncertainty in the heat released = 0.1 % + 2 % = 2.1 %. of 2090 =44

heat released = 2090 J ± 44 J

Titration of 25.00 cm3 ± 0.06 cm3 of 0.1000 mol dm-3 HCl with NaOH:

Initial volume of NaOH in burette / cm3 ± 0.1 cm3 0.0

Final volume of NaOH in burette / cm3 ± 0.1 cm3 40.0
Volume of NaOH required / cm3 ± 0.2 cm3 40.0

mol HCl = X 0.1000 = 2.500 X 10-3 mol

mol NaOH = 2.500 X 10-3 mol

Concentration of NaOH = = 0.0625 mol dm-3

Percentage uncertainty in concentration of NaOH = sum of percentage uncertainties in (volume of

HCl + volume of NaOH + concentration of HCl)

Percentage uncertainty in volume of HCl = = 0.2 %

ercentage uncertainty in volume of NaOH = = 0.5 %

No uncertainty is given in the concentration of HCl.

The percentage uncertainty in concentration of NaOH = 0.5 + 0.2 = 0.7 %. 0.7 % of 0.0625 = 0.0004

Concentration of NaOH = 0.0625 mol dm-3 ± 0.0004 mol dm-3

Question: A student uses a volumetric pipette to transfer 25.00 cm3 ± 0.05 cm3 of dilute acid into a
conical flask and then adds a further 10.0 cm3 ± 0.5 cm3 of the acid solution using a measuring
cylinder. Calculate the total volume of acid added to the Flask, along with its associated uncertainty.

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Question: A sucrose solution is prepared by dissolving 10.35g±0.02g of solid sucrose in water to
produce100.00cm3±0.10cm3 of solution. Calculate the concentration of sucrose, in gdm–3 , and the
associated uncertainty.

QuestionThe rate equation for the decomposition of hydrogen iodide is found to be:
rate = k[HI]2 where k is the rate constant and [HI] is the concentration of hydrogen
iodide. Calculate the rate of the decomposition of hydrogen iodide when
[HI] = 0.60moldm–3 ± 0.03moldm–3 . The value of k at this temperature is 1.58dm3mol–1s–1

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Error analysis:
The basic principle of error analysis is to compare percentage error with percentage uncertainty.

• If the percentage error is greater than the percentage uncertainty then random errors alone
cannot account for the difference between the experimentally determined value and the
literature value. Systematic errors must account for this difference.

• If the percentage uncertainty is greater than the percentage error then random errors alone can
account for the difference between the experimentally determined value and the literature
value.

Graphical techniques:

• Frequent use is made of graphs in chemistry. On a simple level they provide an instant visual
representation of data. By plotting a suitable graph to give a straight line, or some other
definite relationship between the variables, we can use graphs to predict unknown values.
There are various methods to achieve this. They include measuring the intercept, measuring
the gradient, extrapolation and interpolation.

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Graphical techniques are the effective means of communicating the effect of independent variables
on dependent variables, can lead to determination of physical quantities.

In a graph of Y vs. X ,the independent variable is plotted in x-axis, and the dependent variables is
plotted in y- axis.

Thus, if we are measuring the volume of gas evolved during a reaction at fixed time intervals, time
will be along the x axis and the volume of gas evolved will be along the y axis. Graphs should be
plotted using SI units wherever variables should have their units clearly shown, and the scale of the
axes should be appropriate. Take particular care when using computer programs to plot graphs,
because some tend to start all axes at zero unless you specify otherwise

There are a number of features that you are required to know for graph.
1- Slope ,m

2- Intercept, c

3- The idea of best line fit line .

Direct and inverse proportionality

There are a number of terms that are commonly applied to trends, particularly in graphs

Directly proportional
This applies to a trend that has a clearly linear relationship
Mathematically, this can be described as y=kx, where k can be positive or negative
In most situations, it is clear that k is positive
This means that the relationship can be described as "when one variable increases, the
other increases" or"if x doubles, then y doubles" A directly proportional relationship is always a
straight line through the origin with a fixed gradient
Inversely proportional
Mathematically, this can be described as y=k/x ,where k can be positive or negative
This means that the relationship can be described as "When variable increases, the
other decreases" or"if x doubles,then y halves"
When plotted, inverse proportionality is not a straight line and does not pass through the origin
Positive correlation
This term is best applied to the gradient of a graph
The gradient of the graph is positive / slopes or curves upwards
It describes a relationship where as x increases, y also increases
Negative correlation
This term is, also, best applied to the gradient of a graph
The gradient of the graph is negative / slopes or curves downwards
It describes a relationship where as x increases, y decreases

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The coefficient of determination,R2

The coefficient of determination is a measure of fit that can be applied to lines and curves on
graphs
The coefficient of determination is written as R2
It is used to evaluate the fit of a trend line/curve:
R2 =0
The dependent variable cannot be predicted from the independent variable.
R2 is usually greater than or equal to zero.

R2 between 0 and 1
The dependent variable can be predicted from the independent variable, although the degree of
success depends on the value of R The closer 1,the better fit of the trend line / curve
R2 =1
The dependent variable can be predicted from the independent variable
The trend line / curve is perfect

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• Interpolation involves determining an unknown value within the limits of the values already
measured, whereas extrapolation requires extending the graph to determine an unknown
value that lies outside the range of the values measured.

3-The idea of best line fit line .

Once the points are plotted on a graph, you will need to determine whether to join the points
up directly (graph of first ionization energy against atomic number) or whether to choose the
line of best fit. This may be a straight line. If you are trying to find the line of best fit you do
need sufficient readings (a minimum of five readings is usually required).

• It is often sensible not to just plot the variables actually measured but to manipulate them to
give a straight – line graph. For example, from the ideal gas equation it can be deduced that
the pressure of a fixed mass of gas is inversely proportional to its volume at a constant
temperature. A plot of pressure against volume will therefore give a curve. It is not easy to
see the relationship from this curve. However, if a graph of pressure against the reciprocal of
volume is plotted then a straight line is obtained.

• Graphs can provide other information apart from just the determination of unknown values of
one of the variables either within or outside the measured range. If we have a graph of the
concentration of a product, [A], as it is formed during a chemical reaction plotted against time,
then by taking the gradient at a particular value of time we can obtain the rate of that reaction
at that time. As the gradient of the slope is given by the change in concentration divided by
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 the change in time, we can also obtain the units for the rate of the reaction, which is normally
expressed as mol dm-3 s-1.

Uncertainty bars
The uncertainty in a measurement can be shown on a graph as an uncertainty bar
This bar is drawn above and below the point and shows the uncertainty in that measurement
Uncertainty bars are plotted on graphs to show the absolute uncertainty of values plotted
Usually, these bars will be in the vertical direction, for y-values but they can be plotted
horizontally, for x-values The size of the uncertainty bar can be used as an indication of the amount
of error / uncertainty in the measurement

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Ans :b

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Percentage change and percentage difference

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Percentage change and percentage difference are commonly used to express the relative change
between two values They are useful for comparing experimental results ,determining reaction yields
and analysing other chemical data.

Percentage change is used to express the relative change between an initial value and a final value
It is calculated using the following formula:

Percentage difference
Percentage difference is used to compare two values to determine how much they differ from each
other as a percentage
It is calculated using the following formula:

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Percentage Error
Percentage error is used to express the difference between a final calculated answer and an
accepted or literature value
It is calculated using the following formula

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Using Units, Symbols & Numerical Values in chemistry International System of Units (SI)

The same unit can be used to measure very large and very small values by using powers of ten. For
example, the radius of an atom is in the order of 1 × 10−10 m whereas the distance from the Earth to
the Sun is in the order of 1.5 × 1011 m. Prefixes can be used to take account of the powers of ten.
Common prefixes used in chemistry are giga (109), mega (106), and kilo (103)
for larger measurements, and deci (10−1), centi (10−2), milli (10−3), micro (10−6), nano (10−9), and
pico (10-12) for smaller measurements. For example, there are 1 × 109 micrograms in 1 kilogram.

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