Introduction

⮚ Stroke – The distance

The piston engine is an internal between TDC and BDC
combustion engine working on the
principle devised by Dr. Otto in ⮚ Swept Volume – The
1876. The piston engine converts cylinder volume contained
chemical energy in the form of between TDC and BDC.
petroleum fuel into mechanical
⮚ Clearance Volume – the
energy via heat and can be termed
a heat engine. The working medium cylinder volume contained
is air, which is capable of changes between TDC and the piston
in volume and pressure when crown at TDC
subjected to an increase in
temperature caused by the burning
fuel.
The working cycle consists of four
strokes of the piston:
Induction/Intake, Compression,
Power, and Exhaust. This is known
as the four strokes or Otto cycle.
The cycle is of an intermittent
nature; each stroke is distinct and
separate from the others. During
each cycle, the piston moves in a Pressure – Volume Diagram
reciprocating motion within a tube
termed a cylinder barrel. The
crankshaft coverts this linear motion
into a rotary motion. In one
four-stroke cycle, the crankshaft
makes two complete revolutions –
720°.
Listed below are some of the basic
terminologies required in order to
understand engine operation. ____________________________

⮚ Top Dead Center (TDC) –

The position of the piston at
the highest point in the
cylinder.
⮚ Bottom Dead Center (BDC)
– The position of the piston
at the lowest point in the
cylinder
PISTON ENGINE CARBURATION carburetor to burn evenly in the
cylinder. Fuel that is only partially
Aviation Gasoline
atomized leads to hard starting and
• Aviation gasoline (Avgas) is rough running. On the other hand,
the aviation fuel most fuel which vaporizes too readily can
commonly used in evaporate in the fuel lines and lead
piston-engine aircraft within to vapor lock.
the general aviation
VAPOR LOCK
community.
It is a condition in which AVGAS
There are at present three basic
vaporizes in the fuel line or other
types of gasoline, which are dyed
components between the fuel tank
different colors for identification.
and the carburetor
• Grade 80 fuel has a low lead
____________________________
content, is only suitable for
low compression engines, In an aircraft carburetor, an
and is red in color. excessively volatile fuel causes
extreme cooling within the
• Grade 100 fuel has a high
carburetor body when the fuel
lead content, is used on high
evaporates. This increases the
compression engines, and is
chances for the formation of
green in color.
carburetor ice. Therefore, the ideal
• Grade 100LL (Low Lead aviation fuel has a high volatility
100 Octane) fuel is a that is not excessive to the point of
compromise between the causing vapor lock or carburetor
Grade 80 and Grade 100, ice.
contains a medium lead
Pre-Ignition
content, and is blue in color.
This fuel is in general use. It is an abnormal combustion
event. Pre-ignition is the ignition of
One of the most critical
the air fuel charge while the piston
characteristics of aviation gasoline
is still compressing the charge. The
is its volatility
ignition source can be caused by a
VOLATILITY cracked spark plug tip, carbon or
lead deposits in the combustion
It is a measure of a fuel's ability to chamber, or a burned exhaust
change from a liquid into a vapor. valve, anything that can act as a
A fuel's volatility is critical to its glow plug to ignite the charge
performance in an aircraft engine. prematurely.

For example, in a piston engine,

the fuel must vaporize readily in the
Detonation
Detonation, as the name
suggests, is an explosion of the
fuel-air mixture inside the cylinder. It
occurs after the compression stroke
near or after the top dead center.
During detonation, the fuel/air
charge (or pockets within the
charge) explodes rather than
burning smoothly

OCTANE RATING
This is a measure of the fuel's
resistance to detonation, the higher
the octane number, the higher its
resistance.
MIXTURE RATIO
The weight ratio of air to gasoline
that is required to ensure complete
combustion of the fuel is 15-to-1,
where 15 refers to air and 1 to fuel.
The 15-to-1 ratio is the chemically
correct or Stoichiometric ratio and is
the theoretical ideal ratio.
____________________________
RECIPROCATING ENGINE FUEL PRESSURE-FEED SYSTEM
SYSTEM
On low-wing aircraft, the fuel
A reciprocating engine fuel system metering device is above the fuel
must supply the proper amount of tanks. Therefore, a fuel pump must
fuel to an engine at the right be used to pressure-feed fuel to the
pressure and during all ground and fuel metering device. High wing
flight operations. aircraft equipped with fuel-injection
or pressure carburetors also require
All fuel systems must contain
a fuel pump. In addition, a backup,
some basic components including
or auxiliary pump is installed in
one or more fuel tanks, lines,
case the engine-driven pump
valves, filtering devices, quantity
should fail.
gauges, and a primer.
Two examples of light aircraft
reciprocating engine fuel systems
are:
• The gravity-feed system and
• The pressure-feed system.

GRAVITY-FEED SYSTEM
The simplest form of aircraft fuel
systems is the gravity-feed system
used on many high-wing,
single-engine aircraft. A typical
gravity-feed system normally has
two fuel tanks, a fuel selector valve, FUEL SYSTEM COMPONENTS
a fuel strainer, a primer, and a
carburetor. A typical fuel system includes:
• Multiple fuel tanks
• Lines
• Filtering units
• Pumps
• Gauges
• Priming system.
FUEL TANK LINES AND FITTINGS
Fuel tank construction varies Fuel lines routed in an engine
depending on the type and intended compartment present special
use of the aircraft. maintenance consideration. Heat,
vibration, and corrosive elements
Some of the new materials used
are typically greater in an engine
include 3003 and 5052 aluminum
compartment than in most other
alloys and several composite type
locations and, therefore, fuel lines
materials. These materials may
installed in an engine compartment
include neoprene impregnated
require special attention.
fabric used to form bladders, or
fiberglass and honeycomb In modern aircraft, flexible fuel
materials that are formed into rigid lines are often constructed from
tanks. synthetic materials such as
neoprene or Teflon
All fuel tanks are required to have
a sump and drain installed at their On aircraft equipped with rigid fuel
lowest point. lines, the rigid lines may be
constructed from a number of
The sump provides a convenient
materials including copper,
location for water and sediment to
aluminum, or stainless steel.
settle, allowing it to be drained from
the system. Aluminum fuel lines are typically
constructed from 5052-O aluminum
alloy. This material has good
corrosion resistance, is reasonably
easy to fabricate, and weighs less
than comparable strength materials.
And rarely used in engine
compartments.
For fuel tubing applications where
high temperatures and corrosive
conditions exist or where high
strength is required, stainless steel
tubing is used.
FUEL STRAINER
A fuel strainer removes
contaminants from the fuel by
providing a low point in the system
where water and solid contaminants
can be collected. These
contaminants collected in the ENGINE-DRIVEN FUEL PUMP
strainer's sediment bowl are then
Engine-driven fuel pumps are the
drained through a strainer drain.
primary fuel pressure pumps in a
FAR Part 23 requires a main pressure-feed fuel system. The
strainer or fuel filter to be installed purpose of an engine-driven fuel
in the fuel system to remove pump is to deliver a continuous
contaminants and to provide a supply of fuel at the proper
method for draining the pressure during engine operation.
contaminants from the system.
AUXILIARY FUEL PUMPS
The strainer represents the lowest
The primary purpose of an
point in a fuel system and must be
auxiliary fuel pump, or boost pump
located between the fuel tank and
is to maintain a positive fuel
either the fuel metering device or
pressureon the inlet side of the
engine-driven fuel pump.
engine-driven fuel pump. This helps
prevent pump cavitation and vapor
lock by pressurizing the fuel in the
lines.
Additional uses for boost pumps
include providing the required fuel
pressure for starting and
transferring fuel between tanks
which enables a pilot to redistribute
fuel weight in flight and maintain
aircraft stability.
In addition, a boost pump may
serve as a backup source for fuel
pressure to the engine if the
engine-driven fuel pump becomes
clogged or fails.
 COOLING SYSTEM
The heat that is generated by an
internal combustion engine, Baffles
approximately 30 percent is
converted to useful work while 40 to Only 15 to 30 percent of the total
45 percent is expelled through the ram airflow approaching an
exhaust. The remaining 25 to 30 airborne engine cowling enters the
percent is absorbed by the oil and cowling to provide engine cooling.
metal mass of the engine. It is this Baffles are basically sheet metal
heat that is removed by an aircraft's panels which block and redirect
cooling system. If not removed, airflow to provide effective cooling.
engine performance suffers due to
a decrease in volumetric efficiency
and the adverse effect heat has on
the fuel/air mixture.
Cowling
The cowling surrounding a modern
reciprocating engine encloses the
entire engine. With this type of
cowling, cooling air enters through Baffles are installed between the
two forward facing openings and cowling and engine, as well as
exits out one or more openings in between the engine cylinders.
the bottom rear of the cowl. The
rest of the cowling is sealed with
rubberized strips to prevent
excessive air leakage.
Pressure Baffles
The primary purpose of the baffles
installed between the cylinders is to
force cooling air into contact with all
parts of a cylinder

Cooling Fins
The cooling fins on an engine are
designed with a precise surface
area to dissipate a certain amount
of heat.

COWL FLAPS ____________________________

Cowl flaps are hinged doors that
are installed at the bottom rear of
the cowling where the cooling air
exits.
When the cowl flaps are open, a
stronger low-pressure area is
created in the lower cowl and more
air is pulled through the cylinders.
LUBRICATION ● Reduce Friction
● Absorbs Heat
Properties and characteristics of
● Seal
lubricating oils vary with the oil type.
● Cushions
Oil with the correct specifications
● Cleans
must always be used in each
● Protects against Corrosion
engine because use of the wrong
oil could lead to damaged or failed Oil Consumption
engine components.
The amount of oil consumed
depends on several factors such as
engine rpm, engine temperature,
operating clearances, and lubricant
characteristics. Generally, higher
rpm and temperatures, larger
clearances and less viscosity
correspond to higher consumption
rates.

FUNCTIONS OF LUBRICATING OIL

Lubricating oil is often considered

to be the life blood of an engine.
Without it, the friction and wear
produced between moving parts
OIL PROPERTIES
would cause an engine to wear at a
very rapid rate. In addition to Theoretically, the perfect engine oil
reducing friction, lubricating oil is is thin enough to circulate freely, yet
responsible for removing a great heavy enough to stay in place and
deal of engine heat. If fact, without maintain a reasonable film strength.
an ample supply of oil, most However, in practice, a compromise
reciprocating engines will overheat. must be made, and several factors
Additional functions of lubricating must be considered in determining
oils include creating a seal between the proper grade of oil to use in a
moving parts, cushioning impact particular engine. Some of these
forces created by combustion, factors include engine operating
cleaning the engine, and protecting loads, rotational speeds of
against corrosion. bearings, and operating
temperatures. When determining
the proper grade of oil to use there
are several properties which must Flash Point and Fire Point
be considered.
An oil's flash point is the
Viscosity temperature at which it begins to
emit ignitable vapors. As
One of the most important
temperature increases beyond the
properties of an oil is viscosity,
flash point, the oil's fire point is
which is a measure of an oil's
reached, and sufficient vapors are
resistance to flow. An oil that flows
emitted to support a flame. A typical
slowly is viscous or has a high
lubricating oil has a fire point
viscosity. On the other hand, oil that
approximately 50 to 60℃ higher
flows freely has a low viscosity.
than the flash point. An oil must be
Specific Gravity able to withstand the high
temperatures encountered in an
An oil's specific gravity is a
operating engine without creating a
comparison of the weight of an oil
fire hazard. Therefore, these two
to the weight of an equal volume of
temperature ratings are important
distilled water at a specified
when selecting the proper oil for an
temperature. For example, water
engine.
weighs approximately 8 pounds per
gallon. Therefore, an oil with a TYPES OF OIL
specific gravity of 0.9 weighs 7.2
Straight Mineral Oil
pounds per gallon
MIL-L-6082E is a straight mineral
Cloud Point
oil that has no additives, and, for
Another property of lubricating oil many years, the principal type of oil
is known as cloud point. A particular used in aircraft. Although straight
oil's cloud point is the temperature mineral oil is an effective lubricant,
at which paraffin wax and other it does have some limitations.
solids normally held in a solution of
oil begin to solidify and separate
into tiny crystals. At this
temperature, the oil begins to lose
clarity and appears cloudy or hazy.
Pour Point
An oil's pour point represents the
lowest temperature at which the oil
can flow or be poured. Pour point is
an oil property which determines a
given oil's ability to lubricate at low
operating temperatures.
ASHLESS-DISPERSANT OILS lubrication systems rely on a pump
to supply pressurized oil to critical
The most commonly used oil in
engine parts. In most cases, the
reciprocating engines is
pump used in a pressure system is
ashless-dispersant, or AD oil that
a positive displacement, engine
conforms to MIL-L-22851D. It does
driven pump. The term positive
not have the carbon forming
displacement indicates that the
restrictions of straight mineral oil
pump moves a specific amount of
nor does it form ash deposits like
fluid for each revolution of the
detergent oils.
pump. Once oil passes through an
Since ashless-dispersant oils are oil pump, it passes through several
such an effective lubricant, most passages within the crankcase
engine manufacturers do not where it is distributed to various
recommend their use during an engine components. Typical
engine's break-in period. The components within an engine that
reason for this is that, when an are lubricated by pressurized oil
engine is first broken-in, some include all plain bearings,
component wear must occur. crankshaft and camshaft main
bearings, lower connecting rod
bearings, and valve assemblies.
SPLASH LUBRICATION
In addition to pressure lubrication,
many reciprocating engines depend
on some splash lubrication. Splash
lubrication is produced by the
movement of internal components
which splash oil around. This
method of lubrication is very
effective in engines where oil is
OIL DISTRIBUTION stored in the crankcase. In this
The primary purpose of a configuration, as a piston reaches
lubrication system is to lubricate the the bottom of a stroke, its
internal engine components. To do associated crank throw partially
this, lubricating oil must be submerges in oil and splashes it
distributed throughout an engine. onto other components.
Components that are often
PRESSURE LUBRICATION lubricated by splashed oil include
Pressure lubrication is the primary cylinder walls, camshaft lobes,
type of lubrication used in upper bearings of connecting rods,
reciprocating engines. All pressure piston pins, and accessory gears.
SPRAY LUBRICATION
Some large reciprocating engines
are physically too big for splash
lubrication to be effective. In this
case, some form of spray
lubrication is typically used. Spray
lubrication uses the same
pressurized oil in a pressure
lubrication system; however,
instead of routing the oil to a
component through an oil passage,
the oil is sprayed on to a
component through a nozzle.
Engine components that are
lubricated by sprayed engine oil
include some cylinder walls and
camshaft lobes.
Dry sump
SYSTEM CLASSIFICATION
Systems differ from wet-sump
Wet Sump systems in that the oil is stored in a
separate oil tank. This typically
All the oil is carried in the engine
allows a larger quantity of oil to be
crankcase, much the way it is in a
carried. This makes dry-sump
car. With this type of system, the oil
systems well suited to large radial
is picked up by a pump and
engines. In this type of system, an
distributed throughout the engine.
oil pump pulls the oil from the oil
Once the oil has circulated, it drains
tank and circulates it throughout the
down into the sump where it is
engine.
picked up and recirculated. Some
advantages of wet-sump systems
include their relative simplicity and
light weight. However, wet-sump
systems do have some
disadvantages in that their oil
capacity is limited by the sump size
and it is more difficult to cool the oil
since it is contained within the
engine which is a source of heat.