CHEMISITRY LECTURE-Christoper Kevin Guinihin

1. Chemistry- the study of matter which includes us and everything around us.
2. Organic Chemistry- study of carbon-containing compound
3. Inorganic Chemistry: Inorganic chemistry deals with the study of elements and their compounds, excluding
carbon-based compounds.
4. Analytical Chemistry: Analytical chemistry focuses on the development and application of methods to determine
the composition, structure, and concentration of substances.
5. Biochemistry: Biochemistry explores the chemical processes and substances that occur within living organisms.
6. Environmental Chemistry: Environmental chemistry studies the impact of chemicals on the environment and how
natural processes affect the distribution and behavior of chemical species.
7. Materials Chemistry: Materials chemistry focuses on the synthesis, characterization, and design of new materials
with desired properties for various applications, including electronics, energy storage, catalysis, and
nanotechnology.
8. Theoretical Chemistry: Theoretical chemistry employs computational methods and mathematical models to
understand and predict the behavior of chemical systems.
9. Industrial Chemistry: Industrial chemistry involves the application of chemical principles to large-scale production
processes. It plays a crucial role in sectors like pharmaceuticals, petrochemicals, polymers, fertilizers, and
consumer goods.
10. Medicinal Chemistry: Medicinal chemistry combines knowledge from various fields to design and develop drugs.
It involves the synthesis, characterization, and optimization of chemical compounds for therapeutic purposes

Properties of Matter

Matter

• Anything that occupies space and has mass.

• It is one of the fundamental concepts in Physics and Chemistry, and it is all around us in the form of solids, liquids,
gases, and plasmas.
• Matter can exist in different states depending on the condition of temperature and pressure
• The study of matter is an important part of many scientific fields such as Physics, chemistry, and materials science.
• Measurement is also an essential part of the study of matter. Scientists use measurements to quantify properties
such as mass, volume, density and temperature.
• These measurements are crucial for understanding the behavior of matter and for making predictions about how it
will interact with other substances or energy forms.
• Matter is the "stuff" of the universe: air, glass, planets, students- anything that has mass and volume.
• Substance- a type of matter that has a defined, fixed composition.
• Properties - the characteristics that give each substance its unique identity.

• Two types of properties: (1) Physical properties (2) Chemical properties

• Physical properties - are those that a substance shows by itself, without changing into or interacting with another
substance.
o Examples: color, melting point, electrical conductivity, and density.
• Physical change occurs when a substance alters its physical form, not its composition. Thus, a physical change
results in different physical properties.
o Example: When ice melts, several physical properties have changed, such as hardness, density, and ability
to flow. But the sample has not changed its composition
• Chemical Properties - are those that a substance shows as it changes into or interacts with another substance (or
substances)
o Examples: Flammability, corrosiveness, and reactivity with acids
• Chemical change (also called chemical reaction), occurs when a substance (or substances) is converted into a
different substance (or substances)
o Example: When you pass an electric current through water; the water decomposes into two other
substances, hydrogen and oxygen, each with physical and chemical properties different from each other
and from water.
The Three States of Matter

• Solid has a fixed shape that does not conform to the container shape.
• Liquid conforms to the container shape but fills the container only to the extent of the liquid's volume; thus a liquid
forms a surface.
• Gas conforms to the container shape also, but it fills the entire container, and thus, does not form a surface.

Particle Arrangement of The Physical State of Matter

• Solid- particles are close together and organized

• Liquid - particles are close together but disorganized
• Gas - particles are far apart and disorganized

Note: depending on the temperature and pressure of the surroundings, many substances can exist in each of the three
physical states and undergo changes in state as well.

• Physical Change leads to a different form of the same substance (same composition), whereas a chemical
change leads to a different substance (different composition)
• Physical change caused by a temperature change can generally be reversed by the opposite temperature change.

• Matter is made of tiny little particles called atoms

• A chemical element is a substance made up of only a single type of atom.
• Chemical compound substance in which atoms of 2 or more different elements are combined with one another.
• Molecule is the smallest entity having the same proportions of the constituent atoms as does the compound as a
whole.
• Mixture can be separated into pure substances by physical methods.
• Pure substance is one with the constant composition.

• Homogeneous Mixture (Solution) are uniform in composition and properties throughout a given sample but
variable from one sample to another.
• Solutions in water, called aqueous solutions are especially important in chemistry and comprise a major portion
of the environment and of all organisms.
• A Heterogeneous Mixture is the components separate into distinct regions.

• Measurement Chemistry is a quantitative science, which means that in many cases we can measure a property
of a substance and compare it with a standard having a known value of the property.
• We express the measurement as the product of a number and a unit.
• The unit indicates the standard against which the measured quantity is being compared.
• The two major systems are the English system used in the United States and the metric system used by most of
the rest of the industrialized world.
• The scientific system of measurement is called the System Internationale d' Unites (International System of
Units) and is abbreviated SI. It is the modern version of the metric system, a system
• Based on the unit of length called a meter (m). The meter was originally defined as 1/10,000,000 of the distance
from the Equator to the North Pole and translated into the length of a metal bar kept in Paris. Unfortunately, this
length is subject to change with temperature, and it cannot be exactly reproduced anywhere.
• Measurement is the comparison of a physical quantity to be measured with a unit of measurement is with a fixed
standard of measurement.
• Physical quantities are those aspects in the universe that can be measured by any desired unit of measurement.
There are two groups of physical quantities. the primary or basic quantities which are the fundamental ones, and
the secondary quantities or derived quantities which are those derived from primary quantities.

• Mass describes the quantity of matter in an object. In SI the standard of mass is 1 kilogram(Kg) which is a fairly
large unit for most applications in Chemistry. More commonly we use the unit gram (g).
• Temperature is the degree of hotness and coldness, but necessarily a measure of heat.
o It is a measure of the average kinetic energy of molecules of a substance.
o The greater the temperature of the substance, the greater the motion of its molecules.
o Temperature can be measured by means of a thermometer either in the Fahrenheit scale, Celsius scale
and the Kelvin scale.

0F= (9/5) 0C + 32
0C= (5/9 (0F-32)
K= C + 273.15
0

• Density a property of matter that is often used by chemists as an “identification tag” for a substance is density, the
mass of a substance per unit volume of the substance.
Density (D) = Mass/Volume
• Dimensional Analysis A given result must frequently be converted from one system of units to another. The unit
factor approach, also known as dimensional analysis or dimensional modeling, is the most effective method for
accomplishing this. We will look at a number of unit conversions to demonstrate the application of this strategy.
Number of Significant Figures

• Number of significant figures refers to the number of digits reported for the value of a measured or calculated
quantity, indicating the precision of the value.

• To count the number of significant figures in a given measured quantity, we observe the following rules:

o All nonzero integers are counted as significant, regardless of the location of the decimal point. 1.58 contains
three significant figures and 3.14158 contains six significant figures.
o All digits are significant except zeros at the beginning of the number and possibly terminal zeros (one more
zeros at the end of a number). Thus, 9.12 cm and 0.00912 cm, (leading zeros are not significant) all contain
three significant figures.
o Terminal zeros ending at the right of the decimal point are significant. Each of the following has three
significant figures. 9.00cm., 9.10 cm., 90.0 cm. (trailing zeros are significant only if the number contains a
decimal point). Terminal zeros with no decimal point are not significant
o Captive zeros are zeros between nonzero digits. These always count as significant figures. The number
1.008 has four significant figures
o Exact numbers. Many times calculations involve numbers that were not obtained using measuring devices
but were determined by counting: 10 experiments, 3 apples, 8 molecules. Such numbers are called exact
numbers. They can be assumed to have an infinite number of significant figures.

• Significant figures in Calculations Rules:

o When multiplying or dividing measured quantities, we should give as many significant figures in the answer
as there are in the measurement with the least number of significant figures
✓ For example, consider the calculation:
4.56 x 1.4 = 6.38 (1.4 has the least significant figure which is only 1 decimal. Thus, round of the
answer to nearest tens)
o When adding or subtracting measured quantities, we should give the same number of decimal places in
the answer as there are in the measurement with the least number of decimal places.
✓ For example, consider the sum
12.11
18.0 -> limiting term
1.013
---------

31.123 Corrected to 31.1 since the limiting term (18.0) Has only 1 decimal.

• Rounding is the procedure of dropping non-significant digits in a calculation result and adjusting the last digit
reported.
• Rules for rounding
✓ In a series of calculations, carry the extra digits through to the final result, then round.
✓ If the digit to be removed
▪ Is less than 5, the preceding digit stays the same. For example, 1.33 rounds to 1.3
▪ Is equal to or greater than 5, the preceding digit is increased by 1. For example, 1.36
rounds to 1.4
• Making and Reporting Measurements
An indispensable tasks of chemist, engineers and scientists (psychologists & therapists) is making and reporting
measurements which essentially demands precision and accuracy. Measurements involve comparison to some
reference standard and are always subject to some degree of uncertainty. The uncertainty of measurements can
be accounted to
✓ The limitations inherent in the construction of the measuring device;
✓ The conditions under which the measurement was made, and;
✓ The different ways which the person uses or reads the instrument.
• Accuracy refers to the degree of agreement between the measured value and the accepted value. It is expressed
as either an absolute error or relative error.
 • Absolute error is the actual difference between the measured value (experimental value) and the accepted value
(theoretical value or actual value).
• Relative error is expressed as a percentage and it is often reffered to as percentage error.
Er=(Ea/A)100
Ea- absolute error
A- Accepted value
• Precision is the agreement among several measurements obtained by duplicating measurements under similar
conditions. It shows how reproducible the measurements are and is expressed in terms of deviation, either absolute
deviation or relative deviation.
• Absolute deviation is the difference between a single measured value and the average of several measurements
under similar conditions.
Da = |M - Am|
M = measured value
Am = mean or average of several readings
• Relative deviation is the percentage average deviation of a set of measurements and calculated as follows:
Dr = (Da(average)/Am) x 100
Da = absolute deviation
Am = mean or average of the set of reading

• More than 200 years ago, chemists developed the first theories of atomic structure.
• The blast furnace for extracting iron from iron ore originated as early as 1300 AD, and such key chemicals as sulfuric
acid (oil of vitriol), nitric acid (aqua fortis), and sodium sulfate (Glauber's salt) were all well-known and utilized
several hundred years ago.
• Before the end of eighteenth century, the principal gases of the atmosphere - nitrogen and oxygen- had been
isolated, and natural laws had been suggested explaining the physical behavior of gases.

Fundamental Chemical Laws

Law of Conservation of Mass

• By the late eighteenth century, combustion had been explored extensively.

• Antoine Lavoisier (1743-1794), was a French chemist who ultimately elucidated the true nature of combustion,
thus clearing the way for the remarkable development that was made near the end of eighteenth century.
o Lavoisier, like Boyle, regarded measurement as the essential operation of chemistry.
o Suggested that mass is neither created nor destroyed.
o Discover the Law of Conservation of Mass

Law of Definite Proportion

• Joseph Proust (1754-1826), showed that a given compound always contains exactly the same proportion of
elements by mass.
o The principle of constant composition of compounds, originally called 'Prout's law" is now known as the
Law of Definite Proportion.
o A given compound always contains exactly the same proportion of elements by mass.
• John Dalton (1766-1844), an English teacher, was encouraged by Proust's finding to consider atoms as the
potential constituents of elements.
o Dalton believed that since each element was made up of a small number of distinct particles, a particular
compound should always contain the same set of atoms. This concept examined why the same relative
masses of elements were always found in a given compound.

Law of Multiple Proportions

• Dalton also learned another concept that strengthened his belief in the reality of atoms. He pointed out, for
instance, that carbon and oxygen combine to generate two distinct molecules that have varying proportions of both
elements:

Mass of Oxygen that Combines with 1 g of Carbon

Compound I: 1.33g
 • Law of multiple proportions: When two elements form a series of compound, the ratios of the masses of the
second elements that combine with 1 gram of the first element can always be reduced to small whole numbers.

Dalton's Atomic Theory

• In 1808 Dalton published A New System of Chemical Philosophy, in which he presented his theory of atoms:
▪ Each element is made up of tiny particles called atoms.
▪ The atoms of a given element are identical; the atoms of different elements are different in some
fundamental way or ways.
▪ Chemical compounds are formed when atoms of different elements combine with each other. A given
compound always has the same relative numbers and types of atoms.
▪ Chemical reactions involve reorganization of the atoms-changes in the way they are bound together. The
atoms themselves are not changed in a chemical reaction.

Early Models and Experiments to Characterize the Atom

• John Dalton, the Greek atomist held the theory of the structureless atom (also known as the Billiard Ball model).
There were only gut feelings and no experimental data.
• William Prout came up with the Prout's Model. The atomic masses of the known elements were integral multiples
of hydrogen's atomic mass, which served as the foundation for this model. According to the results of this
experiment, other atoms are composed of two or more hydrogen atoms. However, it was discovered that some
elements would include some hydrogen atoms.
• The raisin bread model, sometimes known as the plum pudding model, was put out by English physicist JJ
Thompson. The observations from tests using the discharge tube, which revealed that all atoms are made up of
a combination of positive, and negative particles, served as the foundation for this hypothesis.
• The nuclear model proposed by Ernest Rutherford was considered another model of atoms. The basis of this
model was the observations from the alpha particle scattering experiments done with Hans Geiger, Rutherford's
German assistant.
o The findings revealed that the mass of the atom is concentrated in a small volume at the center called
the nucleus. This tiny particle accounts for more than 99 percent of the mass of the atom. Other
subsequent findings were the following, the diameter of an atom is 1x10*cm and the diameter of the
nucleus is approximately 1x10-13cm; the nucleus is positively charge; and the large region around the
nucleus is occupied by electrons.
• An additional idea regarding an atom was the solar system model put forth by Neils Bohr. Ernest Rutherford
served as the inspiration for this concept, and Niels Bohr put the electrons in orbits.
o This model's foundations included quantum theory, the dual nature of light, the photoelectric phenomenon,
and the atomic spectra of the elements, particularly that of hydrogen.
o If electrons orbit the nucleus in set orbits, each with a quantum number n, this can be used to explain the
hydrogen atomic spectrum. Since electrons' energy is quantized, they can only absorb or emit photons with
energy equal to the difference in permissible orbits.

Dual Nature of Light

• Electromagnetic radiation (or light) has a particulate nature (in addition to its being a wave). Light can be viewed
as a stream of photons, the particles of light. Each photon carries a packet of energy called a quantum and this
energy can be calculated using the equation
E = hv
h= Planck's constant, 6.626x10-34J-s
v = frequency of light
E = hc/^
h= Planck's constant, 6.626x10-34J-s
^ = frequency of light
• German physicist Erwin Schroedinger, who lived from 1887 to 1961, proposed the quantum mechanical model,
sometimes known as the wave model. This atom model was based on the dual duality of light and matter. In this
context, electrons can be thought of as waves, and both their energy and behavior can be thought of as wave
functions that depend on parameters known as the quantum numbers.

Evidences of Atoms

• Robert Boyle's experiment on gases which led to Boyle's Law (1661).

 • Antoine Lavoisier's experiment (French, 1743-1794) that led to the Law of Conservation of Mass
• Joseph Louis Proust's experiments (French, 1754-1826) that led to the Law of Constant Proportion (or Law of
Definite Composition)

Some terminologies:

• Atomic number (Z) is the number of protons in the nucleus. It is the characteristic of atoms of an element that
distinguishes them from atoms of other elements.
• Mass number (A) is the sum of the number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom.
• Isotopes are atoms of the same element (which means they all contain the same number of protons) that differ in
the number of neutrons in their nuclei and hence in mass numbers. Isotopic symbols are usually in the form of AzX
✓ Ex. 4020C A= 40, Z=20, p+=20, e-=20, n0=20
• Atomic mass is the relative mass of an atom based on the standard mass, carbon-12. Previously used standard
masses were oxygen-16 and hydrogen-1.
• Average atomic mass of an element is the weighted average of the atomic masses of the isotopes of the element
based on their abundance.

• In a neutral atom:
atomic number = number of protons = number of electrons
• In an ion:
atomic number = number of protons
Atomic number = number of electrons
• Isotopes Most elements consist of atoms of different masses, called isotopes.
o The isotopes of a given element contain the same number of protons (and also the same number of
electrons) because they are atoms of the same element.
o They differ in mass because they contain different numbers
• Isotopes are atoms of the same elements with different masses; they are atoms containing the of neutrons in their
nuclei. same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons.

• The mass number of an atom is the sum of the number of protons and the number of neutrons in its nucleus; that
is
✓ Mass number = number of protons + number of neutrons
= atomic number + neutron number
 • The mass number for normal hydrogen atoms is 1; for deuterium, 2; and for tritium, 3. By this system, the three
isotopes of hydrogen are designated as:

Energy level, Sublevel and Orbital

• Energy level is a region in space of some general distance from the nucleus, where a group of electrons is most
likely to be found.

• Sublevel is subdivision of an energy level in an atom; made up of a set of orbital.

• Orbital is a region in space, within an atom or molecule where there can be no more than two electron.

Electronic Structure of an Atom

• The electronic structure of an atom describes the arrangement of electrons in the orbital of the atom. This is also
called electronic configuration. There are many different possible arrangements of the electrons. The most
important of these is the one that specifies the lowest energy state of the atom or what is called its ground state. All
other arrangement has higher energies and is called excited states. You will learn how to write the ground state
electronic configuration of an atom.
• Several rules or principles must be followed. These are:
1. Aufbau Principle
2. Hund's Rule of Maximum Multiplicity
3. Pauli Exclusion Principle

Aufbau Principle

• The Aufbau (German word for 'building up") Principle states that the orbitals are filled in order of increasing energy.
A mnemonic device has been developed to enable one to determine the order of increasing energy of the orbital
and therefore the order of filling of the orbital.
Hund's Rule of Maximum Multiplicity

• Hund's rule specifies that orbital should be filled singly before pairing. Example: Ground state electronic
configuration of some elements

Puli Exclusion Principle

• The Pauli Exclusion Principle specifies that the maximum number of electrons which an orbital may accommodate
is two. This arise from the requirement that no two electrons in an atom can have all for quantum numbers identical
at least one must be different.

Quantum Numbers

• Quantum numbers are used to designate the electronic arrangement in all atoms. They are so-called electronic
configurations. These quantum numbers play important roles in describing the energy levels of electrons and the
shapes of the orbital that describe distributions of electrons in space. We define each quantum number and describe
the range values it may take.
1. The principal quantum number (n), describes the main energy level or shell, that an electron occupies.
It may be any positive integer: n= 1,2,3,4...
2. The angular momentum quantum number (l), designates the shape of the region in space - that an
electron occupies. Within a shell (defined by the value of n, the principal quantum number), different
sublevels or subshells are possible, each with a characteristic shape. The angular momentum quantum
number designates a sublevel or specific shape of atomic orbital that an electron may occupy. This number,
I, may take integral values from 0 up to and including (n-1). I= 0,1,2,3...
3. The magnetic quantum number (ml), designates the specific orbital within a subshell. Orbital within a
given subshell differ in their orientations in space, but not in their energies. Within each shell, mi, may take
any integral values from -l through 0 up to and including +1
4. The spin quantum number (Ms), refers to the spin of an electron and the orientation of the magnetic field
produced by this spin. For every set of n, I. mi, m, can take the value +1/2 and -1/2

The History of the Periodic Table

• The periodic table was originally constructed to represent the patterns observed in the chemical properties of the
elements.
• Johann Dobereiner (1780-1849), who found several groups of three elements that have similar properties, for
example, chlorine, bromine and iodine. However, as Dobereiner attempted to expand this model of triads (as he
called them) to the rest of the known elements, it became clear that it was severely limited.
• John Newlands, who in 1864 suggested that elements should be arranged in octaves (Newlands Octave), based
on the idea that certain properties. seemed to repeat for every eight elements in a way similar to the musical scale
which repeats for every eight tone. Even though this model managed to group several elements with similar
properties, it was not generally successful.
• The present form of the periodic table was conceived independently by two chemists: The German Julius Lothar
Meyer (1830-1895) and Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev (1834-1907), a Russian.
o Usually Mendeleev is given most of the credit, because it was he who emphasized how useful the table
could be in predicting the existence and properties of still-unknown elements.
o Mendeleev also was able to correct several values for atomic masses. Mendeleev assumed the atomic
mass was probably incorrect and proposed that the formula of indium oxide was really In 202. Based on
this correct formula, indium has an atomic mass of approximately 113, placing the element among the
metals.
o Mendeleev also corrected the atomic masses of beryllium and uranium.
• Classifying the elements: The Periodic Law and the Periodic Table
• In 1869, Dmitri Mendeleev and Lothar Meyer independently proposed the Periodic Law: When the elements are
arranged in order of increasing atomic mass, certain sets of properties recur periodically.
• Meyer based his periodic law on the property, called atomic volume - the atomic mass of an element divided by
the density of its solid form. We now call this just the molar volume.
• There are two categories of elements: (1) metals and (2) nonmetals.
 • Most metals are good conductors of heat and electricity, are malleable and ductile, and have moderate to high
melting points.
• In general, nonmetals are nonconductors of heat and electricity and are nonmalleable (brittle) solids, though a
number of nonmetals are gases at room temperature.
• Metals and nonmetals are often separated by stairstep diagonal line in the Periodic table, and several elements
near this line are often called metalloids.
• Metalloids are elements that look like metals and in some ways behave like metals, but also have some nonmetallic
properties.
• Noble gases - atoms of the noble gases have the maximum number of electrons permitted in the valence shell of
an atom, two in helium (1s2) and eight in the other noble gas atoms (ns2np2). These electron configurations are very
difficult to alter and seem to confer a high degree of chemical inertness to the noble gases.
o For many years the Group VIIIA (18) elements are the noble gases. They are considered as the stable
elements because of their complete valence shell.

Representative Elements

• The A group elements in the Periodic table are called representative elements. Their last electron is assigned to
an outer shell s or p orbitals. These elements show distinct and fairly regular variations in their properties with
changes in atomic number.

Transitional Element

• Elements in the B group (Group 3-12) in the periodic table are known as the d-transition elements or simply as
transition metals. The elements of the four transition series are all metals.
• f- Transition Elements Sometimes known as inner transition elements, these are elements in which electrons are
being added to f orbitals.

The Modern Periodic Table

• The modern Periodic Law states that the properties of elements are functions of their atomic numbers. There is no
single best form to represent the periodic table. The most common presentation is the "long form", ", where the
lanthanides and the actinides are placed in panels separate from the rest of the elements. The periodic table is
made up of periods, horizontal rows of elements, and groups, vertical columns of elements.

Electronic Structure of the Atoms and the Periodic Table

• While the periodic table is an ordering of the elements based on the number of protons in the nuclei of their atoms,
it is more appropriate to view it as an ordering of the elements based on their electronic structures.
• The properties of the elements are related to the arrangement of electrons in their atoms, or more specifically, to
the valence electron configurations of the elements. Valence electrons are the electrons that occupy the outermost
main energy level of the atom in the ground state. Electrons in inner main energy levels are called core electrons.
Elements belonging to the same group have the same number and type of valence electrons. Elements from left
to right in a period have an increasing number of valence electrons in the same main energy level.
• A new period is started with an element with one valence electron.
• The period number is the same as the principal quantum number, n of the outermost energy level occupied.
• There are eighteen (18) groups of elements in the periodic table, numbered 1-18. The number of valence electron
of an element may be determined from the group number.
• For Groups 1-2, number of valence electron is equal to group number
• For groups 13-18, number of valence electrons is equal to 10- group number.
 • Elements with valence electrons in the s-orbitals belong to s-block while elements with valence electrons in the s
and p orbitals belong to the p-block. Moreover, elements in the s block and p block are called the main block
elements or the representative elements.
• Elements with valence electrons in ns, np and n(n-1d) are called d-block. These elements are also called the
transition metals. On the other hand, elements that are filling up their f orbitals are called f-block. They are also
called the inner transition elements. The upper row elements are the lanthanides while the lower panel are the
actinides.

Some Atomic Properties

• Atomic Size (also atomic radius) is the average distance between the nucleus and the outermost electron.

Factors affecting atomic size:

• N1, principal quantum number of the outermost electron of the atom

• Zeff, the effective nuclear charge experienced by the outermost electron
Zeff = Z-S where S is the shielding factor

Ionic Radius

• Is the average size of the atom when it has lost or gained electrons. A loss of electron or cation formation results in
a decrease in radius. A gain of electrons or anions formation results in an increase in radius.
• For nonmetals, when electrons are gained to form negative ions, there is a rather large increase in the size. This
is due to the repulsion of the electrons from one another.
• The phenomenon referred to as d sublevel contraction and the lanthanide contraction result in deviations in the
trend in atomic size.
• ionization energy (IE) is the energy required to remove an electron from an atom
• In general, the smaller the atom, the higher is the ionization energy required. The lower the ionization energy, the
easier it is for the atom to form a cation. Some special electron arrangements of some atoms result in deviation in
the trends of lE.
• Electron affinity (EA) is the negative of electron gain enthalpy. If defined in this way, the trend given above is true:
the more positive the value of electron affinity, the tendency of the atom to gain electrons is great. (other books
define electron affinity as the heat evolved in electron gain, hence EA is the tendency of the atom to gain electrons,
the more exothermic the process would be and the value of electron affinity would be negative. The trend will then
be opposite what was given above.
• Electronegativity is the ability of an atom to attract shared electrons. It is expressed as a numerical value that was
calculated from other measurable properties. It is an atomic property manifested only when the atom is bonded to
another atom. Elements with high electronegativities (nonmetals) often gain electrons to form anions. Elements with
low electronegativities (metals) often lose electrons to form cations.
• Metallic Property character increases from top to bottom and decreases from left to right with respect to position
in the periodic table. Nonmetallic character decreases from top to bottom and increase from left to right in the
periodic table.
• Isoelectronic substances are substances having the same number of electrons
o Isoelectronic species are atoms or ions with the same electronic configuration