COMPUTING

Slide1

I have learned:
 Network operating system (NOS)
 Social engineering
 Cracking password
 Virus
 Anti-virus software
 Spyware
 Firewall
 Command line
 Ransome ware
 Graphical user interface (GUI)

Slide 2-4
WAN, LAN, PAN mean:
WAN: a type of network that communicates over a large geographical area,
such as window, macOS, IOS or country
LAN: a type of network that communicates over a small geographical area,
such as a single building
PAN: a type of network that communicates over an area of no more than
10metres usually connecting smart devices within the immediate area of a
user
PAN, WAN, LAN devices:
PAN:
 tablets, printers, keyboards, barcode scanners, game consoles, laptops and
other personal devices.

WAN: switches, routers, gateways

LAN: switches, routers, gateways

Slide 5
Uses of copper cable:
used in electrical wiring for both domestic and industrial use. Electronic
circuitry, telecommunications, home ...
characteristics: Bare copper wire has excellent conductive properties, high
strength, good ductility, malleability, and creep resistance, making bare
copper conductors ideal for applications in electrical transmission, jumpers,
grounding electrical systems, electrical hookups, and electrical appliances

fibre-optic
uses of fibre-optic: medical, computer network, cable television….
Characteristics of fibre-optic: flexibility, Distance, bandwidth….
Slide6
WAN, LAN, PAN explanation:
WAN: a type of network that communicates over a large geographical area,
such as window, across, a city or country
LAN: a type of network that communicates over a small geographical area,
such as a single building
PAN: a type of network that communicates over an area of no more than
10metres usually connecting smart devices within the immediate area of a
user
WWAN, WLAN, WPAN:
WWAN: are types of wide area networks that are often used for
telecommunication by mobile devices using 3G, 4G and 5G. Devices connect
to a ‘mast’ or ‘tower’, which can be done over a distance up to 15kilometres
WPAN: is a type of PAN that can be connected using wireless technology only.
This is most often Bluetooth, as a PAN generally does not need to connect to a
device further than 10metres away
WLAN: are often used in homes and in small businesses WLAN using Wi-Fi, as
the transmission distance of Wi-Fi is around 9 metres (or more without
obstruction such as wall)

A network connects several computer systems physically and logically and

forms the basis for data transmission and collaboration.IT networks are crucial
for digitalization, big data and hybrid work, optimize work processes and
improve IT efficiency in companies. Find out how you can efficiently expand
your company's IT infrastructure in our blog post "Build IT infrastructure and
benefit from improved processes
Slide7
Explanation: how an echo checks test for accuracy in transmission
If there are any discrepancies, an error is detected. *How it tests for accuracy:
1. Detects Errors: The echo check detects any errors that may have occurred
during transmission, such as: - Bit flips (0s becoming 1s or vice versa) - Data
corruption - Packet loss or duplication
Slide 8-9
-A list of threats of firewall:
Firewalls create a secure network gateway between private networks and the
public internet. They filter incoming and outgoing traffic, blocking threats and
allowing authorized data flows. This role makes firewalls a critical security
tool. But firewalls themselves can also be vulnerable to configuration errors
and external attacks.

This article will explore important firewall threats and explain the major risks
faced by security teams. We will run through a typical risk assessment process
to mitigate firewall vulnerabilities. And we will finish with a short list of best
practices to secure your perimeter and meet regulatory goals.
1. Insider attacks
Some of the most dangerous firewall threats emerge from within
organizations. Users with excessive privileges can breach perimeter defenses
without any firewall intervention. When they gain access to internal network
resources, they can steal data or damage digital infrastructure.
Insider threats make it important to apply network segmentation within the
firewall perimeter. Companies can use cloud firewalls to create zones of trust
and apply the principle of least privilege. This restricts users to small portions
of the network and limits east-west movement.

2. DDoS attacks
Preventing DDoS attacks is one of the most important roles of a company
firewall. DDoS attacks involve massive injections of access requests or data
packets from malicious intruders. Without proper filters, large volumes of
traffic can take down network resources. This leads to downtime and may
cause data loss.

3. Poorly implemented controls

Firewalls usually come with extensive security controls to counter common
threats. For instance, next-generation firewalls may feature anti-spoofing tools
to block DDoS traffic. These controls are not always activated. Sometimes,
users may not be aware they exist. But if you don't leverage all available
threat mitigation tools, your security posture is incomplete.

4. Lax firewall updates

Firewall providers regularly update the firmware that delivers their services.
But customers may not apply firmware updates quickly enough to counter
threats. In some cases, users may avoid updates completely to save time – a
counterproductive and dangerous policy.

Network security teams should always prioritize firewall updates. External

attackers constantly update their methods. Firewalls can become obsolete
overnight as new agents appear and existing filters fail to recognize them.
Fortunately, users can generally automate patch management to make sure
their protection is up to date.

5. Poor documentation and awareness

[Firewall management](/learn/firewall/management/0 requires detailed
knowledge of filtering policies and network architecture. But this can
disappear if responsible individuals leave the organization without
documenting their work.

Firewall technicians should always maintain written logs and documentation

for all applications, along with comprehensive rule descriptions. This
documentation enables smooth handovers when personnel change. If it does
not exist, security teams must waste time recreating their firewall policy from
scratch.

6. Inadequate inspection tools

Firewalls depend on inspection capabilities to detect suspicious traffic. But
there is a huge difference between the inspection functions of a primitive
packet filtering firewall and a next-generation firewall based on deep packet
inspection (DPI).

DPI operates at layer 7 of the OSI model and inspects the contents of data
packets. Packet filtering can only scan the outer layer of network packets. This
blocks some malicious agents but can be compromised by IP address spoofing
attacks. NGFWs with DPI are much less vulnerable to spoofing attacks and will
deliver far better network protection.

7. Misconfiguration
Many firewall threats stem from simple misconfigurations. For instance,
network technicians may retain default passwords when installing hardware
firewalls. Without regularly-changed strong passwords, devices will be
relatively easy to hack. And when attackers breach firewall passwords, they
can easily enter network resources.

Firewalls may also conflict with existing hardware or software. For example,
next-generation firewalls often work with intrusion detection systems. IDS
tools can generate excessive traffic loads.

This can impair network performance, leading to traffic bottlenecks. And it can
also compromise the effectiveness of firewall barriers, creating points of
vulnerability.
Antivirus:
Malware
Ransomware
Worms
Phishing…...
Antispyware software
Spyware
Worms
Adware
Viruses
Phishing
Keyloggers…...
-add a paragraph that explains the function operating system:
An operating system (OS) is a program that acts as an interface between the
system hardware and the user. Moreover, it handles all the interactions
between the software and the hardware. All the working of a computer system
depends on the OS at the base level. Further, it performs all the functions like
handling memory, processes, the interaction between hardware and software,
etc. Now, let us look at the functions of operating system.
Objectives of OS
The primary goals of an operating system are as follows:

Convenience – An operating system improves the use of a machine. Operating

systems enable users to get started on the things they wish to complete
quickly without having to cope with the stress of first configuring the system.
Efficiency – An operating system enables the efficient use of resources. This is
due to less time spent configuring the system.
Ability to evolve – An operating system should be designed in such a way that
it allows for the effective development, testing, and introduction of new
features without interfering with service.
Management of system resources – It guarantees that resources are shared
fairly among various processes and users.
Functions of Operating System
1. Memory Management
It is the management of the main or primary memory. Whatever program is
executed, it has to be present in the main memory. Main memory is a quick
storage area that may be accessed directly by the CPU. When the program is
completed, the memory region is released and can be used by other
programs. Therefore, there can be more than one program present at a time.
Hence, it is required to manage the memory.

The operating system:

Allocates and deallocates the memory.

Keeps a record of which part of primary memory is used by whom and how
much.
Distributes the memory while multiprocessing.
In multiprogramming, the operating system selects which processes acquire
memory when and how much memory they get.
2. Processor Management/Scheduling
Every software that runs on a computer, whether in the background or in the
frontend, is a process. Processor management is an execution unit in which a
program operates. The operating system determines the status of the
processor and processes, selects a job and its processor, allocates the
processor to the process, and de-allocates the processor after the process is
completed.

When more than one process runs on the system the OS decides how and
when a process will use the CPU. Hence, the name is also CPU Scheduling. The
OS:

Allocates and deallocates processor to the processes.

Keeps record of CPU status.
Certain algorithms used for CPU scheduling are as follows:

First Come First Serve (FCFS)

Shortest Job First (SJF)
Round-Robin Scheduling
Priority-based scheduling etc.
Purpose of CPU scheduling
The purpose of CPU scheduling is as follows:

Proper utilization of CPU. Since the proper utilization of the CPU is necessary.
Therefore, the OS makes sure that the CPU should be as busy as possible.
Since every device should get a chance to use the processor. Hence, the OS
makes sure that the devices get fair processor time.
Increasing the efficiency of the system.
3. Device Management
An operating system regulates device connection using drivers. The processes
may require devices for their use. This management is done by the OS. The
OS:

Allocates and deallocates devices to different processes.

 Keeps records of the devices.
Decides which process can use which device for how much time.
4. File Management
The operating system manages resource allocation and de-allocation. It
specifies which process receives the file and for how long. It also keeps track
of information, location, uses, status, and so on. These groupings of resources
are referred to as file systems. The files on a system are stored in different
directories. The OS:

Keeps records of the status and locations of files.

Allocates and deallocates resources.
Decides who gets the resources.
5. Storage Management
Storage management is a procedure that allows users to maximize the
utilization of storage devices while also protecting data integrity on whatever
media on which it lives. Network virtualization, replication, mirroring, security,
compression, deduplication, traffic analysis, process automation, storage
provisioning, and memory management are some of the features that may be
included. The operating system is in charge of storing and accessing files. The
creation of files, the creation of directories, the reading and writing of data
from files and directories, as well as the copying of the contents of files and
directories from one location to another are all included in storage
management.

The OS uses storage management for:

Improving the performance of the data storage resources.

It optimizes the use of various storage devices.
Assists businesses in storing more data on existing hardware, speeding up the
data retrieval process, preventing data loss, meeting data retention
regulations, and lowering IT costs
-A paragraph defining what is meant by utilities software:
Utility software is a program specifically designed to help manage and tune
system or application software.[1] It is used to support the
computer infrastructure - in contrast to application software, which is aimed at
directly performing tasks that benefit ordinary users. However, utilities often
form part of the application systems. For example, a batch job may run user-
written code to update a database and may then include a step that runs a
utility to back up the database, or a job may run a utility to compress a disk
before copying files.
Although a basic set of utility programs is usually distributed with
an operating system (OS), and this first party utility software is often
considered part of the operating system, users often install replacements or
additional utilities.[2][3] Those utilities may provide additional facilities to carry
out tasks that are beyond the capabilities of the operating system.
Many utilities that might affect the entire computer system require the user to
have elevated privileges, while others that operate only on the user's data do
not.[4]
System utilities
[edit]
 Anti-virus utilities scan for computer viruses and block or remove them.
 Clipboard managers expand the clipboard functionality of an operating system.
 Computer access control software grants or denies requests for access to system
resources.
 Debuggers typically permit the examination and modification of data and program
instructions in memory and on disk.
 Diagnostic programs determine and report the operational status of computer
hardware and software. Memory testers are one example.
 Network utilities analyze the computer's network connectivity, configure network
settings, check data transfer or log events.
 Package managers are used to configure, install or keep up to date other software on
a computer.
 Registry cleaners clean and optimize the Windows Registry by removing old registry
keys that are no longer in use.
 System monitors monitor resources and performance in a computer system.
 System profilers provide detailed information about installed software and hardware.
Storage device management utilities
[edit]
 Backup software makes copies of all information stored on a disk and restores either
the entire disk (aka Disk cloning) in an event of disk failure or selected files that are
accidentally deleted or corrupted. Undeletion utilities are sometimes more
convenient.
 Disk checkers scan an operating hard drive and check for logical (filesystem) or
physical errors.
 Disk compression utilities transparently compress/uncompress the contents of a disk,
increasing the capacity of the disk.
 Disk defragmenters detect computer files whose contents are scattered across
several locations on the hard disk and collect the fragments into one contiguous
area.
 Disk formatters prepare a data storage device such as a hard disk, solid-state drive,
floppy disk or USB flash drive for initial use. These are often used to permanently
erase an entire device.
 Disk partition editors divide an individual drive into multiple logical drives, each with
its own file system which can be mounted by the operating system and treated as an
individual drive.
 Disk space analyzers provide a visualization of disk space usage by getting the size
for each folder (including sub folders) and files in folder or drive. showing the
distribution of the used space.
 Tape initializers write a label to a magnetic tape or other magnetic medium.
Initializers for DECtape format the tape into blocks.
File management utilities
[edit]
 Archivers output a stream or a single file when provided with a directory or a set of
files. Archive suites may include compression and encryption capabilities. Some
archive utilities have a separate un-archive utility for the reverse operation. One
nearly universal type of archive file format is the zip file.
 Cryptographic utilities encrypt and decrypt streams and files.
 Data compression utilities output a shorter stream or a smaller file when provided
with a stream or file.
 Data conversion utilities transform data from a source file to some other format, such
as from a text file to a PDF document.
 Data recovery utilities are used to rescue good data from corrupted files.
 Data synchronization utilities establish consistency among data from a source to a
target data storage and vice versa. There are several branches of this type of utility:
 File synchronization utilities maintain consistency between two sources. They
may be used to create redundancy or backup copies but are also used to help
users carry their digital music, photos and video in their mobile devices.
 Revision control utilities can recreate a coherent structure where multiple
users simultaneously modify the same file.
 Disk cleaners find files that are unnecessary to computer operation, or take up
considerable amounts of space.
 File comparison utilities provide a standalone capability to detect differences between
files.
 File managers provide a convenient method of performing routine data management,
email recovery and management tasks, such as deleting, renaming, cataloging,
uncataloging, moving, copying, merging, setting write protection status, setting file
access permissions, generating and modifying folders and data sets.
Miscellaneous utilities
[edit]
 Data generators (e.g. IEBDG) create a file of test data according to specified patterns.
 Hex editors directly modify the text or data of a file without regard to file format.
These files can be data or programs.
 HTML checkers validate HTML code and check links.
 Installation or setup utilities are used to initialize or configure programs, usually
applications programs, for use in a specific computer environment. There are
also Uninstallers.
 Patching utilities perform alterations of files, especially object programs when
program source is unavailable.
 Screensavers prevent phosphor burn-in on CRT and plasma computer monitors.
 Sort/Merge programs arrange records (lines) of a file into a specified sequence.
 Standalone macro recorders permit use of keyboard macros in programs that do not
natively support such a feature.
See also
[edit]
 List of DOS commands
 List of macOS built-in apps
 Support programs for OS/360 and successors
 List of Unix commands
 List of KDE utilities
 Batch file
 Shell script
 System software