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9

Authors
Kerrie Ardley
Emma Bone
Eddy de Jong
Christopher Humphreys

Contributors
Victoria Shaw
Jonathan Blair
Erin Checkley
Sarah Chuck
Paulo da Silva

science
Cambridge

for the Victorian Curriculum

Cambridge Science ISBN 978-1-108-62918-8 © Ardley et al. 2019 Cambridge University Press
Victorian Curriculum Year 9 Photocopying is restricted under law and this material must not be transferred to another party. Updated September 2023
Shaftesbury Road, Cambridge CB2 8EA, United Kingdom
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Cambridge University Press is part of Cambridge University Press & Assessment, a department
of the University of Cambridge.
We share the University's mission to contribute to society through the pursuit of education,
learning and research at the highest international levels of excellence.

www.cambridge.org
© Kerry Ardley, Emma Bone, Eddy de Jong, Christopher Humphreys and Cambridge University Press 2019
This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements,
no reproduction of any part may take place without the written permission of Cambridge University Press & Assessment.
First published 2019
20 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4
Cover design by Cameron McPhail
Text design by Shaun Jury
Typeset by QBS Learning
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A catalogue record for this book is available from the National Library of Australia at www.nla.gov.au
ISBN 978-1-108-62918-8 Paperback
Additional resources for this publication at www.cambridge.edu.au/GO
Reproduction and Communication for educational purposes
The Australian Copyright Act 1968 (the Act) allows a maximum of one chapter or 10% of the pages of this publication, whichever
is the greater, to be reproduced and/or communicated by any educational institution for its educational purposes provided that
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Cambridge University Press & Assessment has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of URLs for external or third-party
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or appropriate. Information regarding prices, travel timetables and other factual information given in this work is correct at the time of
first printing but Cambridge University Press & Assessment does not guarantee the accuracy of such information thereafter.
All activities, including practicals, are a guide only. All activities should have risk assessments conducted, and the activities should be
trialled. The individual needs of students and facility/equipment availability should also be considered before conducting an activity;
appropriate protective equipment and clothing should be worn. While safety has been considered in the writing of all practicals
and activities, Cambridge University Press & Assessment and the authors and contributors do not accept any responsibility for the
information and instructions contained in the activities and are not liable for any loss or injury resulting from conducting any activity
described in this resource.
Cambridge University Press & Assessment acknowledges the Australian Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples of this nation. We
acknowledge the traditional custodians of the lands on which our company is located and where we conduct our business. We pay our respects to
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Welcome

Not all babies are healthy at birth; some, especially those born too early, need intensive care.
Catheters, which are thin flexible tubes, are placed in sick babies’ blood vessels to deliver fluids and
medications. Sometimes these catheters don’t reach the correct location, requiring multiple attempts
from doctors to get it right.
To address this unmet clinical need, we developed neoNAV, an award-winning medical device
that tracks where the catheter is during and after the procedure. The neoNAV addresses the
weaknesses of current solutions, reducing the need for patient exposure to repeated X-ray radiation.
It is also easier than using ultrasound, making care safer and less stressful for babies, and also improving
clinical efficiency for busy clinical staff.
It’s an exciting time to work in biomedical engineering as new medicines, treatments and medical
devices are continuously being developed.

Shing Yue Sheung is co-founder and currently leading operations at Navi Medical
Technologies. The collaborative team at Navi come from varied backgrounds such as
medicine, biomedical engineering, finance, business consulting, management and
programming. Navi has won a number of awards including selection into the TMCx
Medical Device Accelerator, Grand Prize at the 5th Annual Pediatric Device Innovation
Symposium Competition, First Prize – Startup Vic Healthtech Pitch Night among others.
Shing is on the Forbes 30 Under 30 Asia List and is a World Economic Forum Global
Shaper. He completed a Bachelor of Commerce at The University of Melbourne, where
he then earned a Master of Engineering, specialising in Bioengineering and Biomedical
Engineering. He graduated with First Class Honours, was on the Dean’s List and completed
part of his studies at ETH Zurich, a major science and technology university in Europe. He
was also awarded the 2018 MBS Alumni Leadership Award.
In his spare time, Shing enjoys playing tennis, guitar, exploring US culture and listening
to podcasts.

Contents
Authors and contributors vi
How to use this book viii
Acknowledgements xi

1
Thinking like a scientist
1.1 Planning and conducting investigations 4
1.2 Observations to conclusions 12

Homeostasis

2
2.1 The requirements for life 31
2.2 Body systems working together 43
2.3 Response to microorganisms 58
STEM: Simulating the transmission of disease 78

Response and coordination

3.1 Keeping in control 83

3 3.2 Neurons and the nervous system

3.3 The spinal cord
3.4 The brain
88
97
106
STEM: Texting and reaction times – what do the numbers say? 122

Ecosystems

4
4.1 What is an ecosystem? 127
4.2 Interactions between organisms and their environment 145
4.3 Population dynamics within ecosystems 152
STEM: Saving an endangered species! 166

Atoms
5.1 What are atoms, elements and compounds? 171

5
5.2 The structure of the atom 175
5.3 Atomic number and mass number 180
5.4 Development of the atomic model 184
5.5 Isotopes 192
STEM: Designing and creating a product using bioplastics 200

Chemical reactions
6.1 Introduction to chemical reactions 205

6
6.2 Conservation of mass 212
6.3 Energy and chemical reactions 218
6.4 Reactions of life 225
6.5 Acid reactions 230
STEM: Baristas and the curdling milk problem 242

Our changing Earth

7.1 Continent movement theories 247

7 7.2 Plate tectonics and plate movement

7.3 The effects of plate movement
7.4 Technologies and natural disasters
257
270
279
STEM: Earthquake-proof structures 286

Electricity

8
8.1 What is electricity? 291
8.2 Simple circuits 299
8.3 More circuits and their applications 313
STEM: Can you see the renewables? 324

Electromagnetism

9
9.1 Magnets and electricity 329
9.2 Generating movement 342
9.3 Generating electricity 348
STEM: The simplest maglev system 358

Glossary 360
Index 366

Authors and contributors

Kerrie Ardley
Kerrie Ardley has taught a variety of Junior and VCE Sciences
throughout her teaching career. Currently, she is the Head of Psychology
at an independent school and also holds a position as a VCAA Assistant
Chief Assessor. Kerrie enjoys teaching Junior Science, and seeing
students learn through the connections between theory, practical work
and the world around us.

Emma Bone
Emma Bone thrives on the dynamic and practical nature of science,
which led her to a first class honours in Biomedical Science. Her desire
to enable students to maximise their potential brought about a career
as a Science teacher in Australia and in the UK, where she was also a
Chemistry specialist teaching both GCSE and A level courses.

Dr. Eddy de Jong

Dr Eddy de Jong has been involved with science and physics education
at the secondary and tertiary level for many years. He has taught science
at all levels, Senior HSC/VCE Physics and university Physics. He
was involved in the Victorian Gifted Students Physics Network, was a
Physics Study Design writer with VCAA, and is currently chair of the
VCE Physics Examinations Panel. He is a successful author of numerous
science and physics texts. He is passionate about seeing young minds
engaging with science and physics and aims to instil in students a sense of
curiosity whilst developing their critical thinking skills.

Christopher Humphreys
Chris Humphreys is currently teaching Science and Physics at an
independent school. He graduated from Nottingham University in the
UK and completed his MSc in Physics at the University of Waikato in
New Zealand. He has over thirty years’ experience as a teacher in state
and private schools in the UK, New Zealand and Australia.

Victoria Shaw
Victoria Shaw has been committed to sharing her love for science
with Year 7–12 students for the past 18 years and previously studied
pharmacology. She was Head of Science at an independent school for a
few years and volunteers as an educator for Wildlife Victoria. She has also
been an assessor for the VCAA and IBO and runs workshops in biology
and psychology.

Jonathan Blair
Jonathan Blair graduated from the University of New South Wales with
a Bachelor in Science, majoring in Pharmacology. He has worked in both
research and commercial laboratories, specializing in cardiac regeneration
and vaccine manufacturing, respectively. Jonathan is currently working as
a laboratory technician for an independent school.

Erin Checkley
Erin Checkley has taught Biology, Junior Science and Mathematics at
a Catholic secondary college for the past 6 years. During her Masters of
Education at The University of Melbourne, she developed a passion for
curriculum development and aims to instil a sense of curiosity and critical
thinking skills in students. She previously worked as a cardiorespiratory
and sports physiotherapist.

Sarah Chuck
Sarah Chuck teaches Science in Years 7–10. She completed a biomedical
science degree at Monash University and Masters of Teaching Practice
at RMIT. During her studies, Sarah worked in a genetics laboratory at
the Australian Regenerative Medicine Institute modelling disease in
organisms, such as the zebrafish. She hopes students will also find their
experiences in science to be extremely interesting and rewarding.

Paulo da Silva
Paulo da Silva is a passionate STEM Educator with a varied background
in ICT, Earth Sciences and STEM Curriculum Design. Paulo
encourages students to use their curiosity and creativity to design,
prototype, discover and innovate, in pursuit of the product developments
and ideas of tomorrow. He also vocally campaigns for STEM Education
opportunities for students from low socio-economic backgrounds.

The publisher would like to thank Laura Swann, Matthew Scott, Isaac Pang, Hanya Banks, Ruwan
Devasurendra, Dr Sydney Boydell, Harry Leather, Jan Leather and Ariel Laughlin for their help in
reviewing and contributing to this title.

How to use this book

Overview of the print book

Short facts that contain Did you know? Quick checks for Quick check
interesting information recalling facts and
understanding content

Students are encouraged to Explore! Short activities to explore Try this

conduct research online to concepts that are currently
find and interpret information being covered

Glossary
definitions of Practical
key terms are
provided next Practical investigations consolidate student
to where the VIDEO WIDGET
key term first learning
appears in the Videos are found Widgets are found
chapter. in the Interactive in the Interactive
Textbook. Textbook.

Recent developments in the particular area of science being Science as a human endeavour
covered. They may also show how ideas in science have
changed over the years through human discovery and inventions.

Section questions

Review questions to check students’ understanding and application of the section content.

122 Chapter 3 RESPONSE AND COORDINATION STEM activity TEXTING AND REACTION TIMES – WHAT DO THE NUMBERS SAY? 123 STEM activities encourage
STEM activity: Texting and reaction times – what Design brief: Investigate whether texting is a
distraction to people performing tasks.
Evaluate and modify
1 Imagine that you received a table with reaction
students to collaboratively design
do the numbers say?
and build solutions to problems
time values (t) for a laboratory experiment.
Activity instructions Knowing that a (gravitational force) is almost
constant and does not need to be worked out,
Background information In this activity, you will use materials, a very elegant how could you rework the equation below
mathematical formula and your imagination to

and challenges.
VCDSTS054 VCDTCD050 VCSSU117 to estimate the distance value used in that
Many people might consider that reacting to a create an experiment that produces: experiment? In other words, how could you
stimulus is an automatic process, however, that 1 at least three sets of data rework the equation below to solve for distance
could not be further from the truth. Imagine that you 2 at least three bar graphs instead of time?
are in a car driven by a friend, you are all having a 3 a conclusion that clearly answers the following
VCSSU118 VCSIS134 VCSIS136
great time and getting ready to enjoy your outing 2d
scenario: t=
when suddenly, a dog runs in front of the car. a
Victoria’s Transport Accident Commission
The driver reacts quickly and the dog manages to where t = time, d = distance and a = 9.80 cm/s2
(TAC) is so worried about young people’s
escape unharmed. (acceleration due to gravity).
attitudes towards texting while driving that it
The example above can be used to illustrate the the nervous system with the correct combination of 2 Discuss with at least three of your colleagues the
hired your young startup company to conduct
powerful cooperation between many sensors in our contraction and expansion of very specific muscles; challenges you have encountered throughout
a sequence of experiments in the community
bodies and the brain. First, light sensors (your eyes) this is when your friend presses the brake pedal. this project. List the strategies or actions that
to determine wheter texting can slow down a
recognise the sudden change in light conditions In the meantime, your brains sends an instruction allowed you to overcome each challenge.
person’s reaction times.
on the road, that information is sent for processing, to the light sensors asking it to keep feeding data 3 Reflection is an integral and vital aspect of any
then your brain can decide what that information whilst the whole process takes place, in case a project out there in the real world. How could
Suggested materials
is and if any action is required. Then, your brain different action is required. you use ICT tools (for example, apps, video, slow
compares the information coming from your light This whole process described above takes • 30 cm ruler motion camera) to enhance this experiment?
sensors to information contained in a vast collection place during 0.25 seconds on average. However, • scissors 4 The results may change when a different type
of images (memory), the brain finds a match and that value will considerably change, depending on • cardboard of ruler is used, such as metal, plastic or timber.
determines that something stored under the name your state of alertness! For example, imagine if your • paper Predict how the size or length of the ruler might
‘dog’ is very likely the same thing that is running in friend was texting while driving, do you think the • pen have impact on the results.
front of your car. Finally, the brain sends signals via outcome could have been different? • mobile phone to record amazing slow 5 Repeat this activity and compare your results
motion videos when you use your dominant hand (the one you
• Microsoft PowerPoint for presentations write with) and when you use your other hand. Is
• video editing software for making short there any difference in reaction times between
documentaries hands?
Consider adding other distracting sounds and
Mathematical formula sights during the activity, such as turning on a
TV set or flicking a flashlight on and off. Do your
2d responses slow with so many sensory signals?
t=
a 6 Create a PowerPoint presentation to relay your
where t = time, d = distance and a = 9.80 cm/s2 findings to the TAC.
(acceleration due to gravity).

Figure 3.35 In Victoria there are penalties for using a mobile device while driving or stationary but not properly parked.

Overview of the Interactive Textbook (ITB)

The Interactive Textbook (ITB) is an online HTML version of the print textbook powered by the
Edjin platform, included with the print book or available as a separate digital-only product.

Quizzes contain
Definitions pop Worksheets are provided
automarked questions that
up for key terms as downloadable Word
enable students to quickly
in the text documents
check their understanding

Videos summarise,
clarify or extend student
knowledge

Widgets are accompanied

by questions that encourage
independent learning and
observations

10 Chapter 1 SCIENCE SKILLS

Practical 1.1: Self-design

Aim
You will work in groups, allocating each person with at least one role covered in this chapter. Your group will
Practicals are available as a act as a team of consultant engineers, working towards finding a solution to a problem by using the engineering
design loop.
Word document download,
with sample answers and Define the problem/
identify the need

guides for teachers in the Redesign

(as needed)
Online Teaching Suite Research
the problem

Communicate the
design and the process
Engineering
design loop
Brainstorm/develop
solutions
Test and evaluate
prototype

Select the
Build/construct solution
prototype

Figure 1.9 The engineering design loop

When brainstorming, remember these rules.

Focus on quantity – come up with as many ideas as you can.

Encourage wild ideas – don’t put down or criticise ideas that are wild as they may lead to innovative designs.
Record all ideas – have a scribe who can write everything down.
Combine and build ideas – discuss and elaborate on the ideas of other students.
Focus – don’t get off topic!

Design a hand-washing station

Cambridge Science ISBN 978-1-108-62918-8 © Ardley et al. 2019 Cambridge University Press
Problem
Victorian Curriculum Year 9 Photocopying is restricted under law and this material must not be transferred to another party. Updated September 2023
People in developing nations have a limited amount of clean water they can use each day. Often, they must travel
x How to use this book

Workspaces enable students

to enter working and answers
online and to save them. Input
is by typing, handwriting and
drawing, or by uploading
images of writing or drawing.

Self-assessment tools enable

students to check answers,
mark their own work and
rate their confidence level in
their work. This helps develop
responsibility for learning and
communicates progress and
performance to the teacher.
Student accounts can be linked
to the learning management
system used by the teacher in
the Online Teaching Suite.

Overview of the Online Teaching Suite (OTS)

The Online Teaching Suite is automatically enabled with a teacher account and is integrated with the
teacher’s copy of the Interactive Textbook. All the assets and resources are in one place for easy access.
The features include:
• The Edjin learning management system with class and student analytics and reports, and
communication tools.
• Teacher’s view of a student’s working and self-assessment.
• Chapter tests and worksheets with answers as PDFs and editable Word documents.
• Editable curriculum grids and teaching programs.
• Teacher notes and downloadable Word document guides to Practicals and STEM activities

Acknowledgements
The author and publisher wish to thank the following sources for permission to reproduce material:
Images: © Getty Images / C Anderson Productions, Ch1 Opener / A Brookes, 1.1 / Tek Image / Science Photo Library, 1.2 /
PM Images, 1.3 / J L Pelaez., 1.4 / Dorling Kindersely, 1.7 / C Streeter, 1.8 / pixdeluxe, Ch2 Opener / wir0man, 2.1 / irina88w, 2.2
/ SCIEPRO, SPL, 2.4 / shark_749, 2.5 / Tetra Images, 2.6 / Image Source, 2.7 / switchpipipi, 2.9 / Daniel Pockett, 2.12 / Chris
Ryan, 2.13 / Dan Kitwook, 2.14 / Tetra images, 2.16 / De Agostini PL, 2.18, 4.12 / mlharing, 2.20 (1) / Uwe -Bergwitz, 2.20 (2) /
Ian Hooton, 2.22 / MatoomMi, 2.24 / William West, 2.26 / Image Source, 2.28 / Elisa Lara, 2.30 / STEVE GSCHMEISSNER,
2.33 / ubazon, 2.29 / A Maji, 2.34 / Science Photo Library – CNRI, 2.34 / burakkarademir, 2.35 / natthanim, 2.36 / ttsz, 2.38, 2.41,
3.3, 3.5, 3.27 / wynnter, 2.40 (1) / Hulton Archive, 2.40 (4) / Heritage Images, 2.40 (5) / H. Armstrong Roberts / ClassicStock,
2.40 / Dr_Microbe, 2.43 / Peter Dazeley, 2.47 / jarun011, 2.48 / Science PL, PASIEKA, Chapter 2 Review Questions (1) / BSIP,
Chapter 2 Review Questions (2), 2.48, 3.25, 3.26, 3.31, 4.41, 6.13 / Kateryna Kon, SPL, 2.31 / Steve Gschmeissner, 2.32, 3.15 /
NerjroN, Ch3 Opener / KT Design, SPL, 3.1, Ch5 Opener / newannyart, 3.4 / Pasieka, Did you now? 3.1 / wetcake, 3.7 / normaals,
3.8, 3.13, 3.16 / Stocktrek images, 3.10 / Sherbrooke Connectivity 1, 3.12 / M Meyer, 3.18 / M J Jensen, 3.19 / Stigalenas, 3.20 /
artisticco, 3.22 / Sherri Damlo, LLC., Practical 3.3 / Blend Images, 3.24 / Alfred Pasieka, SPL, 3.28 / Oli Scarff, 3.29 / Ian Cuming,
3.30 / Scientifica, 3.32 / Zephyr, SPL, 3.33 / Robert Daly, p.199 / Luisrftc, p.119 / Adam Gault, 3.35 / Svetlana Davis, 3.35 / Jeff
Hunter, Ch4 Opener / M O Fiachra, 4.1 / UIG, 4.2, 9.38, 9.39 / Southern Lightscapes Australia, 4.4 / Auscape, 4.5, 4.7, 4.21, 4.30,
4.31, 4.46, 7.50 / kokouu, Practical 4.1, 4.9 / Alan Tunnicliffe, 4.9 (kookaburra) / Erik Pettersson, 4.9 (frog) / andra standbridge,
4.9 (Insect) / kurkul, 4.9 (grassland) / blueringmedia, 4.15 / VW Pics, 4.16 / VW Pics, 4.16 / Hanis, 4.18 / Lucas Dawson, 4.19 /
James Osmond, 4.20 / Brett Orford, 4.22 / C. Ruisz, 4.23 / G. Pokasasipun, 4.24 / J. Hamilton, 4.25 / J. Gaerner, SPL, 4.26 / Nes,
4.27 / K. Frayer, 4.28 / Hauani, 4.36 / GeographySouthWest, 4.37 / Photofusion, 4.38 / M. Reardon, 4.40 / Lost Horizon Images,
4.41 / Christian Science Monitor, 4.42 / MyLoupe, 4.43 / D. Johnston, 4.44 / Universal History Archive, 4.45, 5.22, 7.27 / Tim
Laman, 4.47 / PhotoStock-Israel, Ch5 Opener / Douglas Sacha, 5.1 / M F Diaz, 5.3 / MicrovOne. 5.34, 5.13 / Laguan Design, 5.4
/ popovaphoto, 5.7 / P. Boegil, 5.8 / Lena Clara, 5.9 / Image Source, 5.10 / R. Tsubin, 5.15 / Cultura RM Exclusive / Matt, 5.16
/ blackboard1965, 5.20 / P. Karapanagiotis, 5.19 / GeorgiosArt, 5.21 / Interim Archives, 5.24 / ullstein bild Dtl., 5.27, 5.31, 5.36,
7.32, 8.26 / Imagno, 5.29 / Jeff J Mitchell, 5.32 / David Joel, 5.44 / G. Barnett, p.241 / D. Mouhtaropoulos, 5.33 / pop_jop, 5.42 / K
Agbaba, 5.43 / D. Dirscherl, 5.46 / Scott Barbour, 5.47 / Flashpop, Ch6 Opener, 6.1 / B. Chamberlin, 6.4 / Media for Medical, 6.5
/ J Broughton Photography, Table 6.1 / Xvision, Table 6.1 / Jamie Grill, Table 6.1 / Diverse Images / UIG, Table 6.1 / Tetra Images,
Table 6.1 / Atomic Imagery, 6.6 / oxygen, 6.8 / Ivan, 6.9 / Santi Visalli Inc., 6.10 / S. Bianchetti, 6.11 / M. Melcon, 6.12 / Inga Kjer,
6.18 / Photofusion, 6.19 / Arterra, 6.20 / Florian Gaertner, 6.23 / Anadolu Agency, 6.29 / Dr. J Burgess, 6.31 / ediebloom, 6.33 /
Joern Pollex, 6.35 / Ian MacNicol, 6.36 / Larry French, 6.37 / SPL Images, 6.38 / DarthArt, 6.41 / A Angelides, 6.42 / Nataba,
6.45 / R. Wassenbergh, 6.48 / C. Vimuktananda, 6.52 / ChiccoDodiFC, 6.52 / NurPhoto, Ch7 Opener / Print Collector, 7.1 /
Encyclopedia Britannica, 2.23, 7.3, 7.13, 7.37, 2.22, 9.37, 9.38 / Anadolu Agency, 7.6 / Walter Diz, 7.6 / F. Goro, 7.7 / Geography,
Photos, 7.8 / G. Bouys, 7.10 / AGF, 7.12 / Maps4media, 7.15 / QAI Publishing, 7.16 / R. Lesniewski, 7.17, 7.23, Section 7.4
questions / L_Zajchikova, 7.18 / QAI Publishing, 7.22 / Nurphoto, 7.29 / M Gottschalk, 7.34 / D P Morris, 7.35 / Jack0m, 7.36
/ QAI Publishing, 7.38 / Buyenlarge, 7.39 / Marco Gacia, 7.40 / Barcroft Media, 7.41 / DigitalGlobe, 7.42 / SteffenHuebner,
7.45 / JIJI Press, 7.47 / Y Arthus-Bertrand, 7.48 / SMH, 7.49 / S Huebner, Section 7.3 questions / eugendobric, 7.51 / Time Life
Pictures, 7.52 / Stocktrek Images, 7.54 / Kypros, 7.55 / chombosan, 7.56 / Image Source, 7.57 / D G Herazon p.285 / Melvin
Levongo, 7.58 / B. Kanaris, 7.58 / Artie Ng, Moment, Ch 8 Opener / E Randjelovic, 8.1 / Ivan Kuzman, 8.2 / Nemeka_Polted,
8.4 / William West, 8.5 / A Olek, 8.5 / T Karaket, 8.7 / SPL, 8.10 / Tetra images, 8.12 / Labazele, 8.14 / haryigit, 8.15, 8.32 (a),
8.32 (b) / Y. Tsuno, 8.17 / Creativaimages, Table 8.1 / L Johnson, DK, Table 8.1 / artpartner-images, Table 8.1 / eliflamra, 8.18
/ B Wickham, 8.22 / Krasyuk, 8.23 / R. Arduengo, 8.25 / L Leynse, 8.29 / Southern Metropolis Daily, 8.30 / T Merton, 8.34
/ Juan_Gomez, 8.35 / tonguy324, 8.36 / trappy76, 8.36 / Westend61, 8.37 / Tim Grist, 8.41 / A Yarali, 8.43 / Sadeugra, 8.44 /
tirc8, 8.45 / paulw11, Section 8.4 questions / TaPhotograph, 8.46 / Hero Images, 8.46 / C Pypes, 8.46 / M Rakusen, Ch9 Opener
/ Lissart, 9.1 / Bettmann, 9.2 / ViewStock, 9.3 / JLGutierrez, 9.4 / C Molloy, SPL, 9.6 / S Saivin, 9.7 / R Rochlin, 9.10 / Morsa
Images, 9.15 / theasis, 9.19 / haryigit, 9.21 / Education images, 9.30 / baydavin0211, 9.27 / P Aungkanukulwit, 9.30 / walik, 9.32 /
B Cingi, 9.35 / Contruction Photography, 9.37 / isayildiz, 9.41 / S McGill, 9.42 / Jairo Daz, p.358 / Ingo Arndt / Minden Pictures,
p.357 / A Brookes, 2.50 / luchschen, 2.50; © Alamy / M Beiriger, 6.50 / Jack Barr, 6.51 / C Pearsall, 7.53 / PA Images, 9.30; ©
Eat For Health / CC 4.0 Int’l Licence, 2.11; © Андрей Ильин / CC 1.0 Univ. P. Domain Dedication, 2.31; © NIAD / CC 2.0
Gen. License, Table 2.5 (1), Table 2.5 (2); © Doc. RNDr. Josef Reischig, CSc. / CC 3.0 Unported license, Table 2.5 (3). © Shannon
Morris, 9.12.
Every effort has been made to trace and acknowledge copyright. The publisher apologises for any accidental infringement and
welcomes information that would redress this situation.
VCAA - The Victoria Curriculum F-10 content elements are © VCAA, reproduced by permission. Victoria Curriculum F-10
elements are accurate at the time of publication. The VCAA does not endorse or make any warranties regarding this resource. The
Victorian Curriculum F-10 and related content can be accessed directly at the VCAA website.
Please be aware that this publication may contain images of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples now deceased. Several
variations of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander terms and spellings may also appear; no disrespect is intended. Please note
that the terms ‘Indigenous Australians’ and ‘Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples’ may be used interchangeably in this
publication.

Chapter 1 Thinking like a

scientist

Chapter introduction
Scientists work within many different and unique scientific domains, such as biology, chemistry,
psychology, earth science and physics. In this chapter, students continue to explain relationships
between variables and formulate hypotheses, and begin to think like a scientist. They build upon their
understanding of the importance of science inquiry that involves identifying and posing questions,
planning, conducting and reflecting on investigations, processing, analysing and interpreting data,
and communicating findings.

Curriculum
Questioning and predicting: Formulate questions or hypotheses that can be investigated 1.1
scientifically, including identification of independent, dependent and controlled variables
(VCSIS134)
Planning and conducting: Independently plan, select and use appropriate investigation 1.1
types, including fieldwork and laboratory experimentation, to collect reliable data, assess
risk and address ethical issues associated with these investigation types (VCSIS135)
Recording and processing: Construct and use a range of representations, including graphs, 1.2
keys, models and formulas, to record and summarise data from students’ own investigations
and secondary sources, to represent qualitative and quantitative patterns or relationships,
and distinguish between discrete and continuous data (VCSIS137)
Analysing and evaluating: Analyse patterns and trends in data, including describing 1.2
relationships between variables, identifying inconsistencies in data and sources of
uncertainty, and drawing conclusions that are consistent with evidence (VCSIS138)

Victorian Curriculum F–10 © VCAA (2016)

Glossary terms
continuous data line graph qualitative
control condition line of best fit (trend line) quantitative
controlled variable mean range
dependent variable measure of variability reliability
descriptive statistics median secondary data
discrete data mode standard deviation
experiment objective data subjective data
experimental condition observation trend
extraneous variable outlier validity
hypothesis p-value variable
independent variable potable
inferential statistics primary data

1.1 Planning and conducting

investigations

Steps in the scientific method and report on any scientific investigation.

The scientific inquiry process (often called
If you can recall from earlier years, scientists
WORKSHEET the scientific method) can be summarised
and researchers use a series of orderly and
into eight steps, which scientists commonly
systematic steps to plan, conduct, interpret
use when conducting scientific research.

STEP 1: OBSERVE AND ASK QUESTIONS

A research question may be identified from an area of research interest.

STEP 2: DO BACKGROUND RESEARCH

A scientist who is interested in conducting an experiment on a certain topic of interest must first
search relevant scientific literature.

STEP 3: CONSTRUCT A HYPOTHESIS

A hypothesis is a testable prediction about the relationship between two or more variables. It is
usually formulated using the scientific knowledge obtained in the scientific literature – it is not just
simply a haphazard guess without any prior knowledge – it is more of an educated guess.

STEP 4: TEST BY CONDUCTING AN EXPERIMENT

An experiment may include controlled laboratory experiments, natural observations, case studies,
surveys, interviews and so on. Conducting the experiment requires a specific methodology. The
method usually contains at least two sections:
• Materials (lists the scientific apparatus required to conduct the experiment)
• Method (a step-by-step procedure of how the experiment was conducted)
If human participants are used in the experiment, it also needs to include a section on participants
and ethical dimensions. (This states how many people were used, gender, age ranges, how the
participants were sampled and the research design used.)

STEP 5: GATHER DATA

Data collection is of utmost importance in any scientific experiment. This step involves organising,
summarising and representing the data that was collected in the experiment (raw data) in a
meaningful way. Generally, descriptive statistics are used to organise and summarise the data.
Graphs and tables can be used to represent the data, calculation of means, median and modes can be
used to summarise the data.

STEP 6: ANALYSE THE DATA

The tables and charts of data then need to be examined. When analysing data, relationships, trends
and patterns can be revealed. What each of the results indicate should be summarised.

STEP 7: EVALUATE THE HYPOTHESIS

This step involves drawing conclusions relating back to the hypothesis using the data to back up the
conclusions. Inferential statistics are needed to infer from the data and to draw valid conclusions.

STEP 8: REPORT THE RESULTS

A scientific report is completed to document the research and share the finding with other scientists.
Common methods used to report the research findings include practical reports, oral presentations,
poster presentations.

While it is not a formal step in the

scientific method, it is important for
scientists to check whether the research
that they conducted is reliable. The term
'reliable' is a technical term in Science. A
reliable measurement or experiment will
produce consistent results. It is similar to
precision (repeated measurements are close
together). Repeating measurements does
not improve reliability but determines it.
The average of repeated measurements will,
however, have a reduced uncertainty. Once
their research findings have been reported,
it is important to replicate the results of
the experiment to determine whether
the results are consistent, and hence
valid and reliable. Remember that a valid
Figure 1.1 The scientific method is used within any
measurement is one that measures what it is science laboratory.
intended to be measured.
Designing a sound experiment:
The scientific method is an important part From a research question to the
of any experiment. Within the field of method
science, an experiment is used to test a cause
Defining your experimental variables
and effect relationship between two variables
Scientists use experiments to search for
under controlled conditions. Although
cause and effect relationships; for example,
causality only follows IF
whether drinking coffee increases your heart
experiment all extraneous variables are
a scientific procedure used rate. Cause and effect relationships help
to test a hypothesis or test a known and controlled. Once
cause and effect relationship scientists to reliably estimate how changes in
between two variables a research question has been
one thing might cause something else to vary
hypothesis posed, it is important to
in a predictable and repeatable way.
a prediction or explanation
for something that is based
then construct a research
on known facts, but has not hypothesis that forms the
yet been proved The things that are deliberately changed, or
basis of the experiment.
happen to change, during an experiment,
are called variables. A variable is
variable
1 List the eight steps of
any factor, trait or condition that can any factor that can change
Quick check 1.1 during an experiment
the scientific method, as exists in different types or amounts.
followed by scientists. An experiment usually has three kinds of
2 Discuss the importance of steps 4 and 5 in the variables: the one you change, the one you
scientific method. measure the change in, and the ones you
3 What is the importance of conducting a scientific want to prevent from interfering with the
‘experiment’? results. These are known as independent,
dependent and controlled variables.

The independent variable (IV) in a provided of testing the amount of coffee

scientific experiment is the variable which a person consumes, the DV could be
the scientist systematically manipulates measuring the person's heart rate.
or changes to measure what effect it has.
A scientist has control over the IV. For Controlled variables
example, this could be the amount of coffee Experiments also have controlled variables.
the person consumes. Each different version Controlled variables are quantities that
of the independent variables (for example, remain constant. If they are not controlled,
one person drinks no coffee, one person then they can interfere with controlled variable
drinks one cup, one person drinks two cups, the experiment and the any variables that may
influence the outcome of
one person drinks three cups) is a changes you have observed an experiment, that are
independent variable (IV) kept constant
the variable that is different experimental condition. in the dependent variable
systematically manipulated
or changed during an The experimental condition where (results of the experiment) may be the result
experiment
no intervention is made, or the of these variables rather than a result of the
experimental condition
the different conditions independent variable is absent is independent variable. Basically, they cast
where the independent
variable changes
called the control condition. In this doubt on the cause-and-effect relationship.
control condition experiment, the control condition Experiments can have more than one
the condition where the
independent variable is
would be the person who drinks no controlled variable.
absent, used as a baseline to coffee. The control is very important
measure results against
as it gives the scientist a baseline to You have all used the phrase, ‘It’s just
compare against, to measure if the IV has not fair!’ Fairness comes into play when
indeed had a substantial effect. conducting science experiments too. Once
a research question has been posed, and an
The dependent variable (DV ) in a aim and hypothesis formulated, it is time to
scientific experiment is the variable that start designing a fair test using the acrostic,
is observed, measured and recorded. It is ‘cows moo softly’. The acrostic (which is like
the variable you predicted would a mnemonic or memory device, but which
dependent variable (DV)
the variable that is measured be affected by the IV, and you are spells out a word or message) represents the
during the experiment to see
if the independent variable observing it to see if that is true, and terms, Change, Measure, keep the Same,
has had an effect
to what degree. For the example which represent the independent, dependent
and controlled variables.

The example experiment given earlier

would not be a fair experiment if the person
drinking three cups of coffee was also
allowed to go for a run while the others sat
still. Physical activity has not been controlled
for, and now the increase in heart rate is
impossible to attribute to one variable: was
it the coffee or was it the exercise? Was
it both? The scientists should have made
physical activity a controlled variable; that
is, made all the people from the different
experimental conditions do the same amount
of exercise. They would also need to control
other variables, such as food and drink
Figure 1.2 A good experiment is carefully controlled and tests only one
intake, as well as temperature and clothing.
variable at a time. This is called a fair test.

Problem: You want to

Constructing a research hypothesis
Try this 1.1
find out which brand of A good research hypothesis makes a
fertiliser makes a pea plant grow the tallest. testable prediction about the direction and
In this particular experiment, the extent of the effect that the IV will have
variables to be considered will be: on the DV. A hypothesis is best tested in
• Change a variable (IV) – the brands of an objective manner with all the variables
the fertiliser will be changed in the experiment controlled, except for
• Measure a variable (DV) – the height of the independent variable. A well-written
the pea plant will be measured and testable hypothesis sets up the plan
• Keep the same (controlled variables) – of how the data will be collected in the
type of pea plant used, amount of light methodology.
the plant is exposed to, type/quality of
soil, the amount of water used to water A scientist will always include a clear
the plant, the amount of fertiliser used direction of how they think the independent
and so on. variable may impact upon the dependent
In pairs, brainstorm how you would go variable in a hypothesis.
about testing which brand of fertiliser will
make a pea plant grow the tallest, adding You can construct an appropriate research
to the information above. hypothesis by following a template like this:

‘It is hypothesised that _______ will _ the _________ .’

Insert IV here Insert predicted effect Insert DV here

here, e.g. increase or
decrease

For example, DV, showing a clear direction within the

‘It is hypothesised that drinking coffee will prediction. Due to scientific reports being
increase a person’s heart rate.’ quite formal in the write-up, you should never
use the terms, ‘I’ or ‘we’ in your hypothesis. It
Note how the scientist has incorporated is best started by using the phrase:
the IV with the expected outcome of the ‘It is hypothesised that….’.

The following is an example of a research question for an experiment. Try this 1.2
Research question: ‘Does raising the temperature of water enable it to dissolve more sugar?’
Look at the table below and tick the appropriate box that each variable belongs to.

Experimental variables Independent variable Dependent variable Controlled variable

Temperature of the
water (in °C)
Amount of water in the
beaker to start with
Amount of sugar that
dissolves completely
continued…

…continued
What would be a testable hypothesis for this experiment? In this case, a testable hypothesis could be:
‘It is hypothesised that the higher the temperature (°C) of the water, the more sugar will be dissolved (grams).’
In this case, the scientist predicts that the higher the temperature, the more sugar will be dissolved, which
includes the IV (temperature), DV (amount of sugar dissolved) and a clear direction for the prediction – higher
water temperature will result in more of the sugar being dissolved. It is also important to note that correct units
of measurement are included.

Extraneous variables
An extraneous variable (EV) is any unplanned
(extra) variable, other than the IV, that can
or may affect or cause a change in the results
of the experiment (change the dependent
variable). Therefore, it affects the results of the
experiment in an unwanted way. You
extraneous variable
any variable that may can think of them as controlled variables
influence the outcome of an
experiment that has been that have not been controlled for.
failed to be controlled for
validity
a valid experiment or
Extraneous variables compromise an
procedure measures what experiment (threaten the validity of
is intended to be measured;
when extraneous variables data) because they make it difficult
are not recognised and
controlled this may not be to determine if the change in the DV
the case.
(results) ‘causal relationship’ is solely
due to the IV and no other variable. This
is why an experimenter must ensure that
extraneous variables are eliminated. When Figure 1.3 Extraneous variables must be controlled for.
eliminated, the variables are described as
‘controlled variables’ – as they are kept Data collection during
constant. For example, if the scientists experiments
conducting the coffee and heart rate example
used on page 6 did not interview their Within an experiment, the data collected can
participants first, they may have failed to be considered as either objective or subjective
control for the health of each participant’s data. The preferred data used in scientific
heart. If one of the participants actually did investigations is objective data as it is data
have a heart problem, such as tachycardia that can be directly observed or measured.
(a fast heart rate), this would be an extraneous It is easy to compare different conditions
variable and would affect the results. and results within an experiment. Because
objective data is measured in a planned,
1 Why is it important to have
precise and systematic manner, it is not open
Quick check 1.2
controlled variables in an
for personal interpretation, so objective data
experiment? it is considered unbiased and data that can be directly
observed or measured, not
2 Identify the IV and DVs in this research question: ‘Does unable to be altered. open to interpretation
subjective data
the salinity of water used influence pea plant growth?’ data that relies on personal
3 List two possible extraneous variables for this research Conversely, subjective data experiences, interpretation
or responses
question: ‘Does the salinity of water used influence pea is data that relies on personal
plant growth?’ experience or responses. It may provide
insight into the thoughts of the results of an

experiment, but it is very difficult to compare primary data or secondary data. Table 1.1
between participants. Because subjective summarises the key differences between
data is based on personal interpretation of the two. Most of the time in Science class,
information, it is open to opinion, may be you will conduct experiments that produce
influenced by attitudes, values and beliefs, and primary data.
subsequently may be biased and inaccurate.

primary data Comparison of primary Different types of data

data that is sourced for/
during the experiment versus secondary data The data collected can also be subdivided
secondary data Within the field of science, into either qualitative or quantitative data.
data that is sourced from
someone else’s research or the data used for analysis Figure 1.5 and Table 1.2 summarise the key
a database
can also be considered differences between these two types of data.

Data Description Example Advantages Disadvantages

Primary Data can be collected Carry out an • Specific and • Time and
during the experiment experiment detailed cost involved
within the laboratory or to collect first • Can inform • Sample size
outside the laboratory in hand data; future restrictions
field work. e.g. grow and research
Data can also be collected then measure • Current
through completing the length of a
questionnaires, rating seedling (in cm)
scales, or interviews. over a week.
Secondary Data that is taken and • Census data • Cheap and • May not be
used from someone else’s • Data obtained easy to obtain up to date
research results. through • Large • May not
It could be used as a basis another’s amounts of be specific
to form a hypothesis, research, e.g. data enough
strengthen findings, in scientific • Can be over
explore trends and journals long periods
patterns and much more. of time

Table 1.1 Differences between primary and secondary data

continuous
data quantitative data that
can be measured
discrete
Variables data quantitative data that
can be counted

Qualitative data Quantitative data

Discrete Continuous

Figure 1.5 Different types of data

Figure 1.4 Looking at data

Quantitative data Qualitative data

Quantitative data: information about the quantity Qualitative data: information about the quality
(how much) (characteristics)
• Uses numbers or categories • Often expressed in words (letters) or pictures
• Can be statistically analysed • Difficult to categorise/analyse: wide variety of forms
• Easily measured and compared with other data and open to personal, observer or research biases
• Similar to objective data as researchers can easily • Similar to subjective data because both are opinion-
draw conclusions and allows for comparison with based
other data
Discrete e.g. a description of the behaviour of children observed
e.g. number of people who play a sport in the playground.
Continuous
e.g. weight of participants (75.2 kg, 56.8 kg)

Table 1.2 Key differences between quantitative and qualitative data

1 What is the difference between subjective data and objective data in an experiment? Quick check 1.3
2 Why is objective data the preferred data used in an experiment?
3 Look at the experimental results shown below and identify each as either qualitative or quantitative data
collection techniques.

Experimental results Qualitative or Reason

quantitative data?
The plant appeared wilted and
turned from light green in colour to
brown.
The height of the plant was 24 cm.
The leaf had jagged edges and was
diamond in shape
The diameter of the leaf was 7.6 cm.

Practical 1.1

How effectively can an elastic band knock over a tin can?

Background information
The energy stored in a rubber band is related to the distance the rubber band
Be careful
Ensure safety glasses are
will fly after being released. This practical will investigate the difference
worn at all times.
between potential energy and kinetic energy. You and a partner will determine
how effective different elastic bands can be in knocking over a tin can.

Figure 1.6 Experimental set-up

continued…

…continued
Aim
To investigate how effectively an elastic band can knock over a tin can.

Materials
• different elastic bands (range of thicknesses, length and width)
• empty tin can
• safety glasses

Method
1 Complete this table and use your answer to help you construct an appropriate hypothesis for this experiment.

Controlled variables – what Independent variable – Dependent variable – what will

you will keep the same what you are changing to happen because of changing
see its effect a variable

2 Collect different elastic bands and an empty tin can. You will need safety glasses to protect your eyes.
3 Do some preliminary investigations (a little bit of practice shooting the elastic bands) and establish the
distance away from the tin can that you need to shoot from. Decide what the best method is for releasing the
elastic band, as you need to use the same method every time.
4 Carry out the experiment using the different elastic bands from your chosen distance and using your
chosen method.

Results
Construct a table to collect your results relating to the independent and dependent variables. You need to record
and compare your results so you can support or refute your hypothesis.

Evaluation
1 What sort of elastic band was the most effective in knocking over the can? Which method of releasing the
elastic band is most effective?
2 What type of energy is stored in a stretched elastic band?
3 What type of energy is demonstrated by a moving elastic band?
4 How could you reduce measurement uncertainties in this experiment?
5 What are two ways you could improve the experimental design in the future?

Section 1.1 questions

QUIZ Remembering
1 What is step 1 of the scientific method?
2 Name the type of data sourced through someone else’s research.
3 Why is the control condition within an experiment so important?

Understanding
4 How does the experimental condition differ from the control condition of an experiment?
5 Provide an example of objective data.
6 Why is it important to replicate the results of an experiment?

Applying
7 A student was testing the following research question: ‘Do all brands of batteries have the
same amount of battery life?’ They tested this by putting batteries of different brands into a
torch and leaving it on until the batteries ran out.
a Identify the IV and DV for this experiment.
b List one possible extraneous variable for the following research question: ‘Do all brands
of batteries have the same amount of battery life?’
c Explain why objective data would be gathered in this experiment.

Analysing
8 Discuss the importance of using primary data within an experiment and provide an example.
9 Construct a Venn diagram showing the similarities and differences between quantitative
and qualitative data.
10 Suggest why qualitative data is similar to subjective data.

Evaluating
11 Investigate how scientists from the different fields of science observe data. Conduct some
research and create a summary table.

1.2 Observations to conclusions

Observing and recording

of observations that can occur and the
I saw it, but what does that mean? trick is knowing which type to use during
WORKSHEET
experiments.
observational Using our observational skills Sometimes, our senses (including,
the skill of closely watching
an experiment, using all five is essential when carrying out hearing, sight, smell, touch and taste)
senses or specialised tools
to detect changes
experiments in Science. One of the may be the best option. However,
most important skills a scientist within a scientific laboratory, it is never
must have is the ability to write down what recommended to taste anything. This is due
they observed using accuracy and succinct to the many different forms of chemicals
detail. There are many different forms used in the laboratory or left over residues

on equipment from experiments. There The ability to record accurate observations

are also times when touch and smell may is also a key skill in science. Scientists are able
be dangerous (e.g. hot water, toxic gas). to not only complete the experiment, but also
Other times, specialised equipment such be able to document what they observed. At
as microscopes and data loggers will allow times, qualitative data is used, other times
for precise and accurate observation that quantitative data will be used. Sometimes a
extends beyond our senses. combination of both may be best.

Consider these observations taken by three students in the same laboratory Try this 1.3
group who completed the same experiment.

Joshua’s observations Sophie’s observations Laura’s observations

The beaker with water in it It took 12 minutes and It took 13 minutes 11 sec to
took ages to heat up. Then 20 seconds for the 250 mL disappear.
when it did the white stuff beaker of water to heat up
just disappeared. enough and dissolve the 10 g
of sugar that was added.

1 Comment on whether the use of qualitative and/or quantitative data was used to record
these observations above.
2 Who do you think has best documented their observation in this experiment?

Figure 1.7 It is important to

accurately document your
observations of chemical
changes within experiments.

Practical 1.2

Utilising the art of observation

This practical has four short experiments for you to perform.
Be careful
Aim Ensure proper protective
To practise careful experimentation and accurate recording of observations. equipment is worn.

Materials
• 0.5 M hydrochloric acid
• 0.5 M sodium hydroxide
• 0.5 M ferrous sulfate
• sodium carbonate
• potassium nitrate
• lithium chloride
• phenolphthalein indicator
• water
• 4 test tubes
• test-tube rack
• 2 rubber stoppers
• spatula

Method and results

For each experiment, carefully follow the instructions and record your observations in the results table below.

Experiment Instructions Observations

A 1 Fill the test tube to a depth of about 5 cm with hydrochloric acid.
2 Add 1–2 drops of phenolphthalein indicator to the test tube.
3 Add an even spoonful of sodium carbonate to the test tube.
4 Gently swirl the test tube for 1 minute.
5 Document your observations.
B 1 Fill the test tube to a depth of about 5 cm with sodium hydroxide.
2 Add one squirt of ferrous sulfate solution to the test tube and gently swirl.
3 Observe what occurs within the test tube after waiting approximately
2 minutes.
4 Document your observations.
C 1 Fill the test tube to a depth of approximately 5 cm with water.
2 Add one spoonful of solid potassium nitrate.
3 Stopper the test tube and place your thumb over the stopper, gently shake
the test tube.
4 Document your observations.
D 1 Fill the test tube to a depth of approximately 5 cm with water.
2 Add one spoonful of lithium chloride.
3 Stopper the test tube and place your thumb over the stopper, gently shake
the test tube.
4 Document your observations.

1 Which of the five senses would you not usually use in a laboratory Quick check 1.4
experiment?
2 Why are observations important in any scientific experiment?
3 Do scientific observations include quantitative or qualitative data?

How to record data using tables Secondly, the data is presented under column
Tables are quick and easy ways to record table headings so that trends can be easily seen.
data in an organised manner, when
conducting experiments. They allow accurate For example, an investigation is conducted
measurements of data to be presented. to determine the effects of heart rate having
Generally, there are a few rules to follow when completed a 15 minute session of moderate level
using tables to record data. Firstly, if you are intensity exercise. The heart rate was taken
drawing a table into your science log book immediately following exercise, for another
or work book, you must always use a ruler. 6 minutes.

Results are shown below:

Time after Heart rate Time after 1 min 2 min 3 min 4 min 5 min 6 min 7 min
exercise (min) (bpm) exercise
0 165 Heart rate 165 142 130 100 89 75 68
1 142 bpm bpm bpm bpm bpm bpm bpm
2 130
3 100
4 89
We can then calculate the average. Whilst
this demonstrates the reliability of the
5 75
results, it will not necessarily improve
6 68
precision or the spread of data, but it will
reduce the uncertainty of the mean value
Comparing the tables above, it is clear that of measurements. This may reduce the
the one which accurately and succinctly sets random error.
out the data under column headings and also
includes the unit symbol is the easier of the Take for example an experiment that
two to read relevant trends from. investigates the mass of a particular powder
that dissolves in 200 mL of water at different
Often the reliability of the results temperatures. By repeating the investigation
collected in an experiment can be over three different trials, using the same
reliability improved by repeating the conditions and equipment, it allows for
the consistency, stability
or dependability of data or
experiment under the exact the average mass of salt to be calculated.
results same conditions, using the However, whilst this will reduce the random
exact same equipment, over a number error, it will do nothing to reduce the
of trials. systematic error.

temperature mass of powder dissolved (g)

(°C) trial 1 trial 2 trial 3 average
10 22 22 21 21
20 38 40 39 39
30 43 46 46 45
40 72 76 74 74
50 96 95 94 96
60 118 117 110 115
70 124 130 130 128

Figure 1.8 Some of the equipment used in your science laboratory

1 500 mL sample of water taken from the Yarra River as it was heated Quick check 1.5
for 15 minutes. They wanted to record the temperature every
minute.
How would you advise the students to record their data using a table?
2 In another experiment, a number of identical seedlings were fed with different masses of
fertiliser and their growth after one month was measured.
A sample of a student’s graph is shown below.

3 grams 6g 9 grams 0.012 kg 0.015 kilograms 18 g

5 cm 9 cm 0.020 cm 270 mm 21 cm 178 mm

In your workbook or laptop, carefully draw (use a ruler!) a results table as it should appear.

Representing data on a graph Line graphs can be used to display data

Data can also be presented using a graph. when both the independent and dependent
It will visually show the trends in the results variables are continuous (numerical) data
trend much more quickly than a (Figure 1.10). Line graphs allow you to plot
the overall pattern of
movement in the data, e.g.
table can. A trend is the overall points using two coordinates (a scatterplot)
increasing or decreasing pattern of movement in the and then draw in a line of best fit (the
data. That is, does it usually tend to increase trend line), which illustrates the line of best fit
a line through a scatter plot
(an increasing trend) or does it usually tend to underlying relationship between the of data points that best
decrease (a decreasing trend). two variables. expresses the relationship
between those points
line graph
The type of graph you choose will depend In the real world, scientists tend to a type of graph with x and
y axes, used to display
upon the type of data you need to display. use line graphs more commonly than numerical data

For example, pie charts and bar charts can others.

be used to display data when one of the
variables is categorical, as in Figure 1.9.

Effect of food brand on final size of fish

20
two weeks (grams)
Mass of fish after

0
BudgetFude Fish-o-Matic Fish2Whale
Food brand
Figure 1.9 Example of a categorical bar chart

The line graphs you create should have the Reading values from a graph
following features. To find the value of one of the variables
that corresponds to a given value of
When drawing graphs, you must the other variable, you take a straight
ensure that the independent variable is line to the intersection with the trend
represented on the horizontal (x) axis and line. Try this 1.4 shows how you would
the dependent variable is represented on estimate the time that it would take
the vertical (y) axis. to boil a specified volume of water.

Time required for water to reach boiling point

180 The data points
(from the results table)
are clearly marked
150

Time to reach boiling (s)

120
The vertical
axis represents
the dependent 90
variable (the
one being The trend line (line of best fit) shows the general
measured) pattern of the results and does not need to pass
60 through all data points. It can be drawn as a curve
or as a straight line. Do not simply connect the dots.

0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500
Volume of water (mL)
The values are evenly The values are evenly spaced
spaced along the vertical along the horizontal axis and The horizontal axis
axis and the correct unit the correct unit symbol is represents the independent
symbol is included. included. variable (IV).

Figure 1.10 Example of a line graph

Reading values from a graph Try this 1.4

Use the graph to complete the missing values in the table.

Time required for water to reach boiling point

180

150 The estimated time

to boil 250 mL is
120 sec.
Time to reach boiling (s)

120

30
250 mL is here, so create
a vertical line to intersect
with the trend line.
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500
Volume of water (mL)

continued…

After an experiment, the

…continued
researcher must decide
Volume of boiling water Time taken to reach
if the results do show a
(mL) boiling point (s)
cause effect relationship
250 120
between the independent
75
and dependent variables,
90 or if the result may be
275 due to chance. They
130 can only indicate this
if you are sure there
are NO unidentified
Analysing experimental data extraneous variables; unless this is done it
Once you have collected your data in an remains a correlation (even if it is a strong
experiment and presented the data in graph one) Inferential statistics allow researchers
form you will need to interpret or analyse to make inferences (draw conclusions)
this data. This can be done using descriptive and determine whether the results support
and inferential statistics. or reject the hypothesis. In practice,
inferential statistics involves comparing the
When interpreting your graph, it is experimental group and the control group
important to remember that the existence and calculating whether the difference
of a correlation (that is, the DV tends to between them is statistically significant, or
show an increasing trend as the IV increases) if the difference is likely to have been caused
does not necessarily mean it is a causal by chance.
relationship. Not all experiments will show a
correlation between the variables, but this is Obviously, the average ‘score’ in the
still an experimental finding! experimental group is quite likely to be
different to the average ‘score’ in the
Descriptive statistics versus control group. The question is, are they
inferential statistics different enough to show that the IV
On their own, raw data are worthless. They has caused a significant change in the
have not been organised and are difficult to DV? Statistical significance refers to the
interpret, therefore, you need to significance of the difference between the
descriptive statistics
tools used to summarise organise the data in some way. two average scores.
and describe data sets, e.g.
measures of centre and This is referred to as descriptive
spread
statistics. Descriptive statistics Inferential statistics allow scientists inferential statistics
are used to summarise, organise and describe to infer a cause and effect relationship tool that allows scientists to
establish cause and effect
data collected during research. between two variables – something relationships between
variables by analysing the
that descriptive statistics (such as changes in data sets
Examples of descriptive statistics include percentages and graphs) do not allow
percentages, graphs, measures of central you to do with confidence.
tendency (mean, median, mode), spread of
scores (variability, range, standard deviation). What is the p-value? p-value
A p-value is the level of probability a statistic that gauges the
level of probability that the
Descriptive statistics describe data but do not that the difference between the difference between the
control and experimental
allow for drawing valid conclusions to whether control and experimental groups are groups are due to chance
there is a cause and effect relationship between due to chance factors and determines
factors, and determines the
statistical significance of
the variables (IV and DV). the statistical significance of the results. the results

It is typical to set the p-value at p < 0.05 Median: the middle score median
a measure of centre of a data
(must be a lower-case p), which means when the data points are set, found by ordering the
that, for the results of a study to be deemed arranged in order from values from smallest to largest
and finding the middle point
statistically significant, the probability that lowest to highest. If the mode
the results are due to chance factors must be middle falls between two a measure of centre of a data
set, found by identifying the
less than 5% (p < 0.01 is used for medical numbers, find the average most frequently occurring
data value
studies). (mean) of the two.

If the results are deemed to be statistically 20 + 25 + 25 + 28 + 31 + 40 + 66

significant (p < 0.05), then there is a less
than 5% probability that the difference The median for this set of data is 28.
between the control and experimental groups
is due to chance factors and a greater than Mode: the most frequently commonly
95% probability that the results are due to occurring value in a data set.
the independent variable. The hypothesis
can be supported. Conclusions can be drawn. 20, 25, 31, 28, 40, 66, 25

What happens if p > 0.05? This means The mode for this set of data is 25.
that there is greater than 5% probability
that the difference between the control and Using measures of variability
experimental groups is due to chance factors Measures of variability: how varied the
and a less than 95% probability that the data is or how widely the data is distributed
results are due to the independent variable. or spread around the central point (mean).
The hypothesis cannot be supported. Common forms of this are the range and
Conclusions cannot be drawn. standard deviation. When analysing data, it
is important to use both measures of central
Using measures of central tendency tendency and measures of variability.
The three most common ways of measuring
the central tendency of a data set are the Range: the difference between the lowest
mean, median and mode. You may have and highest values of the data.
heard this referred to as ‘finding the average’.
For example, consider this data set: 20, 25,
mean
often referred to as the
Mean: the exact average of all the data 31, 28, 40, 66, 25
‘average’, this measure of points, calculated by adding up all the
centre is found by adding all
the values and then dividing data points and dividing that by the Range = 66 – 20 = 46
this sum by the number of
values number of data points.
Standard deviation: a measure of variability
For example, consider this data set: 20, 25, measure of how spread out the use of mathematical
calculations that describes
31, 28, 40, 66, 25 the data is around the mean. how spread the set of data or
scores are from each other;
Total of all data points There is a mathematical for example, range or standard
Mean deviation
Number of data points formula for it, but any
range
±± ±± ±±± ±± ±± ±± ±± software that does data a measure of spread, found
analysis should be able to do
by subtracting the minimum
± value from the maximum value
±±± the calculation on how far standard deviation
a measure of spread that
± the data ‘deviates’ from the shows, on average, how far the
±±.±± (rounded to ± decimal places) mean of the data. scores differ from the mean

68% container sitting on it, so the container

contributes to the mass of whatever you
95% are weighing). This will also increase the
systematic error.
Frequency

99.7% • malfunctioning equipment, such as faulty

scales or data loggers. An experimental
error might manifest as an extreme data
2.1% 13.6% 34.1% 34.1% 13.6% 2.1%
point, known as an outlier. For outlier
example, consider the data from an extreme data point

–3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 the caffeine and heart rate experiment

Standard deviations discussed in section 1.1. Table 1.3
Figure 1.11 The normal distribution curve is a function where shows the results pre- and post-coffee
the data is arranged in a symmetrical bell-shaped curve. 68% consumption for the participants in the
of the data points occur within one standard deviation of the
‘1 cup’ experimental condition.
mean. 95% of data points occur within two standard deviations
either side of the mean. Going three standard deviations out in The mean change in heart rate was
both directions captures 99.7% of the data points. ± ±± ±± ±±± ±±±
±± beats per minute,
Identifying experimental errors ± ±
When analysing experimental data, it if you include all four values. However, this
is important to keep the possibility of does not sound right. The after-coffee heart
experimental errors in mind. These can rate for the fourth participant appears to be
be due to human error, procedural errors an outlier as it is located a long way away
or failures of the measurement tools and from the rest of the data. This could have
equipment. Does ‘human error’ mean been an experimental error, such as a
‘mistake’? You need to be clear about the malfunctioning heart rate monitor. Outliers
differences between mistakes, systematic are often excluded from the data analysis for
uncertainties (leading to systematic error) this reason, however it is important to
and random uncertainties (leading to explore why they occurred and mention this
random errors). Otherwise you could in the discussion. The first response should
potentially assign everything to ‘human error’ be (if possible) to repeat the measurement
and not analyse the underlying reasons. before automatically ditching it. You cannot
Some examples are: just exclude data points because they do not
• parallax error (misreading the level of fit your hypothesis! If you exclude this
liquid against a scale by not having outlier, then the mean change in heart rate
the eye level). This will increase the ± ± ±± ±±
was ±±.± beats per minute,
likelihood that it is a systematic error. ± ±
• missing a step in the method. This will which seems to be a much closer
increase the systematic error too representation of the actual changes seen in
• zero error (when a scale is not correctly the experiment.
adjusted to a weight of zero with the

Amount of Heart rate pre-coffee Heart rate post- Change in

coffee (cups) consumption coffee consumption heart rate
(bpm) (bpm) (bpm)
1 70 74 4
1 62 81 19
1 55 70 15
1 61 195 134
Table 1.3 Results of coffee consumption

Drawing valid conclusions 1 What is the Quick check 1.6

from research statistics range and how
Analysis of scientific data allows researchers do you calculate it?
to draw meaningful conclusions regarding 2 As part of a memory experiment, a
the objects or population being studied. psychologist conducts a test with
If the scientific method has been rigorous, 13 subjects and records the number of
then the conclusions can be generalised, that correct answers out of 30.
The following scores are recorded: 12,
is, applied to the wider population. This is
15, 17, 22, 18, 28, 27, 28, 16, 16, 15, 19, 16.
especially useful for governments in forming
Calculate the mean, median and mode
policies and health providers in making
from this set of data.
treatment plans. If the results are to be
3 What does a p-value of p = 0.02 mean?
generalised, then the following criteria must
4 In a normal distribution, what
be met.
percentage of data points are located
• The results must be valid.
within two standard deviations either
• The procedure must be appropriate. side of the mean?
• The results must be statistically significant
(this may be irrelevant of some scientific
experiments e.g. determining a = a value
for ‘g’; here the concepts of uncertainty
would be more relevant).
• There was valid experimental technique
(including control of extraneous variables)

Australians purchased more than 726 million litres of water in 2015 Did you know? 1.1
at approximately $2.75 per litre, amounting to almost $2 billion.
There are many different types of bottled water, such as artesian,
mineral or flouridated water, but there are also companies that sell
groundwater that costs nearly nothing.
potable For areas with difficult or no access to potable water,
clean and safe to drink
bottled water may seem like a good solution. However, for areas
that do have access to potable water, the environmental cost should
be considered.
To produce bottled water, water needs to be pumped out of the
ground, transported and chilled before again being transported to Water
supermarkets and shops. The majority of the plastic bottles are not
Ingredients:
recycled and end up in landfill or waterways. 600 TONNES greenhouse
gases per year
460 barrels of oil per year
A huge load of landfill

Your turn to think and act like a scientist! Try this 1.5
Using a different class, create an experiment that tests the different brands
of water for taste quality. Evaluate the cost per litre and taste-quality rating. Follow the eight
steps of the scientific method and everything you have learnt in this chapter.

Section 1.2 questions

Remembering QUIZ
1 Why are descriptive statistics useful when dealing with data?
2 Which experimental variable is placed on the x (horizontal) axis of a graph?
3 What is the name given to an extreme data point in a set of experimental data?

Understanding
4 The following pie chart shows you the proportion of grade achieved on the Year 9 Science
exam in one class.

Overall student achievement in the

Year 9 Science exam
E+ 2%

D A+
6% 10%
C A
13% 10%

C+ B+
17% 19%

B
23%

a Why is this considered categorical data?

b Summarise the trends from this pie chart.
c Which other type of categorical graph might also be used?
5 If results from an experiment were to be generalised to the wider population, describe two
features of the experimental process that must be followed.

Applying
6 Students were interested in conducting an Length of wire Resistance
investigation to determine how the length of a piece (cm) (Ω)
of wire impacted on its overall resistance. The 10 0.28
results of their study are shown to the right. 20 0.50
a Construct an appropriate graph, with all labelled 45 1.12
axes, appropriate title, and plot the points from
90 2.55
the data table.
160 3.95
b Once the points are plotted, use a ruler to draw
200 4.89
a straight line of best fit (trend line). The line
should pass as close as possible to as many points as possible, however, it may not pass
through every point.
continued…

…continued
7 Students were investigating the time (in seconds,
Temperature of water Time taken to dissolve
s) taken for 200 g of sugar to dissolve in 500 mL
(°C) (s)
of water at different temperatures (in degrees
20.0 42
Celsius, °C). The results are shown at the right.
25.0 39
a Construct an appropriate graph with labelled
35.0 28
axes and plot the points from the data table.
60.0 18
b Choose whether you will sketch a line of best
fit or a curve of best fit, depending on the 80.0 9
shape of the data points plotted. 100.0 5

Analysing
8 Paul measured the change in overall height of two different pea plants over a weekly period. Both were
watered daily, but Plant A was fertilised and Plant B was not. Refer to the graph below.

Overall size of plant (cm) over a one week period

3.5 Plant A Plant B

Overall height of plant (cm)

2.5

1.5

0.5

0
Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday Sunday
Day of the week

a How much difference in height was there between the two plants on the Monday?
b Why might starting on a different height impact the overall results of the data?
c Using the graph, determine the height difference between the two plants:
i on Thursday
ii on Sunday.

Evaluating
9 Imagine you have been hired by a gaming company to help them investigate the effects playing video
games regularly has on the adolescent brain. In particular, they want to know whether video games improve
decision-making.
a Choose the variables that will be your control and independent variables and justify your choices.
b Recommend how they might conduct the experiment, including the type of data they would be gathering,
along with how the data should be processed and analysed.

Review questions

Remembering
1 Which variable is systematically manipulated or changed by the scientist during an
experiment? SCORCHER
2 Which variable is measured during an experiment?
3 Completing your own experiment and recording the results yields what sort of data?

Understanding
4 Two mint bushes were planted in flower pots. One was planted in potting mix and one in sandy
soil. They were left in a sunny position. Their change in height was measured in centimetres at
regular intervals over a month. Identify the following factors.
a Independent variable
b Dependent variable
c Possible controlled variables
d Possible extraneous variables
5 A comprehension test was given to students after they had studied textbook material either in
silence or with the television turned on. Identify the following factors.
a Independent variable
b Dependent variable
c Possible controlled variables
d Possible extraneous variables
6 Name one experimental mistake that could potentially cause an outlier in the experimental data.

Applying
The following p-values have been found after five different research procedures:
p = 0.02
p = 0.10 p = 0.005
p = 0.05 p = 0.01
7 Rank the p-values from lowest to highest. This shows the probability that the results of the
experiment were due to chance.
8 Which p-values in question 7 indicate a statistically significant relationship between the
independent and dependent variables?
9 Interpret a p-value of 0.20 (p = 0.20).
10 Graph the following data and draw a line of best fit. Ensure you appropriately label your axes,
include a title and use an appropriate scale for both the x and y axes.

Day of experiment Number of bacterial

colonies on agar plate
0 1
1 2
2 5
3 12
4 22
5 28

Analysing
11 Four students set up an experiment looking at the neutralisation reaction between sodium
carbonate (a white powder) and hydrochloric acid.
Four test tubes were set up, each under slightly different conditions as shown in the table below.

Test tube Volume of hydrochloric Temperature of

acid in test tube hydrochloric acid (°C)
A 50 22
B 80 22
C 100 22
D 50 60

The same amount of sodium carbonate was added to each test tube, and the volume of carbon
dioxide produced was measured every minute.

The following graph shows the amount of carbon dioxide produced by each test tube over time.

Volume of carbon dioxide versus time

70
Volume of carbon dioxide (mL)

60
C
50
B
40
D
30
A
20

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Time (min)

a Which test tube produced the most carbon dioxide at 1 minute?

b Explain why test tubes A and D produced less carbon dioxide than test tubes B and C.
c One of the students wrote in his conclusion: ’The higher the temperature, the more carbon
dioxide is produced.’ Evaluate the accuracy of this statement.
d State one controlled variable in this experiment.
12 An evolutionary biologist was investigating the age (in months) when infants began to speak
in sentences. She conducted a small observational study and collected the following data from
10 infants:
(Age in months): 30, 28, 22, 24, 25, 21, 28, 27, 31, 26
a What was the mean age in months that infants began to talk in sentences, based on
this study?
b What was the median age in months that infants began to talk in sentences, based on
this study?
c What is the range in the ages of infants when they began to talk in sentences, based on
this study?

Evaluating
13 One scientist told another: ‘Your work is useless unless it is published in a peer-reviewed
scientific journal.’ Critically analyse this statement and make a judgement on its validity.
14 Justify why a scientist might choose to use secondary data from the Australian Bureau of
Statistics rather than collect their own primary data.

Chapter 2 Homeostasis

Chapter introduction
The human body is a fascinating, yet complex, biological machine. Each body system works in an inter-
related way to contribute to the health of the entire organism. The word homeostasis originates from the
Greek words for ‘same’ and ‘steady’, and refers to the processes living things use to maintain a relatively
stable internal environment, in spite of external changes. All cells within the body depend upon the
internal body environment to survive and function, and some are very fussy about the conditions they
are prepared to tolerate! This chapter will focus on the role of feedback systems in the human body that
detect and respond to change, including the damage made by invading pathogens and the body’s ability
to defend itself against that damage.

Curriculum
Multicellular organisms rely on coordinated and interdependent internal systems to respond to
changes to their environment (VCSSU117)
• describing how the requirements for life (oxygen, nutrients, water and removal of 2.1
waste) are provided through the coordinated function of body systems, for example, the
respiratory, circulatory, digestive, nervous and excretory systems
• explaining (using models, flow diagrams or simulations) how body systems work 2.2
together to maintain a functioning body
• investigating the response of the body to changes as a result of the presence of 2.3
micro-organisms

Victorian Curriculum F–10 © VCAA (2016)

Glossary terms
alveoli enzyme nephron
amino acid fermentation osmoregulation
antibiotic fungus pathogen
antibody glucagon phagocytosis
antigen homeostasis prokaryote
antiseptic immune system protein
bacteria immunise receptor
binary fission insulin septic
budding lipid stimulus
capillary lymphocyte unicellular
carbohydrate memory cell vaccine
effector multicellular virus

Concept map

Requirements 2.1
for life Nutrients
Carbohydrates 2.2
Lipids 2.3
Proteins
Vitamins and minerals

Body systems
Oxygen
Water
Energy

Site where glucose and

Digestive system other nutrients are absorbed
(intestinal tract) Liver regulates glucose
levels

Removal of excess
Excretory system water and waste
(kidneys and skin) products

Site where oxygen

Respiratory system enters the body and
(lungs) carbon dioxide is
removed

Transport of
Cardiovascular system nutrients and
(heart and blood oxygen
vascular system)

Immune system Fighting

pathogens and
diseases
Aided by Microorganisms

Immunisation
Bacteria
and vaccines
Fungus
Antibiotics
Virus
Antiseptics

2.1 The requirements for life

Multicellular versus unicellular

organisms
WORKSHEET
Recall from your previous year’s work that
all living organisms consist of cells. Cells are
commonly known as the ‘building blocks of
life’ and are so small that you cannot see them
without a microscope. Complex organisms,
such as fish, mammals and humans, consist
of many cells and are called multicellular
organisms. For example, the human body is Figure 2.2 This jellyfish is an example of a
made up of trillions of cells. Multicellular multicellular organism as it contains specialised
organisms require specialised systems to carry cells and systems to carry out specific functions.
out specific functions and consist of various
Essential requirements for life
levels of organisation within them. Individual
cells still perform specific functions, Animals, such as humans, can live for several
multicellular
an organism that is but they also work together for weeks without the nutrients obtained from
composed of more than
one cell the good of the whole organism. food and survive a few days without water, yet
VIDEO
unicellular Simple organisms, such as can only live a few minutes without oxygen. Components
a single-celled organism
bacteria, amoeba and paramecium, Humans clearly rely upon both water and of cellular
respiration.
may consist of just one cell and are called oxygen for survival and depend upon the
‘unicellular’ or ‘single-celled’ organisms. In food they eat to supply them with the energy
unicellular organisms, the single cell functions required for purposes like breathing, digestion,
on its own and performs all required life movement and growth. Almost all the body's
functions. However, this chapter will focus chemical reactions can only take place in
on multicellular organisms relying on highly water, which is also essential to maintaining
organised and interdependent internal body the structure and shape of cells, tissues and
systems needed to respond to changes in their organs. Also, many of the chemicals that
environment. maintain your body’s proper functioning
and balance (such as essential vitamins and
minerals) must be obtained from the diet.

The molecule found in food that your body

uses for fuel is glucose. During a process
called cellular respiration, the energy stored
in the chemical bonds of glucose is released
as useable chemical energy. This process,
which essentially involves a similiar reaction
to burning glucose, occurs in organelles of
body cells called mitochondria. Cellular
respiration provides cells with the energy
required to conduct their specialised
Figure 2.1 This shows the 3D structure of a unicellular functions. The other reactant needed for
organism known as Paramecium caudatum. cellular respiration is oxygen and you obtain
Cambridge Science ISBN 978-1-108-62918-8 © Ardley et al. 2019 Cambridge University Press
Victorian Curriculum Year 9 Photocopying is restricted under law and this material must not be transferred to another party. Updated September 2023
32 Chapter 2 HOMEOSTASIS

this by breathing in the oxygen from the

1 What is the main Quick check 2.1
air. Look at the word equation for cellular difference between a
respiration in Figure 2.3, and you will see unicellular and a multicellular organism?
the reactants on the left of the arrow and the 2 What are the essential material requirements
products on the right. for life?
3 List the reactants and products from the process
Useable energy of cellular respiration.
4 Why is cellular respiration an essential
Glucose + Oxygen Carbon dioxide + Water
requirement for life?
Figure 2.3 Word equation for cellular respiration

Carbon dioxide and water are waste products

in this process, though the water can be used
in other processes instead of being excreted.
Cellular respiration must occur non-stop for
enough energy to be released for use within
the cells.

Carbon
dioxide
Glucose (CO2)
(C6H12O6)
Figure 2.5 Water is an essential requirement and humans
need about 2.5 litres of water per day to remain healthy.
This includes the water obtained through food sources.
Water
(H2O)

Oxygen Nutrients
(O2)
Energy Nutrients are the chemicals that are obtained
from a healthy diet and provide you with the
energy and building blocks to allow your body’s
growth and repair.
Figure 2.4 Cellular respiration occurs in the
mitochondria of animal and plant cells to provide
The five main groups of nutrients that your
energy for cellular work. body needs for optimum functioning are:
1 carbohydrates 4 vitamins
Make a revision poster! Try this 2.1 2 lipids (fats/oils) 5 minerals.
Orient your paper in landscape mode 3 proteins
and draw the word equation for cellular respiration across the
page. Underneath each word, draw a diagram of the substance Carbohydrates
and also annotate the equation with where the substance Carbohydrates are a vital energy source in
comes from (reactants) and how it is removed from the body the human diet. Just like
(products).
a car needs fuel to run, carbohydrate
biological molecules made of
CELLULAR RESPIRATION the human body relies carbon, with hydrogen and oxygen
in the same ratio as in water, and
REVISION POSTER upon carbohydrates as its which can be broken down with
Useable energy main source of energy. the release of energy in the body

Carbohydrates provide the main fuel source

Glucose + Oxygen Carbon dioxide + Water for many vital organs, including the brain and
kidneys. The digestive system breaks down

Types of carbohydrates
Simple Complex
Glucose and lactose, (also referred to as sugars) Starch and cellulose (also referred to as polysaccharides)

Found in foods such as chocolate, honey (glucose) Found in foods such as potatoes, rice, pasta, oatmeal,
and milk (lactose) bread and vegetables

Table 2.1 Types of carbohydrates

carbohydrates into glucose so that cells can be obtained as quickly as the energy in
then use it in cellular respiration to make carbohydrates. The body uses fat for long-
energy available. There are two main types of term energy storage.
carbohydrates, as shown in Table 2.1.
Lipids have a big role in providing energy
Lipids for the body. Fat deposits under the skin also
Fats and oils, also called lipids, are greasy provide thermal insulation to control the
substances that also provide the body with loss of heat from the body; while some vital
energy. A gram of fat provides at least twice organs are surrounded by layers of fat that
as much energy as a gram of carbohydrate, help to protect them from shock.
but the energy stored in fats and oils cannot
Proteins
Proteins are found in all living things and
perform many functions, especially structural
and regulatory ones. lipid
• Some proteins are structural. For a chemical substance such
as a fat or oil that can be
example, muscle, skin and hair are used as an energy source

composed mainly of protein. protein

a chemical substance
• Some proteins, called enzymes, composed of amino
acids, with structural and
are responsible for controlling the regulatory functions, and
chemical reactions that take place can also be used as an
energy source. Food sources
in your body. of protein include meat,
legumes, dairy, eggs
• Some proteins have specific roles,
enzyme
like haemoglobin, which carries a biological catalyst that
increases the rate of a
oxygen around in the bloodstream. chemical reaction without
• Some proteins are used to make itself being changed by the
reaction
antibodies, which enable your antibody
body to resist infectious diseases. also called immunoglobulin;
a protective protein
Figure 2.6 Fats tend to be solid at room temperature
(like butter). Oils tend to be liquids at room
• Genes express their function by produced by the immune
system in response to
temperature (like olive oil). Their chemical producing proteins that carry out the presence of a foreign
substance, called an antigen
properties determine their melting points. the actual work.

amino acid Humans consume protein in their protein include meat, fish, dairy, legumes,
an organic molecule that
forms the basic building diet and the digestive system breaks nuts and seeds.
block of a protein
these large molecules down into their
building blocks called amino acids that While amino acids from protein can be used
can be absorbed (Figure 2.8). These can as a source of energy, it is usually only when
then be reassembled to make structural and either there is a surplus or when there are
functional proteins. Major dietary sources of no lipids or carbohydrates available. (For
example, in the case of starvation.)

Figure 2.7 Protein is abundant in meat and fish, but there are many plant-based sources too.

A protein

Digestion

Amino acids

Figure 2.8 During digestion, proteins are broken down into individual amino acids. Your body
cannot absorb protein, but amino acids can be absorbed and reassembled within the body to
build new proteins.

Vitamins and minerals body, some work with enzymes as catalysts,

Your body needs tiny amounts of essential others play a role in strengthening your
micronutrients known as vitamins and bones, healing wounds and helping nerve
minerals. These chemical compounds assist cells conduct electrical impulses, and assist
in thousands of chemical reactions in the in the breakdown of carbohydrates and

proteins. A deficiency of vitamins can lead to disease, such as scurvy or rickets. For the majority
of people, all of the vitamins and minerals needed are available by eating a healthy varied diet
and do not need routine supplements in tablet form. Some vitamins and minerals are toxic when
taken in excess of the body's requirements.

Figure 2.9 This vitamin wheel shows some of the different vitamins your
body needs and the foods they are found in.

Scurvy Explore! 2.1 1 List the five Quick check 2.2

Throughout the 13th to 16th main groups of
centuries, thousands of sailors and explorers on nutrients that your body needs.
long journeys died from what is now known to be a 2 Draw up a table summarising the
preventable disease – scurvy. Research some of the function or purpose of each of the five
gruesome symptoms that were observed aboard the nutrients in the body.
sailing ships, and how this disease was combatted at
the time.

Practical 2.1

Measuring the energy content in food

Be careful
Aim No food items are to be
To investigate the amount of chemical energy stored in various foods. consumed.
Materials
• large test tube • tin can open at both ends (to act as a chimney)
• test tube rack • 25 mL measuring cylinder
• test tube holder (wooden peg) • assorted food samples, e.g. Twisties (nuts should
• heat proof mat not be used)
• bottle cork with a needle inserted into the top
• thermometer continued…

continued…
Method
1 Place the tin can, Bunsen test tube
burner and cork on the heat
proof mat. Ensure the room is
test tube holder
well ventilated to avoid a build-
up of smoke.
2 Use the measuring cylinder to
pour 10 mL of water into the
tin can (open at the
test tube.
top and bottom)
3 Measure the starting
temperature of the water and food sample
record it in the results table.
4 Measure the mass of the food needle
sample and record it in the
results table.
5 Place the food sample on cork
the needle.
6 Have the test tube in its holder,
ready to be placed over the Figure 2.10 Experimental set-up
flame.
7 Use the Bunsen burner to light the food sample, immediately place the tin can over the top and hold the
bottom of the test tube in the flame.
8 Measure the final temperature of the water as soon as the food sample is completely burnt out and record it in
the results table (if it doesn’t burn completely, relight it from the Bunsen and continue immediately).
9 Repeat with other food samples.
10 It is known that it takes 42 joules to raise the temperature of 10 mL of water by 1°C. Multiply the temperature
change for each sample by 42 to find the energy content.

Results
Copy and complete the following table.
Type of Mass (g) Starting Final Temperature change Energy content
food temperature temperature (final – starting (temperature change
(°C) (°C) temperature) (°C) × 42 joules) (J)

Evaluation
1 When the food was burned, the chemical energy was released as heat energy which was measured by how
much it heated up the water. Deduce whether any energy was lost, and if so, how?
2 Identify the foods that contained the most and least energy per gram. Was your hypothesis supported?
3 Identify two potential sources of error in this experiment.
4 Suggest two possible ways to improve the experimental design.

Conclusion
1 Make a claim from this experiment regarding foods and energy content.
2 Support the statement by using your observations (include potential sources of error).
3 Explain how your observations support your claim.

Food, exercise and you Bring in a food wrapper with the nutritional Try this 2.2
The body’s source of energy is food. content supplied on it to analyse in class.
Carbohydrates are the body’s preferred The following table summarises the energy content of the
fuel; however, the body can draw upon different components of food.
the energy stored in proteins and lipids Food Energy content
when carbohydrates levels are low. The 1 gram of protein 17 kJ
internationally accepted unit for measuring 1 gram of fat 37 kJ
the energy contained in food is kilojoules 1 gram of carbohydrates 17 kJ
(kJ) and this is also used in Australia though
Calories are an old unit for measuring food energy, in
labels sometimes show calories (Cal) as well.
science the kilojoule is used.
These labels are useful, because when you
• 1 Calorie = 4.184 kJ
know the energy content of the food you eat,
Using the tables of nutritional information for your chosen
you can also calculate the amount of exercise
food source, copy and complete the table and calculate the
required to ‘burn off ’ this energy!
following information.

The average daily kilojoule (energy) Food source Partner’s food

requirement for a healthy adult is approximately source
8700 kJ or 2079 Cal, and you will see this Total calories per
used as the average value on nutritional 100 g
labels. However, people need to keep in Protein (kJ) per
mind that everyone’s energy requirements 100 g
are different, and they vary widely according Fat (kJ) per 100 g
to your age, gender, height and weight, and
levels of physical activity. People with certain Carbohydrate (kJ)
illnesses, or who are pregnant, will also have per 100 g
additional energy requirements. When you
how to understand food labels
consume more kilojoules in a day than you
1 Summarise the findings from the table above in a
paragraph.
burn, the excess
What to look for… energy is stored as fat. So it 2 Rank the foods in order from highest calories to lowest
is notrely
Don’t just
onhigh-fat diets
health claims that make
on labels as youryou gain
guide. calories.
Instead learn a few simple label reading tips
weight,
to choosebut anyfoods
healthy excessandkilojoules.
drinks, for yourself. You can also use the label to help you lose
weight by limiting foods that are high in energy per serve.

Nutrition Information
Servings per package – 16
Figure 2.11 Nutrition labels shown
Total Fat 100g Column and Serving Size
Generally choose foods with less Serving size – 30g (2/3 cup) If comparing nutrients in similar food products use the per 100g column. on food packages provide the
If calculating how much of a nutrient, or how many kilojoules you will actually
than 10g per 100g.
Per serve Per 100g eat, use the per serve column. But check whether your portion size is the nutritional facts of the food.
For milk, yogurt and icecream, same as the serve size.
choose less than 2g per 100g. Energy 432kJ 1441kJ
For cheese, choose less than
Energy
Protein 2.8g 9.3g Check how many kJ per serve to decide how much is a serve of a
15g per 100g.
‘discretionary’ food, which has 600kJ per serve.
Fat
Saturated Fat
Aim for the lowest, per 100g. Total 0.4g 1.2g
Less than 3g per 100g is best.
Saturated 0.1g 0.3g
Other names for ingredients high in Carbohydrate Sugars Other names for added
saturated fat: Animal fat/oil, beef fat, Avoiding sugar completely is not necessary, sugar: Dextrose, fructose,
butter, chocolate, milk solids, coconut, but try to avoid larger amounts of added sugars. glucose, golden syrup, honey,
coconut oil/milk/cream, copha, cream,
Total 18.9g 62.9g If sugar content per 100g is more than 15g, maple syrup, sucrose, malt,
ghee, dripping, lard, suet, palm oil, check that sugar (or alternative names for added maltose, lactose, brown
sour cream, vegetable shortening. Sugars 3.5g 11.8g sugar) is not listed high on the ingredient list. sugar, caster sugar, maple
syrup, raw sugar, sucrose.
Fibre Fibre 6.4g 21.2g
Not all labels include fibre.
Choose breads and cereals with Sodium 65mg 215mg Sodium (Salt)
3g or more per serve Choose lower sodium options among similar
foods. Food with less than 400mg per Other names for high
Ingredients: Cereals (76%) (wheat, oatbran, 100g are good, and less than 120mg salt ingredients:
barley), psyllium husk (11%), sugar, rice, malt per 100g is best. Baking powder, celery salt,
extract, honey, salt, vitamins. garlic salt, meat/yeast extract,
monosodium glutamate, (MSG), onion salt, rock salt,
sea salt, sodium, sodium ascorbate, sodium bicarbonate,
Ingredients sodium nitrate/nitrite, stock cubes, vegetable salt.
Listed from greatest to smallest by
weight. Use this to check the first
three ingredients for items high
in saturated fat, sodium (salt) or
added sugar.
Cambridge Science ISBN 978-1-108-62918-8 © Ardley et al. 2019 Cambridge University Press
Victorian Curriculum Year 9 Photocopying is restricted under law and this material must not be transferred to another party. Updated September 2023
38 Chapter 2 HOMEOSTASIS

How do you lose weight? Explore! 2.2

When we lose weight, where does it go?

The Age
By Ruben Meerman & Andrew Brown
14 March 2018 — 9.24 pm
The world is obsessed with fad diets The good news is that you exhale
and weight loss, yet few of us know 200 grams of carbon dioxide while you’re
how a kilogram of fat vanishes off the fast asleep every night, so you’ve already
scales. Even the 150 doctors, dietitians breathed out a quarter of your daily target
and personal trainers we surveyed before you even step out of bed. So if fat
shared this surprising gap in their turns into carbon dioxide, could simply
health literacy. The most common breathing more make you lose weight?
misconception by far, was that fat is Unfortunately not. Huffing and puffing
converted to energy. The problem with more than you need to is called
this theory is that it violates the law hyperventilation and will only make
of conservation of matter, which all you dizzy, or possibly faint. The only
chemical reactions obey. way you can consciously increase the
Some respondents thought fat turns amount of carbon dioxide your body is
into muscle, which is impossible, and producing is by moving your muscles.
others assumed it escapes via the colon. But here’s some more good news.
Only three of our respondents gave the Simply standing up and getting dressed
right answer, which means 98 per cent more than doubles your metabolic rate.
of the health professionals in our survey In other words, if you simply tried on all
could not explain how weight loss your outfits for 24 hours, you’d exhale
works. So if not energy, muscles or the more than 1200 grams of carbon dioxide.
loo, where does fat go?
More realistically, going for a walk
The correct answer is that fat is triples your metabolic rate, and so will
converted to carbon dioxide and water. cooking, vacuuming and sweeping.
You exhale the carbon dioxide and the Metabolising 100 grams of fat consumes
water mixes into your circulation until 290 grams of oxygen and produces 280
it’s lost as urine or sweat. If you lose grams of carbon dioxide plus 110 grams
10 kg of fat, precisely 8.4 kg comes out of water. The food you eat can’t change
through your lungs and the remaining these figures.
1.6 kg turns into water. In other words,
Therefore, to lose 100 grams of fat, you
nearly all the weight we lose is exhaled.
have to exhale 280 grams of carbon
The 415 grams of carbohydrates, fats, dioxide on top of what you’ll produce by
and protein most Australians eat every vaporising all your food, no matter what
day will produce exactly 740 grams of it is. Any diet that supplies less “fuel”
carbon dioxide plus 280 grams of water than you burn will do the trick, but with
(about one cup) and about 35 grams of so many misconceptions about how
urea and other solids excreted as urine. weight loss works, few of us know why.

continued…

…continued
1 ‘415 grams of carbohydrates … will produce exactly 740 grams of carbon dioxide plus 280 grams of water’. The
input and output does not look balanced. What else do you require as an input for metabolism?
2 According to this article, when you lose weight, where does it go?

Hydration Science as a human endeavour 2.1

More than half of your body by mass is water:
it is found in your blood, inside your cells and between
your cells. You use water to maintain your blood
pressure, your body temperature and for many other
day-to-day functions. It is recommended you consume
2 litres of water per day, as fluids are readily lost through
sweating, passing urine and even breathing! This
fluid loss is heightened when you are exposed to high
temperatures and during high-intensity exercise, so you
need to increase your fluid intake to match the loss, or
your body will become dehydrated. Physiologically, this
leads to decreased blood pressure, increased heart rate
and temperature, and a loss of physical coordination, Figure 2.12 Even very small amounts of dehydration will
reduce an athlete’s performance in individual or team
meaning you are not performing at your best. A lot
sports, including football.
of energy is expended trying to regulate the internal
conditions. As dehydration progresses, you can experience muscle cramping, nausea, vomiting and diarrhoea,
as well as accompanying psychological symptoms such as a decrease in concentration and mental functioning.
Most elite athletes who play Australian Rules football can expect to lose, on average, approximately 1 litre of
fluid per hour, and in hot, humid weather 2–3 litres per hour. One way they combat this is by drinking sports drinks,
which contain water, carbohydrates and salts that are claimed to result in improved hydration. However, these
sports drinks often contain high levels of sugar and scientific studies have shown they are a contributor to
childhood obesity (as teenagers are drinking them when not engaging in sports) and tooth decay in elite footballers.

Losing water Did you know? 2.1

During a race, Formula One drivers are subjected
to both high temperatures and high g-forces (the
force felt as a result of acceleration, including the
lateral acceleration of cornering). A driver can
typically experience g-forces in excess of ‘4.5 times
the g-force’, which means the force is four and a half
times their weight! A driver can lose up to 3 litres of
water during a race, and they must counter this loss by
consuming plenty of fluids before the race, otherwise
their coordination and concentration may become
impaired—not ideal when you’re doing over 300 km/h! If
a driver were to stand on a scale at the end of the race,
Figure 2.13 It is not only footballers who lose water while
the water lost means their weight might be 3 kilograms competing.
less than before the race, but this is readily gained back
as they replenish their bodies with fluids and food.

Practical 2.2

How much sugar do different types of soft drink contain?

Be careful
Aim
No food items are to be
To determine how much sugar is in different soft drinks.
consumed.
Because we cannot extract the sugar from the drinks and weigh it, we
must use a different method. The more sugar that is dissolved in water,
the denser it will be (i.e. the same volume will weigh more).
We will graph the density of different concentrations of
sugar in water – this will be our reference graph. Then we
will measure the density of the soft drinks and estimate
the concentration of sugar they contain from our reference
graph. This assumes that it is only the sugar content of the
soft drinks, and no other dissolved substance, that affects
the density.

Materials
3 different types of regular (not diet) soft drink, e.g. cola,
lemonade, ginger beer. These should be poured out into jugs
or large containers, labelled just with the type and brand of Figure 2.14 Regular soft drinks contain a lot of sugar,
mainly sucrose (table sugar) or fructose, both a type
soft drink, but no other information. The containers should be
of carbohydrate.
left unsealed for a few hours until they are no longer fizzy (i.e.
there are no bubbles in the liquid).
• sugar • 3 × 250 mL beakers
• water • scale
• 500 mL measuring cylinder • stirrer

Method
Pre-testing
1 Formulate a hypothesis. From the different types of soft drinks, which one do you think contains the most
sugar? Or the least?

Sugar solution reference graph

1 Record the mass of the empty measuring cylinder in column A of the results table, for rows 1−3.
2 Add 20 g of sugar to the measuring cylinder.
3 Carefully add water to the measuring cylinder up to the 200 mL mark, so you now have 200 mL of sugar
solution. Stir to dissolve the sugar.
4 Record the mass of the measuring cylinder and sugar solution in column B of the results table.
5 Subtract the mass of the measuring cylinder (column A) from its mass with the sugar solution (column B).
Record this measurement in column C. It is the mass of 200 mL of the sugar solution.
6 Empty the measuring cylinder, rinse and shake to remove drops of water from it.
7 Add 40 g of sugar to the measuring cylinder, and repeat steps 3–6, recording the results in row 2 of the table.
8 Add 60 g of sugar to the measuring cylinder, and repeat steps 3–6, recording the results in row 2 of the table.
9 Calculate the density of the sugar solutions for rows 1–3 of the results table by dividing mass in column C by
volume of the solution (200 mL) and record the results in column D.

mass of the sugar solution C

density
volume of the sugar solution 2000 mL

continued…

…continued
10 Draw a line graph showing the density of the sugar solution (y-axis, g/mL) versus the mass of sugar it
contains per 200 mL (x-axis, g). This is the reference graph.

Mass of sugar A B C (= B – A) D (= C / 200)

in 200 mL Mass of measuring Mass of measuring Mass of sugar sol. Density of sugar
sugar sol. cylinder (g) cylinder + sugar alone (g) sol. (g/mL)
solution (g)
1) 20 g sugar
2) 40 g sugar
3) 60 g sugar

Soft drink
1 Label three 250 mL beakers 4 to 6.
2 Record the mass of each beaker in column A of the results table below.
3 Using the measuring cylinder, add 200 mL of flat soft drink to beaker 4, and record the name of the soft drink
in the first column of the table below.
4 Weigh the beaker with the soft drink and record in column B of the results table.
5 Subtract the mass of the beaker (column A) from the mass of the same beaker and the soft drink (column B).
Record this measurement in column C. It is the mass of the soft drink alone.
6 Repeat steps 2–5 for beakers 5 and 6 using different soft drinks.
7 Calculate the density of each soft drink by dividing the mass of the soft drink in column C by the 200 mL
volume. Record it in column D of the table.

Beaker + A B C (= B – A) D (= C / 200)
name of the Mass of the beaker Mass of beaker and Mass of soft drink Density of soft
drink (g) soft drink (g) alone (g) drink (g/mL)
4)
5)
6)

Sugar content of soft drink

1 On the y-axis of the reference graph, mark and label the density of the soft drink in beaker 4. With a ruler,
draw a horizontal line from this mark across the graph. At the point where it intersects the graph line, draw a
vertical line to the x-axis. At the point where the vertical line intersects the x-axis, record the value. This is the
mass of sugar in 200 mL of the soft drink. Divide the mass by 2. This is the mass of sugar in 100 mL of the soft
drink. Record this result.
2 Repeat for beakers 5 and 6

Evaluation
1 Compare and summarise the results obtained, using the mass of sugar in 100 mL of soft drink.
2 Formulate a conclusion based on your original predictions about which soft drink had the most sugar by
supporting or not supporting the hypothesis.
3 Identify two possible sources of error in this experiment.
4 Identify two ways the experimental design might be improved.

Conclusion
1 Make a claim from this experiment regarding sugar content in soft drinks.
2 Support the statement by using your observations (include potential sources of error).
3 Explain how your observations support your claim.

1 What unit is food energy measured in? Quick check 2.3

2 Write down the approximate daily energy requirements for a
QUIZ healthy adult.
3 The kilojoules you burn up exercising depend on your weight, the length of time you
exercise for and the intensity. Do some research online to see if you can find out how much
30 minutes of some different exercises/activities will burn in kilojoules for one weight range.
Summarise what you find out in a table.
4 Whatever your age, gender, height or activity level, to maintain your body weight, energy in
must equal energy out. Explain what this means.
5 Define the term ‘dehydration’ and explain why it is so important to keep hydrated.

Section 2.1 questions

Remembering
1 What is one major difference between a unicellular and a multicellular organism?
2 Provide two examples of a unicellular organism and two examples of a multicellular organism.
3 List three requirements for healthy human life.

Understanding
4 In your own words, explain what occurs during the process of cellular respiration.
5 Name two ways that water is lost through the body.
6 Explain three different functions of proteins in the human body.

Applying
7 List three essential nutrients that you think a healthy diet should include.
8 Suggest a reason why pasta is often eaten by footballers the night before they play their match.
9 Calculate the energy from the following food types: (Remember that kilojoules are similar to calories:
1 calorie = 4.184 kJ.)
a Peppermint crisp chocolate bar contains 172 calories energy per bar
b One bottle of Powerade sports drink contains 185 calories
c Four Weetbix contain 107 calories
d One red apple, raw, skin on contains approximately 60 calories

Analysing
10 An athlete is contemplating going on a diet to lose some weight and decides to minimise their carbohydrate
intake. What are some potential consequences or considerations for the athlete?
11 On the whole, females tend to need less energy overall in their daily recommended energy intake (kJ)
compared to men. Discuss possible reasons for this.
12 Fats provide more energy than carbohydrates. Why don’t athletes eat lots of fatty food just before they
compete?

Evaluating
13 Predict if any health issues would arise if a person was drinking sports drinks when they were not physically
required to do so.
14 According to the Australian Institute of Health and Welfare, 1 in 4 Australian children were overweight or
obese in 2014–2015. Decide whether childhood obesity is a problem in Australia or not. Recommend several
strategies on how childhood obesity rates might be reduced.
15 If the Victorian Government banned all sugary foods and drinks in all schools, would this solve obesity in
children? Discuss the pros and cons of this rule.

2.2 Body systems working together

Coordination: it’s a team effort! despite considerable changes within the

external environment. This process is known
Within the human body, 11 major organ
as homeostasis. When a change occurs in WORKSHEET
systems interact with each other to
an animal’s environment, such as an increase
enable humans to grow, maintain life and
in temperature, an adjustment
reproduce. Each system depends upon other
must be made so that the internal homeostasis
systems to keep the body functioning at an the maintenance of a
environment of the body and cells relatively stable internal
optimal level and are made up of organs with body environment, despite
remains stable. It is a bit like a set changes in the external
highly specific functions. These systems are: environment
of scales that need to be kept in
1 Circulatory 7 Nervous constant balance, or the job of a heating/
2 Endocrine 8 Muscle cooling system in a house.
3 Skeletal 9 Immune
4 Reproductive 10 Skin and outer The nervous system plays the primary role in
5 Digestive body covering control and coordination over most actions
6 Excretory 11 Respiratory of the human body and works hand-in-hand
All multicellular organisms depend upon with the endocrine system that produces
body systems to work together to maintain particular hormones that are released into
homeostasis. The body does an amazing job the blood stream in response to external or
to maintain a stable internal environment, internal changes. Together they form a team:

Building materials circulated by

the circulatory system
Oxygen (moves into used for cellular respiration and
blood at lungs) building new proteins
Wastes are excreted through the
excretory and respiratory system
Carbon dioxide
Water (leave blood
at lungs)

Lipids
Carbohydrates Lipids
Proteins Glucose
Vitamins and minerals Amino acids
(absorbed from the (transported to
intestines) rest of body)

Wastes

Circulatory system Respiratory system Excretory system Digestive system

(heart and blood vessels) (lungs) (kidneys, skin and lungs)

Figure 2.15 An example of how 4 of the 11 body systems work together with other systems

the nervous system provides fast-acting,

short-lasting effects and the endocrine
system triggers slower-acting, long-lasting
VIDEO
Describe effects.
how negative
feedback
works. Stimulus–response model
To achieve homeostasis, the body needs
to respond to changes within the body’s
internal and external environment. These
are detected by receptor sites within the
body and if a response is required, then
certain actions are brought about by effectors
within the body to bring the body back to
its ‘normal’ or optimum level. This can be
described using the 5-step stimulus–response
model, shown in Figure 2.17 and Table 2.2.

Stimulus Receptor

Control centre

Figure 2.16 Homeostasis is like a scale: the body will automatically Response Effector
balance out the excess, lack of specific substances or the level of
physical parameters (such as temperature) to keep the body working at Figure 2.17 A flow chart outlining the stimulus–
its optimum level. response model

Stage of the flow chart Description Example

stimulus Stimulus The thing that has changed External temperature drops
any object or
event that elicits in the external or internal drastically
a sensory or environment
behavioural
response in an Receptor Specialised cells that detect the Temperature receptors in
organism
change and send a stimulus the skin
receptor
a sense organ signal to the control centre
(or cell/group of
cells) that detects Control centre Receives the signal from the Hypothalamus in the brain
stimulus
receptors and coordinates the receives the information
effector
a muscle, gland response, sending a response regarding the drop in
or organ capable
of responding to
signal to the effector temperature
a response signal Effector The muscles or organs that Muscles begin to contract and
from the control
centre are signalled to cause the relax quickly (shivering) to
response generate heat
Response Returns the body back to Body core temperature is
a state of balance so the raised back up to within
receptors are no longer active normal range
Table 2.2 A summary of the stages of the stimulus–response model

1 Define the term Quick check 2.4

‘homeostasis’.
2 Explain why homeostasis is so important to your
survival.
3 What part/s of the body are involved in
maintaining homeostasis?
4 Draw the stimulus–response model into your
notes or on A4 paper and annotate it with
information about each of the five parts, similar to
Figure 2.17.

The digestive system

The food you eat contains a variety of
nutrients that are necessary for building Figure 2.18 Specialised cells in the intestines have a high surface area
new body tissue, repairing damaged tissues to aid absorption of nutrients into the bloodstream.
and providing energy to power your cellular
processes. The digestive system allows
you to break down the food you eat
and absorb the nutrients along with
all their stored energy. It also enables
Salivary glands
you to absorb water, vitamins and Mouth
minerals, and to eliminate wastes from
the body. Oesophagus

For example, recall that your body needs

glucose for cellular respiration. When Liver
you consume carbohydrates, enzymes
begin to break them down from the
moment they enter your mouth: even Stomach
a savoury cracker begins to taste sweet Gall bladder Pancreas
when left on the tongue for a few
minutes, as enzymes in saliva begin Large intestine
Small intestine
to break the carbohydrates down into
sugars. This partially digested food then
Rectum
progresses down the digestive system Appendix
Anus
and continues to be broken down both
physically (by the teeth) and chemically
(by enzymes and stomach acid). The Figure 2.19 The human digestive system

smaller chemical units, such as glucose,

will diffuse across the cell membranes in
your intestines and be absorbed into the
bloodstream, ready to be circulated around
the body to where they are needed.

No stomach Did you know? 2.2

The platypus and echidna, both egg-laying mammals or monotremes, do not have
stomachs. With the use of DNA sequencing, scientists discovered that the genes responsible for making
important digestive enzymes are missing and that the platypus and echidna evolved without a stomach to
conserve energy.

Figure 2.20 Both the platypus and echidna do not have a stomach.

Diffusion is movement of a substance from an area of high concentration to an area of low

concentration. If a drop of dye is added to a glass of water, without stirring, the dye will gradually
spread and colour the entire contents – this is an example of diffusion. It is an important process
for moving substances within cells as well as in and out of them. When glucose-rich blood flows
near active cells (using glucose), glucose will diffuse from the blood into nearby cells.

Practical 2.3

Modelling water diffusion with gummy bears

Be careful
Aim No food items are to be
To explore the diffusion of water in gummy bears. consumed.

Materials
• gummy bears (3 per group) • scale
• 200 mL beaker • ruler
• water

Method
1 Construct a hypothesis for this experiment: What do you imagine will happen to the gummy bear upon soaking?
2 Using your ruler, measure the length and width of your gummy bear and record this in a table of values.
3 Weigh your gummy bear and record its mass in the table of values.
4 Label a beaker with your group names and half fill it with water.
5 Place your gummy bear in the beaker and leave it for 2–3 hours.
6 Gently remove your gummy bear from the water and pat it dry. Be careful as it will be very fragile.
7 Remeasure the length and width of the gummy bear, record its new mass and record any descriptive
observations of the lolly.

Results
1 Calculate the percentage change in the length, width and mass of the gummy bear.

After measurement − Before measurement

Percentage change = × 100
Before measurement

2 Record the changes in a bar graph. continued…

…continued
Evaluation
1 Account for the change in length, width and mass of the gummy bear.
2 Given your results, what conclusions can you make regarding the concentration of water in the gummy bear?
3 Predict what might have happen if you had soaked the gummy bear in a solution of concentrated sugar.
4 Name two potential sources of error for this experiment.
5 Suggest a way the experimental design might be improved.

Conclusion
1 Make a claim from this experiment regarding water diffusion and the glucose content of gummy bears.
2 Support the statement by using your observations (include potential sources of error).
3 Explain how your observations support your claim.

Regulating blood glucose levels When you over-indulge and eat three donuts
Body cells function best when conditions are in a row, your body is swamped with glucose
stable within narrow physical and chemical and your blood sugar levels surge. Similarly, WIDGET
Maintaining
ranges, and one of the substances that needs your body must also cope with prolonged homeostasis.
to be highly regulated is the concentration periods of time when you do not ingest any
of glucose in your blood. Your brain requires glucose – like when you are asleep! Such
a constant glucose supply and is highly drastic swings must be ironed out and the
sensitive to changes in blood glucose levels. glucose level must be kept constant.

More Insulin released

by pancreas

Insulin signals the muscles and

Blood glucose
liver cells to take up glucose from
levels increase
the bloodstream and store
it → blood glucose levels fall
Normal blood glucose levels

Glucagon signals the muscle cells

and liver cells to release stored Blood glucose
glucose → blood glucose levels decrease
levels rise
More Glucagon released
by pancreas

Insulin
High
release Insulin
release
Glucose Glucose
Glucose level

level level
Medium rises falls
Glucose
level
rises

Low Glucagon Figure 2.21 After a carbohydrate-

Carbohydrate release rich meal, insulin levels in the
meal bloodstream increase as the
body needs to decrease the blood
Time glucose levels.

insulin Homeostasis of blood glucose levels is and they act upon effectors to glucagon
a hormone secreted by the a hormone secreted by the
pancreas that triggers the controlled by two hormones, which are bring about opposite changes. pancreas that triggers the
liver and muscle cells to
take up glucose from the
both secreted by the pancreas: insulin They are released in different liver and muscle cells to
release glucose into the
bloodstream, lowering the and glucagon. Both hormones are slow- amounts, according to your bloodstream, raising the
blood glucose levels blood glucose levels
acting products of your endocrine system blood glucose levels.

Using the information provided in this chapter, construct a flow chart Try this 2.3
showing the stimulus-response model in action for control of blood glucose
levels. You may choose either scenario: blood sugar levels are too high or too low. Ensure your
flow chart features all the stages: stimulus, receptor, control centre, effector and response.

Extension: Try to draw a double loop that shows both scenarios!

Diabetes Explore! 2.3

Diabetes is a medical condition where the body does not produce enough
insulin or the body cells become resistant to insulin over time. It has become increasingly
common in Australian society, due in part to some lifestyle factors. Research the following
questions:
1 What is the difference between type 1 and type 2 diabetes?
2 Who is normally affected by each type of diabetes and at what age is it typically diagnosed?
3 How is each type of diabetes treated?
4 What are some of the factors that predispose people to developing diabetes?

Figure 2.22 Artificial insulin is injected into the body by a diabetes sufferer.

1 What is the primary role of the human digestive system? Quick check 2.5
2 What role do digestive enzymes play in providing energy to
your cells?
3 After a meal rich in simple carbohydrates, your blood glucose levels rise sharply. Which
hormone would be released by the pancreas to decrease the levels?

The excretory system The kidneys control and regulate the amount
of water, ions, and other substances in the
The digestive system works very closely with
blood and play a vital role in maintaining
the excretory system whose main responsibility
homeostasis.
is the removal of wastes (called excretion) and
excess water from the body. The excretory
Each kidney contains approximately nephron
system includes the liver, kidneys, and the functional unit of the
one million nephrons – tiny kidney, involved in filtering
associated organs such as the ureters and
microscopic structures that are the blood to produce urine
bladder. However, other organs such as the
known as the functional unit of the kidney.
large intestine, skin and lungs all have roles to
This means they do all the hard work and
play in excretion of certain substances. These
to do this, they have an amazingly complex
are summarised in the Table 2.3.
structure that enables them to work super
efficiently. So how do they do it? The
Organ Role in excretion
nephrons filter the blood, keeping the
Kidneys Filter the blood and form
things your body needs (water and ions)
urine which allows removal
and getting rid of the things it does not
of urea, excess salts and
(metabolic wastes, poisons, and excess water
water
and ions (salts) taken in through your diet).
Large intestine Stores and transmits
The waste fluid then leaves the nephrons,
useless waste material
moves along tubes called ureters and enters
after digestion to outside of
the bladder where it will eventually be
the body
passed out as urine. The nephrons of the
Liver Breaks down alcohol,
kidney filter 100 mL of fluid every minute,
toxins and the excess
amino acids (from proteins)
but only 1 mL of this finds its way into
that are in the bloodstream the bladder.
Lungs Exhale water vapour and
carbon dioxide
Skin Secretes fluid waste (sweat)
for temperature control

Table 2.3 Organs that assist with excreting wastes

Nephron
Kidney

Blood with
waste

Blood Urine
Blood without
waste

Ureter Urine

Figure 2.23 The structure of the kidney and one nephron: the functional unit of the kidney

Kidneys STIMULUS
Blood too concentrated
(not enough water)
Abnormal water
balance
RECEPTOR
Ureter Detected by brain
(hypothalamus)

Bladder
More ADH released
from brain into
bloodstream
Figure 2.24 A simple overview of the organs involved
in urine production, storage and excretion

RESPONSE: Kidneys reabsorb

more water into bloodstream and
Regulating water levels small volume of concentrated
urine produced
The regulation of the amount of water in
the blood is a very important example of 'Normal' water
balance
homeostasis. It is often referred to
osmoregulation
the regulation of water levels as osmoregulation, where ‘osmo’ Returns to
in the blood/body homeostasis
refers the concentration of dissolved
substances like salt and sugars. The
Figure 2.25 The stimulus–response flow chart for
amount of water in the blood is measured
when water levels are low
continuously by a group of osmoreceptors
in the hypothalamus of the brain. They can
Using the information provided in Try this 2.4
detect if there are low levels of water in the
this chapter, construct a flow chart
blood (the blood is very concentrated) or showing the stimulus–response model in action for
high levels of water in the blood (the blood when water levels are too high (blood becomes too
is very dilute). dilute). Ensure your flow chart features all the stages:
stimulus, receptor, control centre, effector and response.
These are the important steps in
osmoregulation and how the different body
systems are involved.
Diuretics Did you know? 2.3
• ADH is produced by the hypothalamus
A diuretic is a drug that
but is stored in the pituitary gland.
increases water excretion in the urine. These might
• The pituitary gland in the brain (part
be taken by athletes for two reasons.
of the central nervous system) controls
• They cause rapid weight loss (due to loss of
blood water concentration by releasing
water). This strategy might be used by boxers or
the antidiuretic hormone (ADH) when
jockeys who need to maintain a certain weight.
water levels are low (endocrine system).
• They can mask other illegal drugs as they flush it
• ADH is released and is carried by the
out of the athlete’s system.
blood (cardiovascular system) to the
Athletes have been suspended for taking diuretics to
kidneys (excretory system) when there
mask banned drugs.
is not enough water in the blood. ADH
continued…
increases the ability of the kidney
tubules to absorb water and return it to
the blood.

…continued
The respiratory and
cardiovascular systems
The respiratory system and the cardiovascular
system work together to keep up a constant
supply of oxygen to the cells of the body.
Both systems work together to ensure that the
cells obtain the required amount of oxygen to
perform cellular respiration to release energy,
and that they can also get rid of the waste
product – carbon dioxide. The respiratory
system (lungs and diaphragm) is responsible
for breathing which drives the exchange of
gases. The circulatory system, as the name
suggests, is responsible for circulating the
respiratory gases, but also transporting
Figure 2.26 Athletes may be banned for taking diuretics.
nutrients, water and hormones.

The respiratory system

The respiratory system depends upon
1 What are the names of Quick check 2.6
the exchange of gas inside the lungs.
some organs that are
involved in excretion of wastes?
To breathe in, a large muscle called the
2 List two functions of the excretory system.
diaphragm contracts and draws air
3 Which part of the kidney is responsible for into your lungs. The air (which is alveoli
(singular: alveolus) tiny air
filtering blood? Outline its role. approximately 21% oxygen) travels sacs found within the lungs,
which are the site of gaseous
4 What does the hormone ADH stand for and what in the nose and mouth, down the exchange

is its role in osmoregulation? trachea (windpipe) and to branching

5 Which part of the brain monitors blood water tubes called bronchi and bronchioles into the
concentration? left and right lungs. These tubes terminate in
microscopic air sacs called alveoli (singular:

Alveolus

Artery Alveoli
Vein
Trachea

Bronchus

Bronchioles
Heart

Bronchiole
Carbon dioxide diffuses from Oxygen diffuses from alveolus
Lungs red blood cells into alveolus into red blood cells

Figure 2.27 Zooming in on the respiratory system: breathing for the purpose of gas exchange

alveolus). There are approximately 300 The cardiovascular system

million alveoli in the lungs, and if you could The circulatory system is the transport system
capillary somehow lie them out flat, they would of the body. It has four main functions.
the smallest vessels which
contain oxygenated blood cover more area than a tennis court! 1 It transports nutrients, oxygen and water
and enable red blood cells to
deliver oxygen to the tissues
The alveoli are surrounded by tiny in the blood to all cells in the body, so
on a cellular level capillaries (the smallest vessels in they can carry out cellular respiration to
the circulatory system) whose walls are only make energy available and the building
one cell thick. It is between the alveoli and blocks necessary to repair, grow and
the capillaries that gas exchange occurs, by a produce new cells.
process called diffusion. Oxygen diffuses into 2 It transports wastes products to the
the capillaries and once in the blood, it binds kidneys or lungs to be excreted.
to haemoglobin molecules in the red blood 3 It also carries other materials such as
cells, which carry the oxygen to all the cells in hormones, energy from cell respiration
the body. When your cells carry out cellular and antibodies around the body.
respiration, they use the oxygen and produce 4 It helps to maintain body temperature.
carbon dioxide and this needs to be disposed You may recall from Year 8 that the human
of. Carbon dioxide diffuses out of the body heart functions like a double-sided pump.
cells and moves into the bloodstream, and The right side of the heart pumps blood that
then travels to the lungs where it diffuses is low in oxygen and high in carbon dioxide
from the capillaries into the alveoli of the – also known as deoxygenated blood – to
lungs and is breathed out (exhalation). the lungs. The left side receives oxygenated
blood from the lungs and pumps it to the
rest of the body.

Superior
Aorta
vena cava To upper body
Pulmonary
artery

To right To left
lung lung

From right From left

lung lung

Right atrium Left atrium

Right ventricle
Figure 2.28 Alveoli in the lungs
Inferior vena
cava
Left ventricle
Construct a flow chart detailing Try this 2.5
the movements of an oxygen
From lower
molecule and a carbon dioxide molecule. Ensure body
you cover the entire cycle – starting with inhaling To lower
(breathing in) and finishing with exhaling body
(breathing out). Figure 2.29 Human heart anatomy diagram showing blood flow
with main parts

Each time the heart beats, it pushes the the wrist) or at the carotid artery (on the side
blood through your arteries and you can of your neck under your jaw). Measure your
feel this wave of pressure as a pulse. You own pulse for 15 seconds and then multiply
can feel your pulse at specific parts of the this by 4: this is your heart rate in beats per
body where the arteries are close to the skin. minute (bpm). These days, many sports
The locations commonly used by a medical watches such as Fitbits can take a continuous
professional are at the radial artery (inside reading of your pulse in bpm.

Figure 2.30 Modern sports watches allow you to continuously monitor your heart
rate over the course of a day.

Construct a flow chart showing the movement of oxygen and carbon dioxide Try this 2.6
through the lungs, heart, body and returning to the lungs. Include the
anatomical features of the heart and label the vessels entering and exiting the heart and lungs.

Maintaining blood pressure blood pressure is high, too little water (as in
Homeostatic control of blood pressure is dehydration) and the blood pressure is low.
critical to your survival. If your blood pressure If blood pressure is too high, the brainstem
is too high, it can result in damage to internal sends signals to the heart to slow down and
organs and if the blood pressure is to low, to the blood vessels to dilate, thus lowering
it can result in a loss of consciousness. The blood pressure.
heart and blood vessels contain special
pressure receptors (baroreceptors) that can Using the information Try this 2.7
detect the change in blood pressure. If the provided in this chapter,
blood pressure decreases, signals are sent from construct a flow chart showing the
the brain stem to the heart to allow for the stimulus–response model in action for
control of blood pressure. You may choose
blood vessels to constrict (get smaller) and the
either scenario: blood pressure is too high
heart rate to increase, also increasing blood
or too low. Ensure your flow chart features
pressure.
all the stages: stimulus, receptor, control
centre, effector and response.
As you know, the kidneys regulate the
amount of water in the blood. In doing so, Extension: Try to draw a double loop that
they also play a role in regulating blood shows both scenarios.
pressure as well. Too much water and the

1 Compare the functions of the respiratory system, with the functions of the circulatory Quick check 2.7
system.
2 Explain why you need oxygen and why you need to get rid of carbon dioxide.
3 Where are the receptor sites that detect changes in blood pressure?
4 Other than the heart, which organ is involved in maintaining blood pressure?

Practical 2.4

Exercise, heart rate and breathing rate

The body’s energy needs vary according to how active you are. When you are resting, less energy is required,
therefore less oxygen needs to be consumed. However, your respiratory and circulatory systems must work
together to meet your increased energy needs during exercise.
As you exercise, your large muscle groups are contracting harder and more frequently and this requires
energy! The cells require more oxygen because it is a necessary reactant of cellular respiration (the burning of
glucose to release energy). This increased oxygen demand is achieved by:
• increasing your respiration rate (breaths per minute): breathing harder and faster means more oxygen can
diffuse into the bloodstream and you can also exhale more carbon dioxide
• increasing your heart rate and blood pressure: pump the oxygen faster to the cells

Aim
To investigate the effect of low- and high-intensity exercise on heart rate and breathing rate.

Hypothesis
Construct a hypothesis predicting what the results will be. Be specific in your predictions; for example, if it
increases, by how much do you imagine?

Materials
• stopwatch
• calculator
• Optional: sporting watch/device that may record pulse in bpm or pulse oximeter

Method
1 Measure your partner’s heart rate by placing your index and middle fingers on the inside of their wrist. Using
the stopwatch, count the number of beats in a 15-second period. (Optional: wear a heart rate monitor.)
2 Get your partner to count how many times they exhaled in this 15-second period.
3 Multiply both numbers by 4 to get beats per minute and breathing rate per minute. Record these in the table.
4 Instruct your partner to walk at their usual pace outside for a 2-minute period (low-intensity) and when time is
up, immediately then measure their heart rate and get them to count how many times they take a breath in a
15 second period.
5 Multiply both values by 4 and record in table.
6 Measure the heart rate and breathing rate at 1-minute intervals another two times.
7 Instruct your partner to run around outside and use the stopwatch to time them for a 2-minute period (high-
intensity) and when time is up, immediately then measure their heart rate and get them to count how many
times they take a breath in a 15-second period.
8 Multiply both values by 4 and record these in the table.
9 Measure the heart rate and breathing rate at 1-minute intervals two more times.
continued…

…continued
Results
1 Complete the results table.

Time Heart beats in Heart rate per Breathing rate in Breathing rate
15 seconds minute (bpm) 15 seconds per minute
At rest (resting)
Low-intensity exercise (2-minute walk)
0 minutes after
exercise
1 minute after
exercise
2 minutes after
exercise
High-intensity exercise (2-minute run)
0 minutes
(immediately after
exercise)
1 minute after
exercise
2 minutes after
exercise

2 Using Excel, or graph paper, construct a graph showing the change in breathing rate and heart rate per
minute when performing both low intensity and high intensity exercise.

Evaluation
1 Explain your results (both heart rate and breathing rate) with reference to the homeostatic mechanisms
occurring in the body.
2 Compare how long it took for the heart rate and breathing rate to return to rest following low-intensity and
high-intensity exercise.
3 Discuss at least potential sources of error from this experiment.
4 Propose at least two suggestions on how this experiment could be improved.

Conclusion
1 Make a claim from this experiment regarding the circulatory and respiratory systems.
2 Support the statement by using your observations (include potential sources of error).
3 Explain how your observations support your claim.

Extension
Create your own experiment that measures the impact of low- and high-intensity exercise on heart rate and
breathing rate.

Bioprinting and the creation of organs Science as a human endeavour 2.2

People can live longer and healthier lives these days with thanks to
many technological advances, particularly in the field of medicine. Statistics provided by the Australian Institute
of Health and Welfare speculate that a boy born in Australia between 2013–2015 can expect to live to the average
age of 80.4 years and a girl would be expected to live to an average age of 84.5 years, in comparison to 47.2 years
for males and 50.8 years for females, born between 1881–1890.
Approximately 1500 people in Australia alone are on the organ transplant list at any one time. Yet surprisingly,
only 60% of families give consent for organ and tissue donations to proceed if organ donation is a possibility for
members of their family who pass away. Luckily, advances in the field of 3D bioprinting will enable the possibility
for many more organs to be created and therefore donated to those who need them, in the future. Stem cells are
a special type of cell that have not matured into a particular cell type yet (for example, a skin cell, lung cells, liver
cell). By harvesting these stem cells, they can be sent to a lab and chemically induced to differentiate into the
type of cell needed, for example, a liver cell. These cells then replicate and can grow a whole fully functioning
organ that can be transplanted without the fear of rejection! This technology would allow scientists to custom-
build organs and tissues that match the patient’s own cells, reducing the time spent waiting for a compatible
organ donor.
This is a relatively new field. In fact, it was only in 2016 that researchers developed the first functioning
3D-printed liver tissue. Other such organs like skin, cartilage, bones and glands, have also been bioprinted. The
technology was originally developed for rapid fabrication of industrial parts, but now it has been recognised for
its biological applications, it is necessary to ensure sterile and tightly controlled conditions. However, there are
many challenges that lie ahead for the developers of this technology due to the technical requirements that are
involved with the bioprinting of organs. Yet hope remains that this technology might be a critical step towards
meeting the need for donor organs.

Bioprinting Explore! 2.4

Research the 3D Print Exchange site, which is organised by the
National Institute of Health (NIH) in the United States of America.
It provides an open and interactive platform where users can
browse, download, and share biomedical 3D print files, modelling
tutorials and educational materials.
1 Propose why you think the NIH has made this information
widely available.
2 Discuss the positive and negative ethical viewpoints of
3D bioprinting.

Figure 2.31 This 3D bioprinter developed by the Russian company 3D

Bioprinting Solutions is capable of printing live organs.

Section 2.2 questions

Remembering QUIZ
1 Homeostasis is the maintenance of a relatively stable internal environment. Name four
things that are tightly regulated within the human body.
2 The functioning or functional unit of the kidney is called a _______________.
3 Gas exchange occurs between which two structures in the lung?
4 What hormones are secreted by the pancreas and what effect do they have?

Understanding
5 Explain how the body responds to the increased energy demands of exercise.
6 Construct a labelled diagram showing the stages of the stimulus-response model.

Applying
7 During long and frequent periods of exercise an athlete is likely to reduce muscle mass.
Explain why.
8 A person who has undergone a serious and lengthy surgical operation stands up for the
first time after the surgery. They lost a significant amount of blood during the procedure
and their blood pressure is low, making them feel dizzy. Draw a stimulus–response model
showing the steps the body would take to address this deviation from normal blood
pressure.

Analysing
9 Discuss why both the lungs and kidneys are considered to be organs involved in excretion.
10 Construct a Venn diagram showing the digestive, circulatory and respiratory systems. In
their overlapping zones, summarise in dot points the way the systems interact.

Evaluating
11 The graph below shows the results of a glucose tolerance test for two patients, A and B.
Justify which patient has diabetes using data from the graph.

12
Patient A
Blood glucose concentration in units

5 Glucose Patient B
drink taken
0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
Time in hours

2.3 Response to microorganisms

Pathogens study individual bacteria. The best light

microscopes at school can magnify about
Disease results when an infectious agent,
1000 times. Electron microscopes are used
WIDGET called a pathogen, invades living tissue.
by scientists as they allow magnification of
Some pathogens are cellular; that is, they
cells up to 500 000 times.
are made of cells. Examples are bacteria,
fungi and parasites. Some pathogens are
Plasma
non-cellular, for example viruses, viroids Cell wall membrane
Capsule
VIDEO and prions. Individual pathogens, within an
Three main
pathogens.
infected individual, reproduce very quickly
under their optimum conditions and need
to be destroyed as quickly as possible
pathogen to avoid illness. They can cause illness
a small organism, such as
a bacterium, virus, prion by either interfering with the normal
or parasite that can cause
disease functioning of the body tissues or
bacteria producing toxins that damage the host
(singular: bacterium)
microscopic, unicellular tissue. Table 2.4 lists common diseases
(single-celled) organisms
caused by bacteria, fungi and viruses. Genetic
Ribosome
material

Figure 2.32 General structure of a bacterial cell

Bacterial Fungal Viral
diseases diseases diseases
Typhoid Ringworm Warts Most bacteria reproduce prokaryote
a single-celled organism
Gonorrhoea Thrush Poliomyelitis by a process called binary with no membrane-bound
Syphilis Tinea Rubella fission whereby the genetic organelles (such as a
nucleus), e.g. a bacterial cell
Tetanus Influenza information of the bacterium binary fission
‘Strep throat’ Common cold replicates and the cell divides a form of asexual
reproduction; the
Gastroenteritis AIDS into two. Each cell produced most common form of
Anthrax Mumps reproduction in prokaryotes,
during binary fission is a such as bacteria, and occurs
when the cell divides, giving
Table 2.4 Some common diseases caused by genetic clone of the parent cell. rise to two identical cells
different pathogens Some bacteria like Escherichia
coli can divide every 20 minutes, under
Bacteria optimum conditions. So, if you start with only
Bacteria (singular: bacterium) are simple one bacterium, after 20 minutes, you will have
unicellular organisms called prokaryotes, 2 bacteria, then following another 20 minutes,
that have a cell wall but no distinct 4 bacteria, and so on, until after just 3 hours,
organelles inside (see Figure 2.32). you have had 9 cell divisions, equating to a
Individual bacteria cannot be seen with the growth from 1 through to 512 bacteria. After
naked eye, but a bacterial colony (group 20 divisions, under suitable conditions there
of millions of bacteria) will be visible if it would be over 1 million bacteria. That is why
contains a sufficient number of bacteria. you can quickly become ill when harmful
Scientists therefore need a microscope to bacteria invade your body.

Types of bacteria
One way of classifying bacteria is by the
shape of their individual cells. The main
shapes are rods, spheres and spirals.

1 Define Quick check 2.8

the term
‘pathogen’.
2 Why are bacteria considered as
prokaryotes? Describe their structure.
3 How do bacteria reproduce, and why
is this a problem if a pathogenic strain
infects a person?
4 List the different names and shapes of
Figure 2.33 Coloured scanning electron micrograph (SEM) bacteria.
of Escherichia coli bacteria (pink) on a gecko’s tongue. The
magnification is ×8000.

Shape Biological name Diseases Magnified image

Rod bacillus (plural: bacilli) Typhoid
Tuberculosis

Spiral spirillum (plural: spirilli) Syphillis

Spherical coccus (plural: cocci) Streptococcus

(causes tonsillitis)

Table 2.5 Common types of disease-causing bacteria

Practical 2.5: Teacher demonstration

Observing bacteria under a microscope

At least three different microscopes have been set up to show some different types of bacteria that have been
stained for you to see under a magnification of 1000.

Aim
To observe different types of bacteria under the microscope.

Materials
Microscope, slides of different types of bacteria: for example, cocci, bacilli, spirilli

Method
1 Using the microscopes, observe the bacteria under a magnification of 1000.
2 Using a pencil, sketch each type and provide a title for each sketch.

Results
Sketch what you can see under the magnification of ×1000.

Evaluation and conclusion

Were you able to differentiate between the three different types of bacteria? Write a few sentences to describe
how you did.

One of the first investigators of bacteria grew them on the jelly of the eye of an ox! Did you know? 2.4
Nowadays biologists use nutrient agar plates. Agar is a jelly, which some bacteria can
use as food on its own. However, if a food like meat extract has been added, bacteria can readily grow on it and
will divide to form colonies very quickly.

Figure 2.34 Scientists used to use the eye of an ox for growing bacteria. Nowadays, a nutrient
agar dish is used. This one contains bacterial colonies.

Practical 2.6

Using nutrient agar plates to grow bacteria

Be careful
Ensure gloves are worn when handling nutrient agar plates.
Do not sneeze or expose the agar to any pathogenic organisms.
Hands are to be washed with soap immediately after handling nutrient agar plates.
Sealed agar plates are not to be opened. Once plates have been observed they will be collected and destroyed.
All working surfaces are to be wiped down with disinfectant after all nutrient agar plates are collected.

continued…

…continued
Aim
To grow bacteria on nutrient agar plates.

Materials
• Petri dish containing sterile nutrient agar
• cotton buds
• marker pen
• masking tape
• disposable gloves
• disinfectant
• handwash (soap)

Method
1 Using a cotton bud, wipe over an object of choice, such as a phone screen, computer keyboard, mouse or
door handle.
2 Open the Petri dish and swab the cotton bud over the nutrient agar.
3 Secure the lid and label the plate with the masking tape and pen.
4 Wipe down all work surfaces with disinfectant after all the nutrient
agar plates have been collected. Computer
5 The plates will be stored upside down (with the agar at the top) in
an incubator for 1–2 days.
6 Remove the plates from the incubator, place in a clear zip-lock bag
and observe the colonies of bacteria that have grown.
Warning: Microbes can produce harmful toxins, so it is very
important to seal them in airtight containers. Taking careful
precautions and minimising exposure to the microbes can protect
us from dangerous infections. It is essential that the plates
produced are sealed, collected and destroyed (incinerated or
autoclaved).

Results
1 Sketch the colonies that you can see on your agar plate. Try and distinguish between the bacterial colonies that
have a smoother surface, compared to the colonies of mould that tend to have a furry appearance.
2 Count the number of colonies and record the type of colonies you have observed.
3 Record every group’s results in a class tally of number of bacterial colonies and number of mould colonies.
Using the class results, construct a column graph highlighting the proportion of each type of colony.

Evaluation
1 Choose another student’s agar plate and comment on the similarities and differences as compared to your
agar plate. Explain why this may be the case.
2 Rank the objects or places from the class results in order from least to most bacterial growth on the agar
dishes. Explain why these differences exist by looking at the original location of the sample.
3 Suggest two potential sources of error for this experiment.
4 Propose two ways in which this experiment could be improved.

Conclusion
1 Make a claim from this experiment regarding the growth of bacterial and mould colonies on agar.
2 Support the statement by using your observations (include potential sources of error).
3 Explain how your observations support your claim.

Fungus and animals, breaking them down and

Fungi can be single-celled or multicellular extracting nutrients. You may have seen a
organisms, that contain a nucleus and a furry growth on decaying food – this is a type
fungus cell wall made of chitin. They also of fungus. For example, the furry growth on
(plural: fungi) single-celled
or multicellular organisms
have membrane-wrapped organelles, a rotten orange is the mass of fruiting bodies
which contain a nucleus and including mitochondria, which means produced by the fungus that has infected the
a cell wall made of chitin
they are eukaryotic organisms like orange. Mushrooms and toadstools are the
plants, animals and you! Familiar fungi fruiting bodies of fungi that feed on things
include yeasts, moulds, and mushrooms. in the soil. Several species of fungi, mostly
Unlike plants, fungi cannot photosynthesise yeasts, live harmlessly on the human body,
to make their own food. Instead they use but others can cause skin diseases like tinea,
their long, fibrous cells to penetrate plants thrush and ringworm.

Figure 2.35 The pink area between this person’s Figure 2.36 The green-black areas are mould
toes is a localised tinea infection (commonly known growing on pieces of bread.
as ‘athlete’s foot’).

Practical 2.7

budding Fermentation
an asexual reproduction
process where the new
Yeast is a type of fungus, one that is very useful in production of many foods. You might
individual is a clone of the have some baker’s yeast in the cupboard at home – it is used when baking bread. Yeast
parent organism
exists as single cells and reproduces by a process called budding, where a yeast cell
fermentation
a chemical process by which develops a small ‘bud’, which grows and eventually separates to form a new yeast cell.
energy is produced in the
absence of oxygen Yeast feeds on sugar. This specialised process, known as fermentation, allows for sugar
to be broken down by yeasts (in the absence of oxygen) to form alcohol and carbon dioxide.
Fermentation is a specialised process that allows sugar to be broken down by yeast in the
absence of oxygen to produce alcohol and carbon dioxide.

sugar alcohol + carbon dioxide

Some alcoholic beverages (like champagne) are fizzy, if the carbon dioxide is contained and
not allowed to escape. A similar reaction is what causes bubbles in baked goods, which causes
breads and cakes to rise.

Aim
To investigate the process of fermentation using yeast.

Materials
• 5 test tubes • sugar • measuring cup for 10 mL
• test-tube rack • yeast continued…

…continued
• 200 mL beakers • delivery tube with stopper
• balloon • teaspoon
• limewater • marker pen
Method
1 Collect five test tubes. Place the first four in a rack and label them A, B, C and D (as shown in Figure 2.37).
2 Label test tubes A–D and fill each test tube according to the table below.

A B C D
2 teaspoons sugar 1 small heaped 2 teaspoons sugar 2 teaspoons sugar
10 mL warm water teaspoon yeast 1 small heaped 1 small heaped
10 mL warm water teaspoon yeast teaspoon yeast
10 mL warm water 10 mL warm water

3 Place a balloon over the end of test tube C.

4 Attach a delivery tube to test tube D and place the outlet into some limewater in a fifth test tube as shown in
the diagram.
5 Leave all test tubes for approximately 30 minutes. Observe the results after this time.

A B C D

Figure 2.37 Experimental set-up

Results
Tabulate the results of the experiment by recording your observations, including smell.

Evaluation
1 Why was it important to use warm water and not to use water that is too hot?
2 Suggest some reasons for the different results obtained in test tubes A, B and C, making reference to the
contents of the test tubes.
3 Name two potential sources of error in this experiment.
4 Suggest two improvements you could make to the experimental design.

Conclusion
1 Make a claim from this experiment regarding the fermentation process.
2 Support the statement by using your observations (include potential sources of error).
3 Explain how your observations support your claim.

Viruses
Viruses are tiny pathogens. They cannot of genetic material surrounded by a protein
virus be seen with the light coat. However, when they penetrate a
an extremely small non-
celullar pathogen comprised microscope but can be seen suitable host cell they spring into action,
of infectious particles that
are inactive outside a living
with the electron microscope. and they take over the cell turning it into a
host cell Viruses are made up of a core virus factory (see Figure 2.38 on page 64).

As you have learned, one of the key

requirements for life, is the ability to reproduce.
Since viruses depend upon invading other cells
and using the invading cell to replicate and
survive viruses are not considered to be non-
living. Regardless, viruses are an important part
of all ecosystems, including the human body.
In your body, viruses are known not only to
infect your own cells, but they can also infect
the other pathogens that live inside you.
VIDEO
How do I
become
Disease transmission
Figure 2.38 The replication of a virus via a host cell
infected?
From the Black Plague outbreaks in history
to more recent cases of animal-borne
1 List three common types of fungi. Quick check 2.9 strains of influenza, epidemics of infectious
2 Outline how fungi are able to diseases (diseases caused by pathogens) have
obtain the nutrients they need to survive. afflicted societies throughout history. In the
3 Explain how yeast cells reproduce. modern world, the modes of transmission
4 Describe the structure of viruses and how they reproduce. of infectious diseases are well understood.
5 Scientists argue that viruses are in fact non-living. Figure 2.39 and Table 2.6 outline the main
Discuss why this may be the case. modes of transmission.

Prior to the invention of the

Mode of Description Examples microscope, little was known about
transmission the causes of disease. The conceptions
Direct contact Spread is by skin-to- A student has tinea (fungal of disease and disease-causing
skin contact between infection) and showers on a agents has evolved over time, refined
people or via school camp without wearing by the scientific community and
surfaces they have thongs. Another student uses improvements in technology.
touched. the same shower and develops
the same fungal infection. In ancient times, diseases were believed
Airborne Pathogens can be A person infected with the to be caused by the gods or demons,
spread via droplets common cold (rhinovirus) and practices such as bloodletting and
of saliva produced sneezes on the train, and the trepanning (drilling holes in the skull)
when you cough and person next to them wakes up were used to release the ‘evil spirits’.
sneeze; or spores infected the next day.
spread in the air. Vectors
Vectors Disease-carrying A tourist is bitten by a mosquito
organisms spread in PNG and contracts malaria.
pathogens.
Waterborne
Waterborne Pathogenic A person becomes infected with
organisms live in typhoid after drinking water that
Airborne
water, and can has not been chemically treated
be passed on by in a developing country.
drinking the water.
Blood Spread by HIV can be transmitted through
contaminated blood shared needles from tattooing, Direct
or other body fluids. piercings or medical procedures. contact

Table 2.6 Modes of infectious disease transmission Figure 2.39 Modes of disease
transmission
Cambridge Science ISBN 978-1-108-62918-8 © Ardley et al. 2019 Cambridge University Press
Victorian Curriculum Year 9 Photocopying is restricted under law and this material must not be transferred to another party. Updated September 2023
Section 2.3 RESPONSE TO MICROORGANISMS 65

Hippocrates (460–377 BCE) The Ancient Greeks, led by the work

of Hippocrates, believed that disease
was caused by an imbalance in body
‘humors’ (blood, yellow bile, black
bile and phlegm), which mirrored
their understanding that all matter
was composed of a combination of
fire, earth, air and water. Hippocrates
developed the idea that certain
medical conditions were associated
with seasonal changes when the air
might become contaminated with
Hippocrates poisonous vapours.

Fracastoro (1478–1553) Girolamo Fracastoro, an Italian

poet, physician and mathematician,
observed the epidemics of syphilis,
plague and tuberculosis and
developed the theory that diseases
were spread by invisible particles. He
proposed some were transferred by
touch, while others could be spread
by touching an infected person’s
clothing or breathing the same air as
them. This work laid the foundation
for the modern-day germ theory,
Girolamo Fracastoro later confirmed by the work of Louis
Pasteur and Robert Koch.

Pasteur (1822–1895) Louis Pasteur experimented with

microorganisms and disproved the
theory of ‘spontaneous generation’
that earlier scientists had subscribed
to: the notion that disease could arise
from non-living matter. His work
proved that microorganisms were all
around us.

His name is commemorated in the

term pasteurisation which is the
process used to kill bacteria in milk
and wine to prevent them from
‘going off ’.
Louis Pasteur

Figure 2.40 Timeline of development of germ theory continued…

Koch (1843–1910) Robert Koch developed a set of

rules called ‘Koch’s postulates’,
which lay out four criteria that must
be met before a microbe can be
said to cause a disease. Combined
with Elie Metchnikoff’s discovery
of antibacterial white blood cells,
the modern germ theory of disease
was born.
Metchnikoff (1845–1916)

Robert Koch

Elie Metchnikoff

Figure 2.40 continued...

Microbiology Explore! 2.5

Microbiology is a specialty field that investigates
microscopic organisms. Choose one of the
following famous microbiologists and research
in detail what they studied, the contributions of
their discoveries and the impact they had on the
field of biology and medicine.
Choose from Edward Jenner, Louis Pasteur,
Joseph Lister, Alexander Fleming and
Howard Florey.

Figure 2.41 A microbiologist in the 1920s using test

tubes and microscopes for observation

The lines of defence in the they cannot disrupt normal physiological

immune system functions and cause disease. These barriers
release chemical secretions which restrict the
immune system The body’s immune system is
the system (cells and growth of pathogens on their surfaces and
tissues) that enables the its defence against infectious
body to protect itself against prevent the entry of pathogens into the body;
diseases. The immune system
disease for example, sweat, tears, ear wax, mucus
has three lines of defence
phagocytosis
and stomach acid.
a cellular process where
a white cell wraps around
that fall into two different
and ingests a cell or large categories of response when a Second line of defence
particle to break it down
using enzymes pathogen enters the body (see
The second line of defence against infection
Table 2.7).
is another non-specific response that
responds in the same way against different
First line of defence
types of pathogen. Specialised white blood
The first line of defence aims to prevent
cells called macrophages and neutrophils
infection: it is the first point of the human
are constantly circulating in your blood
body that the pathogen comes into contact
stream, on a search-and-destroy mission.
with. For example, it includes surface
Their role is to change the shape of their
barriers like intact skin (protect external
membrane, surround and then ingest
boundaries) and mucous membranes (protect
dead cells and pathogens: This process
internal boundaries, such as in the gut,
is called phagocytosis. These specialised
mouth and nose). It is very useful, because if
cells can also activate the inflammatory
the pathogens cannot enter the host’s body
response, resulting in the damaged area
becoming swollen, red, hot and painful. A
fever can also occur in the second
line of defence, which increases
the body temperature to activate
heat-shock proteins and suppress
pathogen growth. You have probably
experienced this unpleasant side effect
when you have suffered from a cold
or flu, but it is good to know it serves
a purpose!

Macrophages and neutrophils are

just two of the many different types
of white blood cells that are formed
in the bone marrow. White blood
Figure 2.42 The skin’s surface acts as one of the first lines of defence, cells have a life span ranging from
but only if it is intact. two hours to several years.

Non-specific immunity Specific immunity

First and second line of defence Third line of defence
General defence that responds the same way Targeted defence that produces antibodies to
for every infection combat a specific pathogen
No ‘memory’ of prior infections; same intensity Remembers a pathogen and responds harder
of response every time and faster if it encounters it again
Table 2.7 Immune system lines of defence

There are two types of T cells in your body:

killer T cells and helper T cells.

Killer T cells need to differentiate between

infected or foreign (‘non-self ’) cells and non-
infected ‘self ’ cells. To do this, they identify
Tuberculosis a special molecule called an antigen
bacteria antigen. Each cell has a unique aansubstance that induces
immune response in the
T cell receptor that can only body, can be foreign or a
self-antigen
bind with one kind of antigen,
like a lock that can fit with a specific size
and shape of a key. Healthy cells have ‘self-
Macrophage
antigens’ on the surface of their membranes
Figure 2.43 Macrophage engulfing tuberculosis bacteria
that the T cells can identify as being
beneficial. However, if a cell is infected with
a virus, the cell will contain virus antigens on
Third line of defence its surface that will signal the killer T cell to
The third line of defence includes two identify it as foreign, so it must be destroyed.
main groups of specialised white blood cells
known as lymphocytes – the B cells and The other type of T cell is the helper T cell.
the T cells. These also develop in the These cells act like team leaders and provide
lymphocyte
white blood cell that is bone marrow and their letter indicates specific chemical instructions to other cells.
involved with fighting
disease. Some produce where they mature (B = bone marrow
antibodies
and T = thymus gland). Antigens

There are 25 million to a billion different

T cells in your body. T cells are made
in the bone marrow, but they mature in
the thymus. Interestingly, most T cells
Antigen
are produced during younger years, so
children will have a bigger thymus than Antigen binding site
adults. T cells are a type of white blood
cell involved in the immune response.

Antigens on
bacterium cell wall Antibody

B cell plasma
membrane

Figure 2.45 Like a lock-and-key, antibodies are designed

with specific binding sites that can only attach to certain
antigens that have the right shape and size to the binding
site on the antibody. Above, only the yellow antigen would
be attached to the antibody as it contains the same shape
Figure 2.44 Antibodies bind to the antigens on a pathogenic and size as the antibody’s binding site. The other colours
bacterium. This bacterium does not have long to live! are different shapes.

These chemical instructions help both killer

T cells and B cells to replicate and make a
lot more of themselves so that they can fight

Antibody concentration
an infection and make sure the fight stays
under control.

Antibodies cause pathogens to clump Primary immune Secondary

immune response
together, and they attract the white blood response
cells to come and perform phagocytosis and
kill the pathogen. The lymphocytes also can
memory cell form memory cells, meaning
a type of white blood
cell that is formed after that if the body encounters Time
exposure to a pathogen, and
remembers that pathogen in
that specific pathogen again,
Initial exposure to Second exposure
the future the immune response will antigen; for example, to antigen
be much faster and stronger. Sometimes, via a vaccine
the second and subsequent responses are so Figure 2.46 The second immune response to an
effective, you might not even feel unwell or antigen on the surface of a pathogen is faster and
know you have been infected! larger if it has been exposed before.

HPV Did you know? 2.5

1 Define non-specific and Quick check 2.10 Infection with certain types of the
specific immunity. human papillomavirus (HPV) can lead to changes in the cells
2 Copy and complete the following table, listing of a woman’s cervix and has been shown to be a precursor
what is involved in each line of defence. for developing cervical cancer.
Cervical cancer is the growth of
Non-specific immunity Specific these abnormal cells in the lining
immunity of the cervix and is responsible
First line of Second line of Third line of for the death of one woman every
defence defence defence two minutes, globally. Research
published by the International
Papillomavirus Society, led by
doctors in Melbourne, has shown
the rates of HPV infection in
Figure 2.47 It is hoped
Australia have declined from 24% to
that over the next four
1% in the last decade. Researchers decades, cervical cancer
Immunisation and vaccines attribute this decline to the roll- will be totally eradicated
out of the national immunisation because only 1% of young
Vaccines enable you to produce antibodies women in Australia today
specific to a particular pathogen without program for HPV, which began in
are infected with HPV.
ever having to be actually infected by it! 2007. You probably received this
Vaccination involves the injection of a dead or vaccine at school!

vaccine weakened pathogen (complete

a chemical substance
composed of a dead or
with all its identifying antigen threat (because of the antigens) and produces
weakened version of a
pathogen that is injected or
flags) into your body. This antibodies in response. After the threat has
ingested to make a person immunises you against passed, many of the antibodies will break
immune against that pathogen
the disease caused by that down, but the memory cells remain in the
immunise
the injection of a weakened pathogen. The altered version body if you encounter that pathogen again.
or dead version of a pathogen
to trigger the production of of the pathogen cannot cause Immunisation acts like a first exposure to a
antibodies; provides protection
against that pathogen in the an infection, but the immune pathogen, but without the risk of actually
future
system still recognises it as a getting sick!

may even cause death. Antibiotic resistance

1 Define the term ‘vaccine’. Quick check 2.11
2 In what ways is vaccination
occurs when the sensitive bacteria are killed
similar to, and different from, infection with an actual
when a person takes antibiotics, but some
pathogen? resistant ones may be left to grow and
multiply. The antibiotic is now ineffective
for that colony of bacteria and the resistant
bacteria can be passed on to other people!
What are antibiotics?
Antibiotics are chemical substances Unnecessary Did you know? 2.6
produced by a living organism (usually a antibiotics
mould) that can stop the growth of bacteria. At least 30% of antibiotic courses prescribed are
antibiotic Doctors must know about the unnecessary, meaning that no antibiotic is needed
inhibits the growth of
bacteria inside the body
properties of the antibiotics available at all. For example, people often seek antibiotics

antiseptic
and know which ones to prescribe when they are suffering from the common cold, but
a substance that stops or to treat specific bacterial infections. it is actually a viral infection and antibiotics will
slows down the growth
of microorganisms, used Antibiotics can be effective against be useless.
externally on skin
certain types of bacteria but may have
little effect against other types. Current
Antimicrobial resistance (AMR)
research is focused on the discovery of new
antibiotics and testing to determine on Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) can occur
which bacteria they are most effective. when pathogens such as bacteria, viruses,
parasites and fungi, develop resistance
Antibiotic resistance against medicines that were once previously
Antibiotics have been used in medicine able to destroy them. Pathogens that develop
since the 1930s as the traditional method of antimicrobial resistance are sometimes
fighting bacterial infections in the human referred to as ‘superbugs’.
body. However, scientists are becoming
increasingly concerned about drug-resistant
Antibiotics versus antiseptics
bacteria, because infections often last longer, While antibiotics can kill and stop the
cause more severe illnesses, require more growth of bacteria, antiseptics can prevent
doctor visits or longer hospital stays, and the growth and development of other
pathogens, without necessarily killing them.

Figure 2.48 An agar plate that has been covered in bacteria.

Each of the dots shows where an antibiotic disc was
placed. The size of the surrounding clear section shows the Figure 2.49 Antiseptic gels and hand sanitisers act to kill
effectiveness of the antibiotic at killing that type of bacteria. pathogens.

They tend to work on a large variety of Many of the antiseptics used in the septic
describes a wound infected
microbes and are most often used externally; past killed the bacteria in wounds with bacteria
for example, antiseptic hand washes. but also damaged or killed the tissue
When harmful pathogens grow in living around the wound. Modern antiseptics
animal tissue, the tissue is said to be septic. seldom injure the tissues.

Practical 2.8

Effectiveness of antiseptics against soil bacteria

Be careful
Aim • Ensure gloves are worn
To determine the effectiveness of different antiseptics against soil bacteria. when handling nutrient
Materials agar plates.
• soil sample • Do not sneeze or
• 5 test tubes expose the agar to any
• 200 mL beaker pathogenic organisms.
• test-tube rack • Hands are to be washed
• 4 different antiseptics: methylated spirits, iodine, QAC, Dettol, and a with soap immediately
control; distilled water after handling nutrient
(Note: QAC stands for quaternary ammonium compounds, a class of agar plates.
chemicals or disinfectants used alone or added to cleaning products.) • All working surfaces are
• nutrient agar plate to be wiped down with
• marker pens disinfectant after all
• disposable gloves nutrient agar plates are
• disinfectant collected.
• handwash (soap)

Method
1 Construct a hypothesis for this experiment. In which test tubes do you anticipate that you will observe a
growth of microbes?
2 Add a heaped teaspoon of soil to a beaker filled with 100 mL of water.
3 Put about 5 drops of this soil/water mixture into each of 5 test tubes. Label them A–E.
4 Add to each of the test tubes about 5 drops of a different antiseptic:
Test tube A: Methylated spirits
B: Iodine (handle with care)
C: QAC
D: Dettol
E: Distilled water (as a control)
5 Label five areas A–E on the bottom of an agar plate as in the diagram.
(Hint: If you write the letters backwards, they will appear the correct
way when later viewed from above.)
6 Using a cotton bud, smear a tiny amount of the contents of test tube
A onto the agar in the area you have marked ‘A’. Keep the agar plate
covered as much as possible while you do this to prevent microbes in
Methylated spirits
the air settling on the agar.
7 Using a fresh cotton bud each time, repeat with the contents of the
other test tubes.
8 Seal the lid with sticky tape.
continued…

…continued
9 Wipe down all work surfaces with disinfectant after all nutrient agar plates have been collected.
10 The plates will be stored upside down (with the agar at the top) in an incubator for 1–2 days.
11 After incubation, examine the agar plates. Take photos and discuss the types of microbes that are growing on
your plates. Complete table below.

Results

Antiseptic Photo Description of microbes

Methylated spirits

Iodine

QAC

Dettol

Distilled water (control)

Evaluation
1 How does the pattern of microbial growth reveal the effectiveness of the antiseptic? What effect has the
antiseptic had?
2 Do all the antiseptics tested have some effectiveness? How do you know?
3 Identify two potential sources of error in this experiment.
4 Suggest two ways the experimental design could be improved.

Conclusion
1 Make a claim from this experiment regarding the effectiveness of different antiseptics.
2 Support the statement by using your observations (include potential sources of error).
3 Explain how your observations support your claim.

1 What is the difference between an antibiotic and an antiseptic? Quick check 2.12
2 A patient in a hospital ward is isolated due to infection with a
‘superbug’. What is a superbug? Why is the patient isolated?

Section 2.3 questions

Remembering QUIZ
1 What is a pathogen? Provide two examples.
2 Are bacteria classified as a prokaryote or eukaryote? Why?
3 A lymphocyte is a special type of white blood cell. What are the two different types of
lymphocytes called?

Understanding
4 Describe one difference between a bacterial cell and eukaryotic cell (for example, plant or
animal cell).
5 Outline how immunisations can help fight disease.
6 Explain why a virus is considered to be non-living.
7 Compare and contrast the role of antibiotics and antiseptics.
8 Outline the difference between non-specific immunity and specific immunity.

Applying
9 Identify reasons why viruses cannot be treated with antibiotics.
10 The body’s immune system may sometimes start to recognise ‘self’ antigens as foreign and
‘non-self’. Propose what might happen in this case.

Analysing
11 ‘Superbugs’ are strains of bacteria that have adapted and become resistant after coming
into contact with an antibiotic. Describe why superbugs are a huge problem in society.
12 Briefly describe how vaccines work.

Evaluating
13 Create a Venn diagram that contrasts the first, second and third lines of defence.
14 Herd immunity describes a population's resistance to a particular disease if a high
proportion of individuals within the population are immune to the disease, usually through
vaccination. Based on this information and what you have learned about how vaccination
works, formulate and evaluate positive and negative viewpoints towards compulsory
vaccination of children.

Review questions

Remembering
1 Recall what a disease-causing agent is called.
SCORCHER
2 Name three diseases caused by viruses.
3 List the five categories of essential nutrients required for life.
4 Define the term ‘homeostasis’.

Understanding
5 Compare and contrast bacteria and viruses.
6 Explain how yeast, a fungus that causes the condition known as thrush, reproduces.

Questions 7 and 8 refer to the following information.

Antimicrobial substances A, B and C were tested for their effectiveness against a strain of
bacteria growing on agar. Interpret the results shown below by answering the following questions.

Bacterial
growth
B

A C

7 Of the antimicrobial substances tested, which was the most effective? Explain your reasoning.
8 Of the antimicrobial substances tested, which was the least effective? Explain your reasoning.
9 Summarise how the digestive, circulatory and respiratory systems interact with each other.
10 Explain why a highly active person who eats a low-kilojoule diet might lose weight.

Applying
11 Describe how vaccination can prevent individuals from being infected by a disease.
12 The image below shows MRSA bacteria that have developed resistance towards antibiotics.
When they reproduce, the resistance is passed on to the resulting organisms.

a Bacteria come in a variety of shapes, each with a specific name. Suggest the scientific
name for this type of bacteria.
b What name is given to the process of bacterial reproduction?
c The MRSA bacteria can survive on a healthy person's skin or lungs without causing any
symptoms or ill effects, while in an immune-compromised person it can be life-threatening.
Suggest two ways it can spread from one individual to the next, along with possible ways
spread can be prevented.

Analysing
13 Categorise the following organs as receptors or effectors.
a Hypothalamus
b Baroreceptors
c Liver
d Kidney tubules
e Pancreas
f Skeletal muscles
14 Complete this flow chart to compare the ways in which the body responds to each of the
following scenarios.
a High blood pressure versus low blood pressure

EFFECTOR
RECEPTOR RESPONSE
Heart rate decreases
Pressure receptors
and blood vessels
in the heart detect
dilate (relax)
increases in the
volume and pressure
of blood returned
to the heart.
Normal range of
Normal range of
blood pressure
blood pressure

RECEPTOR
Pressure receptors in
RESPONSE EFFECTOR
the atria of the heart
Heart rate increases
detect decreases
and blood vessels
in the volume and
constrict
pressure of blood
returned to the heart.

b High blood glucose levels versus low blood glucose levels

EFFECTOR
RECEPTOR RESPONSE
Glucose removed
Pancreas secretes
from blood and
more insulin
stored in muscle cells

Normal blood Normal range of

glucose levels blood pressure

EFFECTOR
RESPONSE Glucose is taken out RECEPTOR
of storage and Pancreas secretes
released back into more glucagon
the bloodstream STIMULUS

c High levels of water in the blood versus low levels of water (dehydration)

RESPONSE
Kidneys reabsorb
Less ADH released RECEPTOR
less water into Normal water
from brain into Detected by brain
Normal water bloodstream and balance
bloodstream (hypothalamus)
balance large volume of
urine produced

More ADH released RESPONSE

RECEPTOR Kidneys reabsorb Normal water
Detected by brain from brain into
more water into balance
(hypothalamus) bloodstream
bloodstream and
small volume of
concentrated urine
Normal water produced
balance

Evaluating
15 A professional hockey player has an important match tomorrow.
a What nutrient is the body’s preferred source of fuel? Suggest a meal that would be suitable
for his dinner the night before the game.
b What nutrients might this player draw upon if this preferred source is depleted?

c Glucose is burned to provide useable energy. What is the name and worded equation for
this reaction?
d The player loses several litres of water during the game. Detail two homeostatic responses
his body would use to retain water and maintain his blood pressure.
e Upon checking his heart rate monitor, the player sees his heart rate peaked at 185 bpm during
the game. Explain why this occurred with reference to the body’s energy requirements.
16 People with type 1 diabetes inject insulin to control their blood glucose level. A pancreas
transplant is another treatment for type 1 diabetes. One risk of a pancreas transplant is organ
rejection, because the body recognises the transplanted organ as ‘non-self’.
a What structure (on the transplanted organ) has the body detected as ‘non-self’?

Scientists have developed an artificial pancreas to treat type 1 diabetes, however it is still at
early stages of commercial use. The flow chart below shows how an artificial pancreas works.

2 Data is sent to the receiver wirelessly. Information can be

sent to a smartphone or a PC, called control devices, for
calculation of the dose of insulin required.

1 A monitoring sensor is inserted 3 The control device communicates

under the person’s skin for with the pump to deliver the right
continuous monitoring. amount of insulin under the skin.

A woman with type 1 diabetes has an artificial pancreas. The woman eats a meal that causes
her blood glucose level to rise sharply.
b Suggest the main nutrient present in the meal she has consumed. Outline the steps of what
happens to return the blood glucose levels to normal.
c Assess some problems that might occur in using the artificial pancreas system above and
decide whether it is a viable solution for individuals with type 1 diabetes.

STEM activity: Simulating the transmission

of disease

Background information
VCSSU117 VCMNA311 VCSIS137
You may have heard of Zika if you have been
travelling overseas. It is a virus that is closely
related to Dengue fever and is spread through
understand the nature of particular problems,
the bite of an infected Aedes species of mosquito.
and generate effective solutions. For example,
Generally, infection by the Zika virus does not
biomolecular engineers use computers to model
produce severe symptoms. However, it may affect
how particular molecules can contribute to disease;
fetuses in pregnant women, increasing the chances
while biomedical engineers simulate outcomes
of abnormalities and other syndromes.
like the transmission of diseases, and software
The Zika virus first spread outside of Africa
engineers use graphs to represent connections
and Asia in 2007 to Yap Island, Federated States
and data organisation. Engineers therefore, have
of Micronesia. There were also outbreaks in the
a significant role in modelling and predicting the
Pacific Islands between 2013 and 2015 before it
spread of infectious disease.
spread to countries in South and Central America
and the Caribbean. Cases have also been reported
in Thailand and Indonesia. While the Aedes Design brief: Evaluate the effectiveness of
aegypti mosquito can be found in some parts of disease transmission simulation.
Queensland, and Aedes albopictus can be found
in the Torres Strait Islands, all cases of the Zika
Activity instructions
virus diagnosed in Australia were caught overseas.
Therefore in most parts of Australia, there is no risk As a class, you are going to simulate the exchange
of Zika transmission via mosquitoes. of body fluids and, consequently, demonstrate
Consequently, the way an infectious disease the spread of an imaginary ‘Zika-like’ infectious
spreads through a population has caused scientists disease in a community. You will then determine
and public health officials a lot of concern, as the the origin of the infection and, taking on the role
mechanism of spread and its containment are not of biomedical engineers, you will analyse the data
always well understood. When an outbreak of a and predict future infection levels. Your final
serious disease occurs, scientists must track down task will be to evaluate the role of simulations
the disease and determine its origin before they can in modelling the transmission of disease and
manage the spread and prevent further infection. suggest improvements to this activity (teachers,
In science and engineering, simulations see the teacher guide for this activity in the Online
of real systems are used to test hypotheses, Teaching Suite for a sample method).

Figure 2.50 The spread of infectious diseases around the world can be fast and needs identification, analysis and
containment, and then prevention as soon as possible.

Suggested materials You may like to begin by removing those

uninfected from your list, but what will you
• 0.1 M NaOH
do next?
• phenolphthalein solution in a dropper bottle
3 Making future predictions. One of the purposes
• distilled water
of simulations is to allow for trends to be
• droppers
established. Work out your predictions for the
• plastic cups or test tubes
number of infected on ‘Day 4’ and ‘Day 5’, and
then graph (using Excel or Desmos) the total
Be careful infected number versus time (days).
Do not spill the contents of the cups. Use water 4 Evaluating the model. When creating models,
to wash if you come into contact with the liquid. engineers must assume certain things. For
Do not drink the contents. example, this activity assumes that each person
who exchanges fluid with an infected person
gets infected. Another assumption was that
Evaluate and modify
there was no incubation time. Most infectious
1 Understanding models. This activity represents agents will need time to multiply before they can
one kind of model used by engineers – a be transmitted to another person.
simulation of how an infectious agent spreads 5 Writing a short report evaluating the model you
through a community. List some other examples used. How could you change the simulation to
of models used in science. Why do people use make it more realistic? Consider the following
models? Simulations like today’s activity are questions before you write your answer: How
also models. This simulation of the exchange of would the results differ if everyone could
bodily fluids, demonstrates how an infectious choose how many exchanges to have? How
disease can spread quickly from person to would the results differ if you have only a 20%
person without his or her knowledge. If sodium or 50% chance of contracting the disease after
hydroxide (NaOH) represents the infectious being exposed? How would the results differ if
agent, what do the other parts of the simulation infected people were sometimes quarantined?
represent? How would the results differ if a vaccine
2 Tracing the source of infection. Take on the becomes available that prevents infection? How
role of epidemiologists and, as a class, try to would the results differ if the infected person
determine the source of the infection in your dies very quickly or very slowly after contracting
community – who was the original carrier? the disease?

Chapter 3 Response and

coordination

Chapter introduction
The brain is the master organ that controls the actions of nerves within the nervous system and is
also involved in the regulation of hormones within the endocrine system. Any thought, feeling or
behaviour that you undertake on a daily basis is ultimately controlled by the brain. The brain continually
reorganises itself by making new neural connections throughout life and this marvellous concept, known
as neuroplasticity, is explored later in this chapter. You will begin by looking at how the brain provides
a critical link between the nervous and endocrine systems, and then look in depth at the structure and
function of the human nervous system.

Curriculum

An animal’s response to a stimulus is coordinated by its central nervous system (brain and spinal
cord); neurons transmit electrical impulses and are connected by synapses (VCSSU118)
• identifying functions for different areas of the brain 3.4
• modelling the ‘knee jerk’ reaction and explaining why it is a reflex action 3.3
• identifying responses involving the nervous and endocrine systems 3.1, 3.2, 3.3
• researching the causes and effects of spinal cord damage 3.3

Victorian Curriculum F–10 © VCAA (2016)

Glossary terms
action potential homunculus plasticity
cerebral cortex hormone reflex action
contralateral organisation interneuron sensory neuron
corpus callosum motor neuron synapse
endocrine system nervous system target cell
hemispheric specialisation neuron
homeostasis neurotransmitter

Concept map

3.1
Body systems are
3.2
regulated and
coordinated 3.3

3.4
By the

Endocrine Nervous
system system

Involves Involves

Hormones Neurons

Bloodstream Action potentials

Signals processed by

Brain Spinal cord

Cortex (outer layer): Within the brain: Involved in involuntary reflex

Cerebral cortex Hypothalamus actions, for example,
knee-jerk reflex
Left and right hemispheres Hippocampus
Lobes Amygdala
Cerebellum
Brain stem
Pons
Medulla

Damage in different regions causes different symptoms

3.1 Keeping in control

The brain controls all bodily functions by

communicating with different parts of the
body every second of every day. It does this
in two ways: by sending electrical signals and
neurotransmitters via the nervous system and
by communicating using chemical messengers
(hormones) via the endocrine system.

The nervous system

The basic building blocks of the nervous
system are our neurons. A neuron is
neuron
essentially an individual nerve
a specialised nerve cell cell. It is the network of these
nervous system neurons that allow signals
consists of the brain,
Figure 3.1 The neuron is the basic building block of
spinal cord and peripheral to move between the brain
nerves and receptors that the human nervous system.
communicate fast messages and body. These organised
within the body
networks, composed of up to (PNS), which is all of the neurons and
WORKSHEET
one trillion neurons, make up what is known nerve networks throughout the body that lie
as the nervous system. outside of the CNS. The PNS has multiple
roles including controlling voluntary muscle
The human nervous system is composed of movements and the self-regulating bodily
VIDEO
two main parts: the central nervous system functions that you have no conscious control What do
(CNS), which includes the brain and spinal over. Figure 3.2 shows the key components hormones do?

cord, and the peripheral nervous system of the human nervous system.

Brain
Central
nervous system
VIDEO
(CNS) Spinal cord
Parts of the
nervous
Nervous system.
system Somatic
Control of voluntary
muscle movements
Sympathetic
Contains sensory neurons
Fight–flight response
and motor neurons
Peripheral Activates bodily
nervous system functions responsible
Autonomic for the fight–flight
Self-regulatory control response
over internal muscles,
organs and glands

Parasympathetic
Maintains homeostasis
Conserves energy

Figure 3.2 The components of the human nervous system

hypothalamus. The hypothalamus links the

1 What is another name for an Quick check 3.1
individual nerve cell?
nervous system and endocrine systems. It
2 Which components make up the CNS (central nervous
is responsible for regulating an astonishing
system)? And the PNS (peripheral nervous system)? number of behaviours, such as sleep,
3 What role does the somatic nervous system play? Give hunger, thirst, managing sexual behaviour,
an example that illustrates the somatic nervous system and emotional and stress responses. The
in action. hypothalamus also controls the pituitary
gland for the release of several different
hormones.

The endocrine system Other important glands found throughout

The nervous system does not work in the body include the thyroid, thymus,
VIDEO isolation, but works with the body’s sense adrenal glands, pancreas, ovaries and testes.
Identify
organs and the endocrine system. The These glands are involved in regulating our
parts of the
endocrine endocrine system utilises glands located metabolism, fight-or-flight responses and
system.
throughout the body, which secrete reproductive processes.
hormones that regulate a variety of bodily
endocrine system
processes such as metabolism,
the system of glands that digestion, blood pressure and growth.
controls hormones in the
body While the endocrine system is not
hormone directly linked to the nervous system,
a chemical messenger that
is secreted by endocrine the two interact in many ways. Some
glands and circulated in
the bloodstream to act on a of the most important endocrine
target cell
glands are found within the brain
target cell
a cell affected by a specific and include the pineal gland, the
hormone
hypothalamus and the pituitary gland.

Figure 3.4 Female and male endocrine glands

throughout the body

Hormones
Hormones are chemical messengers sent
by the endocrine system to communicate
with other parts of the body. They are
made by endocrine glands which secrete the
hormones directly into the bloodstream. The
Figure 3.3 A cross-sectional view of the brain blood carries the hormones around the body
showing the location of the pineal gland, pituitary
so in this way, hormones are transported and
gland and the hypothalamus
can effect change in a totally different part of
Located at the base of the forebrain is a the body to where they were made. The cells
tiny collection of neurons known as the they affect are called target cells.

Organisms are coordinated by many hormones and just small amounts of these chemicals can
have major effects. Table 3.1 shows where hormones are produced in the human body.

Organ Hormone Action of hormone

Pancreas Insulin Decreases blood glucose levels by increasing the uptake of glucose by the
liver and muscle cells
Glucagon Increases blood glucose levels by stimulating the liver to release glucose into
the bloodstream
Adrenal gland Adrenaline Secreted at moments of fear, stress or excitement, and has the effect of
increasing the heart rate, constricting blood vessels close to skin, dilating
blood vessels to some muscles, raising blood pressure and causing a rise
in blood sugar. All these factors make the person ready for physical action
during the fight–flight–freeze process
Kidneys Erythropoietin Promotes the production of red blood cells by the bone marrow
Pituitary gland Growth hormone GH Stimulates cell division, growth and repair of the body
(GH) and others
Pineal gland Melatonin Responsible for regulating sleep patterns as it induces sleep. Melatonin is
secreted in dark conditions and ceases to be released under light
Hypothalamus Various Sometimes referred to as the ‘master switchboard’, the hypothalamus is part
hormones of the brain and is the main control for the endocrine system, operating via
the pituitary gland (the ‘master gland’) as well as via nerves to other glands
Testes Testosterone Promotes growth of bone, the development of muscle, growth of facial hair
and deepening of the voice in males during puberty
Ovaries Oestrogen Promotes development of breasts and hair and changes the shape of the
hip bones in females during puberty
Thyroid Various thyroid Controls the body’s rate of energy production and metabolism, and controls
hormones, how sensitive the body is to other hormones
including
thyroxine
Parathyroid Parathyroid Controls the amount of calcium in the blood and bones
gland hormone
Thymus Thymosin Stimulates the development of T cells that play an important role in the
maintenance of a healthy immune system
Table 3.1 Endocrine glands, their hormones and actions

Endocrine disrupting chemicals in plastics Explore! 3.1

How can the rising rates of cancer and metabolic conditions such as diabetes be explained?
What about declining fertility rates? Well one hypothesis is that exposure to endocrine-disrupting chemicals are
affecting our bodily functions. The scientific research behind this hypothesis has come from mainly rat and mice
studies, but some scientists believe it holds true for humans too. Endocrine-disrupting chemicals are commonly
found in plastics and many other everyday household products, but what are the safe levels of exposure?
Research the following questions.
1 Where might you find endocrine-disrupting chemicals in your house?
2 What everyday products might you find BPA (bisphenol A) in?
3 Discuss the stages of your life during which exposure to endocrine disrupting hormones might be
more harmful.
4 List some ways you could limit your exposure to endocrine disrupting hormones.

Melatonin and sleep Did you know? 3.1

An adolescent typically requires 9.25 hours of sleep per
night. However, an adolescent’s body clock is shifted forward
1–2 hours each day, which may cause a delay in feeling ‘sleepy’.
Due to melatonin not being released in adolescents until 1–2
hours later on average than a child or an adult, they may not
feel sleepy until 1–2 hours later at night. This can be further
exacerbated by social media and work, school or sporting
commitments. As a result, adolescents have irregular sleep
patterns, an accumulation of sleep debt and have difficulty
waking up in the morning.
The pineal gland is highlighted and secretes the
hormone melatonin, which controls the body’s
biological clock.

Step 1. Each morning, record the amount of sleep you have for a 7-day period. Try this 3.1
Step 2. The recommended number of hours of sleep for an adolescent is 9.25 × 7 days = 64.75
hours. Express the amount of sleep you got as a percentage by following this formula:
your hours
Percentage of required sleep 100
64.75
If the percentage is greater than 100, you are getting a sufficient amount of sleep. If it is below, you are
suffering from sleep debt. The lower the percentage, the greater the sleep debt. For example, if you get
56
8 hours of sleep each night for 7 days, then 8 × 7 = 56 so, 100 86.48%. This means you are only
64.75
getting 86.48% of required sleep for a week and are suffering a 13.52% sleep debt.
Step 3. Collect the results of the whole class and find the average sleep debt of one of your classmates.

Homeostasis is maintained through the

1 Which part of the brain is Quick check 3.2
located at the base of the
endocrine and nervous systems working
forebrain and controls many bodily functions such as
together. It involves the use of chemical
sleep, hunger and thirst? messengers to signal to cells, however the
2 Describe how hormones are transported around the body. speed of message transmission and the
3 Which hormone is responsible for regulating sleep length of the effects differ between the
patterns and induces sleep? two systems.
4 Define target cells.
5 Discuss the effects of oestrogen and testosterone. The key differences between the actions
of the endocrine and nervous systems are
shown in Table 3.2.
Two systems working together
As discussed in Chapter 2, the endocrine
homeostasis While the body does adapt to external and nervous systems work in a coordinated
the maintenance of a
relatively stable internal events, it also maintains a relatively way with all the other body systems
body environment, despite
changes in the external constant internal environment to maintain a relatively stable internal
environment
through a process called homeostasis. environment and protect the body from harm.

Feature Nervous system Endocrine system

Signals Electrochemical messengers Chemical messengers (hormones)
(via electrical impulses and
neurotransmitters)
Pathway Transmission by neurons Transported in bloodstream
Speed of information Fast Slow
Duration of effect Short lived Typically, longer lasting
Type of action and response Voluntary or involuntary Involuntary
Target cells Localised cells Often distant (many cells may be
affected)
Example of action Your friend throws a ball at you. When a male reaches puberty, the
Your sensory receptors detect the pituitary gland secretes a hormone
visual stimulus and the message is called luteinising hormone. This
transmitted via nerves to your brain. acts on the testes and stimulates
Further messages are then sent them to release testosterone. As
down the spinal cord and via motor the amount of testosterone builds
neurones and your skeletal muscle up in his system, it triggers sperm
is stimulated to contact. As a result, production, muscle development,
you reach out and catch the ball. hair growth and changes to his voice.
Table 3.2 A comparison of the nervous and endocrine systems

Section 3.1 questions

Remembering QUIZ
1 What is the basic building block of the human nervous system called?
2 Name two endocrine glands found within the brain.

Understanding
3 Outline how hormones reach their target cells.
4 Explain the difference in speed of the transmission within the nervous and endocrine systems.

Applying
5 Construct a Venn diagram that shows the similarities and differences between the nervous
and endocrine system.

Analysing
6 Compare the somatic and autonomic divisions of the nervous system. How are they similar
and how are they different?
7 Classify the following events as being under somatic or autonomic control:
a Sweating c Pulling your hand away from a flame
b Walking d Contractions of intestine to move food along.

Evaluating
8 The contraceptive pill contains a chemical which acts like the hormone oestrogen, and it must
be taken daily by women. It attempts to stop sperm reaching an egg in several ways, including:
• suppressing ovulation so an egg is not released from the ovaries
• making the cervical mucus thicker and hence more difficult for sperm to reach an egg
• decreasing the thickness of the lining of the womb so it is not thick enough to allow an
egg to attach to it.
Deduce some reasons why the pill is not guaranteed to work 100% of the time.

3.2 Neurons and the

nervous system

Types of neurons 2 Interneurons transmit sensory neuron

a nerve cell that transmits
neural information within messages from the sensory
The brain and nervous system are made of
WORKSHEET the spinal cord and brain. receptors to the central
approximately 100 billion specialised nerve nervous system
Interneurons connect interneuron
cells, known as neurons. Neurons transmit
the sensory and motor a nerve cell that transmits
neural information to, from and within the information within the brain
neurons and can only be and spinal cord (central
central nervous system. There are three types nervous system)
found in the CNS.
of neurons: motor neuron
3 Motor neurons transmit a nerve cell that transmits
1 Sensory neurons transmit neural neural information from
messages from the central
nervous system to the
information from sensory receptor sites the CNS to the PNS.
effectors

in the PNS to the CNS. The sensory This information is designed to initiate
information being transmitted could be a response in the effector which could be
from any of your five senses. muscles, organs or glands.

Figure 3.5 The different sensory neuron receptors associated with your five senses. Their shape is closely associated with their
specialised functions.

To help remember the three types of neurons, think of a SIM (Sensory, Inter, Motor) card
that is stored in mobile phones in order for it to work.
Figure 3.6 The three types
Interneuron
of neuron (sensory, inter
Axon and motor) form an arc.
Axon terminals Note how the sensory
neuron has receptors to
detect a stimulus and the
Cell body
motor neuron causes your
Nucleus response.
Dendrites

Sensory Myelin Motor

Myelin
neuron neuron

Axon
Myelinated
Axon
axon

Axon
terminals

Touch Response

Structures of a neuron
The key structures of the neuron include the dendrites, cell body, axon, myelin sheath, axon
terminal and the synapse. Although the synapse is not a true structure, it is the small gap that
exists between neurons, where the neurotransmitters pass the information from one neuron to
the next or to an effector.

Structure of neuron Function

Dendrite Contains receptor sites that receive neurotransmitters from
neighbouring neurons
Cell body Contains most of the cell’s organelles including the nucleus
Nucleus The control centre of the cell and contains its genetic material
Axon Transfers electrical impulses from the cell body to the synapse. It is
the axons of neurons that are called nerves when they are all grouped
together in a bundle
Axon terminal Found at the end of the axon and contains neurotransmitters that are
held in vesicles. Neurotransmitters that are released once an electrical
impulse is received
Myelin sheath An insulating layer that covers the axon. It helps keep the electrical
signals inside the cell, allowing faster transmission
Synapse Electrical messages are passed along the neuron, but neurons do synapse
not touch each other. There is a small gap between the neurons the gap between two neurons

called a synapse. When an electrical impulse is received, the neurotransmitter

the chemical messenger
signal diffuses/travels across this gap but as chemical signals that is released from one
neuron and travels across
called neurotransmitters. The neurotransmitters then bind to the the synapse to bind to the
next neuron
receptors on the dendrites of the neighbouring neurons.
Table 3.3 Structure of the neuron
Cambridge Science ISBN 978-1-108-62918-8 © Ardley et al. 2019 Cambridge University Press
Victorian Curriculum Year 9 Photocopying is restricted under law and this material must not be transferred to another party. Updated September 2023
90 Chapter 3 RESPONSE AND COORDINATION

Making model neurons Try this 3.2

Dendrite
Create a poster showing models of
Nucleus two neurons, their structure and function. Make sure
your poster has the following features: a title, a model
Cell body of two adjacent neurons, labels for every structure on
Axon one of the neurons (along with a dot point explaining
their function) and a label for the synapse.
You will need a piece of A3 paper and your
teacher will provide you with a selection of materials
to make the model neurons. Some suggestions
include: pipe cleaners, aluminium foil, pom-poms,
straws, modelling clay/plasticine or similar.
Myelin
sheath Suggested method:
1 Take a pom-pom, and then cut one of your pipe
cleaners into three pieces. These will be the
dendrites and the pom-pom will be the soma (the
cell body of a neuron). Wrap the pipe cleaners
Direction
of impulse around the pom-pom.
2 Now you will make the axon. For this, wrap
another pipe cleaner around the soma just at the
end of it, so you have a long piece coming down.
3 Around the axon there is a fatty substance called
the myelin sheath. To represent this, you are
Axon terminal going to use a straw. Cut pieces of straw about
Synapse 2.5 cm long each and thread them onto your axon
with gaps between the lengths of straw. You
Figure 3.7 The key structures of a neuron showing the neural impulse should have a bit of string left at the end.
travelling in one direction only along the neuron, from the dendrites to 4 Put the end of the pipe cleaner near the bottom
the axon terminal.
of the last myelin and twist to make a hoop and
cut so it splits – or add more small pipe cleaner
pieces. You are beginning to make your axon
1 Name the three different types Quick check 3.3 terminals.
of neurons. 5 Repeat steps 1–4 for the next neuron.
2 Where are interneurons found in the body? 6 Label the parts of the neuron with a dot point
3 Interneurons are sometimes called connector neurons. explaining the function of each structure
Explain why you think that is an appropriate name. (including the synapse).
4 What is the function of the myelin sheath that covers 7 Stick the neuron onto the sheet of paper, and
the axon? hang up your posters in the classroom so that the
5 A fly lands on someone’s face and they brush it off. List axon terminals of one person’s poster connect to
the three types of neurons in the order they would be the dendrites on the next poster. You should have
activated when the stimulus is detected. a chain of neurons forming a nerve!

Communication within and

messengers (neurotransmitters) arrive from
between neurons
other neurons, and the threshold is reached,
Communication within: action an action potential can begin and will move
potential along the axon, like a wave. If the threshold
An action potential is another name for is not reached, no action potential can start.
the electrical impulse or neural impulse that This is known as the ‘all or none’ principle.
moves along a neuron. It travels only the Once an action potential has been triggered,
length of the neuron and once the action it is self-sustaining, meaning that it will
potential reaches the axon terminal, it relies continue to the end of the axon without
action potential on a chemical messenger to further stimulation.
the electrical impulse
(message) that is pass the action potential on to
transmitted along a neuron
the next neuron. The speed of an action potential moving
along an axon can vary between neurons.
When a neuron is not sending a neural The fastest travel over 100 m/s, with the
impulse along its axon, it is considered to slowest traveling at about 1 m/s. The speed
be ‘at rest’. Each neuron requires a minimal depends upon two factors: the larger the
level of stimulation – called the neuron’s diameter (width) of the axon, the faster the
threshold – to be activated and an action impulse and if the axon has a myelin sheath
potential to begin. When enough chemical it travels faster than unmyelinated axons.

Multiple sclerosis Explore! 3.2

Multiple sclerosis is
a degenerative neurological condition,
characterised by the development of
scleroses (Greek for ‘scars’) forming on
neurons of the central nervous system.
These scars result in damage to the
myelin sheaths, which insulate the
neurons, meaning they do not transmit
messages effectively. This can lead to a
variety of symptoms such as problems
with motor (muscle) control, visual
problems if the damage occurs in the
optic nerves, problems with coordination
and balance, and memory loss. Research
multiple sclerosis and answer the
following questions.
1 Which of the following neurons can
be affected: interneurons in the
brain, motor neurons, interneurons
in spinal cord, sensory neurons?
2 Outline treatments that exist for
Figure 3.8 Multiple sclerosis affects many areas of the body.
multiple sclerosis.

Communication between neurons: is known as the pre-synaptic neuron. These

the synapse specialised chemical messengers then move
When neurons communicate with each other, across the gap between neurons (called the
the action potential travelling down the axon synaptic gap). Scientists have managed to
causes neurotransmitters to be released from identify over 100 different neurotransmitters in
the vesicles (tiny sacs of neurohormone) within the human brain alone, but evidence suggests
the axon terminal. This side of the synapse there are significantly more than this number.

Neurotransmitter Role What can go wrong?

Dopamine Acts within the brain on A lack of dopamine-producing cells
pathways associated with motor in the brain can cause Parkinson’s
functions (movement) and disease, a neurological condition
emotional arousal and motivation characterised by tremors, stiffness and
uncoordinated movements.
Acetylcholine Transmits the message from the Curare is a plant-based toxin that was
axon terminals of a motor neuron used by South American Indigenous
to a skeletal muscle people to paint onto the arrows of
blow-darts. When shot at a victim, this
toxin prevented acetylcholine from
binding to the post-synaptic neuron,
causing paralysis.
Serotonin Produced in the intestine Some scientists theorise that low levels
and central nervous system; of serotonin are linked to depression.
it regulates appetite, mood,
memory and behaviour
Glutamate Major excitatory neurotransmitter High glutamate levels are involved
in the CNS; involved with with depression, anxiety and DHD-
memory and learning like symptoms such as the inability to
concentrate. Low levels of glutamate
are linked to insomnia, lack of
concentration and low energy levels.

Table 3.4 Some common neurotransmitters and their roles

Once the neurotransmitters cross the

synaptic gap, they bind to special receptor Pre-synaptic Post-synaptic
sites on the dendrite of the next neuron – neuron neuron
also called the post-synaptic neuron. The
receptor sites convert the information into
electrical signals, which are then transmitted
to the cell body of the post-synaptic neuron
and along the axon. This process continues,
until the last neuron in the pathway connects
to a muscle or gland, causing a response. This Pre-synaptic neuron
process is shown in Figures 3.9 and 3.10.

Figure 3.9 Communication between neurons

involves the action potential triggering the release
of neurotransmitters from their vesicles in the Post-synaptic
pre-synaptic neuron, moving across the gap and neuron
binding to receptors on the post-synaptic neuron.

a b

Figure 3.10 (a) A vesicle in the axon terminal storing neurotransmitters and the neurotransmitters (yellow) crossing
the synapse to be received by the receptor sites (red) on the neighbouring neuron’s dendrite. (b) Neurotransmitters
(yellow) being released across the synapse and being received by the receptor sites (red) of the dendrite if they
share the same distinct size and shape as each other.

The longest Did you know? 3.2 Calculate the time it Try this 3.3
neuron would take for an action
The sciatic nerve contains the longest potential to travel from your brain to your
neuron in the human body. It extends from toes using the fastest and slowest speeds
the spine to the tip of the toe and can be up to obtain a range. Use a calculator and
to 1 m in length. rounded approximate values to make the
calculation easier.

1 Is an action potential a signal between two neurons or along a neuron? Quick check 3.4
2 What does the ‘all or none’ principle mean?
3 What is a neurotransmitter?
4 What is the role of the post-synaptic neuron?
5 List three common neurotransmitters and describe their function.
6 Rewrite these stages of the flow chart in the correct order, showing how an action potential passes from one
neuron to another.

Neurotransmitters
Action potential Action potential
Neurotransmitters bind to receptor
stimulates initiated once Action potential
released into sites on post-
vesicles to release threshold is travels along axon
synaptic gap synaptic neuron’s
neurotransmitters reached
dendrites

You know that the human body produces they can do this is by only binding to specific
many different types of neurotransmitters and receptor sites. A neurotransmitter binds to a
each neurotransmitter has a specific role to receptor in much the same way that a key fits
play in the functioning of the brain. The way into a lock, as Figure 3.11 shows.

Neurotransmitter 1 Neurotransmitter 2
Will not bind Binds
Figure 3.11 A specific
neurotransmitter will bind only to
its corresponding receptor, and in
Receptor Receptor this way ensures it only causes the
desired response.

Neurotransmitter messages can be decreases the likelihood of the

categorised as either excitatory or action potential being sent along the
inhibitory. An excitatory neurotransmitter next neuron. They are both considered
increases the likelihood of the action important, as they can initiate a response or
potential being sent along the next neuron, to stop something from happening at the
whereas an inhibitory neurotransmitter effector site.

Neurotransmission at the synapse Try this 3.4

Using the ‘Stop motion’ App, create a short animation that clearly represents
how neurotransmission occurs between neurons. Alternatively, you could construct a comic
book style outline or poster.
You must label:
• pre-synaptic neuron (axon terminal) • receptor sites
• vesicles • synapse
• neurotransmitters • action potential.
• post-synaptic neuron (dendrites)
Your animation should show the movement of vesicles binding with the cell membrane and
releasing neurotransmitters to the next neuron, with reference to the lock-and-key theory.

Drugs Did you know? 3.2

Drugs are substances that have an effect on the brain. They
can change the way neurons send, receive and process information. Some drugs, such as
marijuana and heroin, mimic naturally occurring neurotransmitters to activate neurons. Other
drugs, such as cocaine and amphetamines, induce neurons to release greater amounts of
naturally occurring neurotransmitters, greatly amplifying signals, preventing recycling of the
chemicals and disrupting communication channels.

Parkinson’s disease Science as a human endeavour 3.1

Neurodegenerative disease is an umbrella term
for a range of conditions that primarily affect the neurons in the human brain. Neurons are
cells that do not reproduce or replace themselves, so when they become damaged or die they
cannot be replaced by the body. Examples of neurodegenerative diseases include Parkinson’s
disease, Alzheimer’s disease and multiple sclerosis.
Parkinson’s disease is a progressive, degenerative neurological condition that affects
a person’s control of their body movements, resulting in motor and non-motor symptoms.
Parkinson’s disease results from the loss of cells in various parts of the brain, including a
region called the substantia nigra. This is a part of the brain where the production of the
neurotransmitter dopamine is very common. When dopamine production is depleted, the
motor system nerves are unable to control movement and coordination. The dopamine-
producing cells are lost over a period of years resulting in the appearance of motor-type
symptoms, such as tremours and rigidity.

continued…

…continued
Currently, there is no known cure
for Parkinson’s disease, but motor
symptoms may be relieved by medications
that increase the level of dopamine
or mimic dopamine, in the brain. The
future of diagnosis and treatment of
neurodegenerative disease is dependent
upon technological advances in brain
imaging. For example, in 2015, scientists
developed new wearable sensor networks
and mobile phone applications that have
the potential to monitor and manage
patients with Parkinson’s disease. They
hope that the use of low-cost wearable
sensors means that the symptoms of the Figure 3.12 This enhanced scan of the brain of a
patient can be continuously detected and patient with Parkinson’s disease uses yellow to
highlight the area near the substantia nigra and blue
quantified. The information can then be
and green to highlight the fibres of the motor system.
sent to hospital to generate a daily report Compare the left and right sides. (Active areas would
that will alert the doctor if there is any be shown in red or orange.)
unusual data.

Parkinson’s disease Explore! 3.3

Research into either one of the following topics. Summarise your findings
by explaining how technologies have improved knowledge and understanding of Parkinson’s
disease, or have helped Parkinson’s sufferers live better lives.
• An imaging technique that allows us to identify and learn about Parkinson’s disease (for
example, PET scans or DaT/SPECT imaging)
OR
• A technology developed to aid sufferers of Parkinson’s disease have better quality of life
(for example, the wearable sensor networks mentioned above; MagnaReady’s line of men’s
and women’s shirts with magnetic buttons; MouseCage’s Steady Mouse)

Section 3.2 questions

Remembering QUIZ
1 List the three different types of neurons found within the human nervous system.
2 Draw a motor neuron and label all the key structures.
3 What is the function of dendrites?

Understanding
4 Describe how an action potential is triggered and transmitted from one neuron to the next.
5 How does the function of the motor neuron and sensory neuron differ?
6 Describe the synapse.
continued…

…continued
Applying
7 Using the stimulus–response model, construct a flow chart showing the steps involved in
the following scenario. Be sure to include these terms on your flow chart: stimulus, motor
neuron, muscle, interneuron, sensory neuron, receptor.
A person is standing in a crowd and hears someone call their name. They turn their head to
look for who it might have been.
8 Using the ‘lock-and-key’ analogy, explain how neurotransmitters work across the synapse.
9 If a drug blocks the receptor sites, explain the effect it could have on neurotransmission
across the synapse.

Analysing
10 Caffeine is known to increase alertness levels. You usually feel tired when the
neurotransmitter adenosine is released. Discuss how caffeine may affect the
neurotransmitter adenosine.
11 Dopamine is a neurotransmitter that is involved in making us feel good. Caffeine works by
slowing down the rate of dopamine leaving the brain to your body, while at the same time
not affecting the rate at which it is released into your brain. This leads to an increased level
of dopamine in the brain for a short time. Deduce how this might affect your feelings and
behaviour.
12 The figure below shows how an impulse moving along an interneuron causes an impulse to
be sent along another type of neuron, neuron X.

Synapse

Interneuron
Neuron X

Impulse

Chemical

Impulse

a What type of neuron is neuron X?

b Describe how information passes from the interneuron to neuron X.
Use the diagram to help you. continued…

…continued
Evaluating
13 Compare and contrast the structure of a neuron with the structure and function of a goblet cell (secretes
protective mucous and can be found in the intestinal wall). What can you conclude about how a cell’s
structure relates to its function?

Microvilli

Secretory
vesicles

Nucleus

Mitochondrion

14 Compare the role of two important neurotransmitters found within the brain – serotonin and dopamine.

3.3 The spinal cord

Reflex actions brain actually registers the stimulus and the

response, after the response has occurred.
A reflex action or spinal reflex is a quick
WORKSHEET
automatic involuntary action that protects the A reflex action therefore involves no more
body from danger. Sometimes it is necessary than three neurons. The signals travel to the
for the body to react very fast, without waiting spinal cord and back to the muscle which
for instructions from the brain. It is therefore contracts quickly. This can also be called a
the spinal cord that is primarily involved in reflex arc. Figure 3.13 shows an example of
responding to the stimulus and initiating a reflex arc.
reflex action a response. A message will
a fast, involuntary motor
action that protects the body be sent to the brain but not You may have noticed terms from Chapter 2
from harm until shortly afterwards - the such as ‘stimulus’ and ‘response’ also appear

in this chapter. This is because Chapter When the brain is involved in detecting
2 looked at homeostasis and the nervous and responding to a stimulus, the process is
system as a key player in regulating our body called the stimulus–response model.
systems in response to change.

Stimulus

Sensory
receptors
Skin
Sensation
Dorsal root
relayed to
ganglion
the brain

Sensory
neuron

Pain

Interneuron

Motor
neuron

Response Ventral root

White Grey
matter matter

Muscle tissue
Spinal cord

Effector organ
Figure 3.13 An example of a reflex arc. You touch a pointy cactus with your finger, a receptor in a sensory neuron detects the pain
and initiates an action potential. The impulse is carried to the spinal cord where the sensory neuron connects to an interneuron.
The interneuron then connects to a motor neuron that sends an action potential through to the muscle tissue. Your muscles
contract and you move your hand away from the sharp cactus.

Copy and complete the table below, with reference to the following scenario. Try this 3.5
A person sees a can of soft drink sitting on the bench. They feel quite thirsty, so they reach
out and pick up the can to have a drink.

Part of the stimulus–response Definition of this part Use example scenario to

model complete this column
Stimulus Change in the environment
Receptors Detect the stimulus and stimulate
the sensory neuron
Sensory neurons Transmit an action potential (nerve
impulse) to the integration area
(the CNS – central nervous system)
continued…

…continued
Part of the stimulus–response Definition of this part Use example scenario to
model complete this column
CNS Brain coordinates an appropriate
response by sending nerve impulse
along interneurons which connect
to motor neurons
Motor neurons Transmits an action potential
(nerve impulse) to the effector
organ (muscle or gland)
Effectors Act to cause the response

Response Body’s reaction to the stimulus

The knee-jerk reflex the quadriceps, triggering the muscle to

A common reflex action is known as the contract which then makes you kick. This
‘knee-jerk’ reflex. To test your knee-jerk kick is the product of a lightning-fast knee-
reflex, a medical professional taps a reflex jerk reflex arc. A kick only indicates that a
hammer on the quadriceps tendon below particular section of the spinal cord and the
your kneecap. The tap of the hammer associated nerves are working properly. A
causes a slight stretch within the quadriceps series of different reflex tests are required
muscle (front of your thigh) which is for a more precise health indicator of the
connected to the tendon. This stretch is whole nervous system.
detected by stretch receptors in the muscle
and communicated via a sensory neuron to A ‘knee-jerk’ reflex can be represented with a
the spinal cord. There, interneurons will reflex arc. It is important to note that there is
connect the sensory to a motor neuron no brain involvement. The CNS integration
that will send an impulse right back to takes place in the spinal cord.

Figure 3.14 A reflex arc of the knee-jerk reflex

Practical 3.1

Testing your reflexes and response times

Aim
To explore the speed of some of your automatic reflexes and response times.

Materials
• stopwatch • ruler • well-lit room

Method
Part 1: Testing your pupillary reflex
1 Look closely at the eyes of your partner, estimating the diameter of their pupils in millimetres.
2 Ask them to close their eyes for 60 seconds and tilt their head down towards the floor. Record this on the
stopwatch.
3 Observe closely as you ask them to tilt their head up towards a light before opening their eyes. Record your
observations of how their pupils react.

Part 2: Testing your knee-jerk reflex

1 Have your partner sit on a chair with one leg crossed over the other.
2 Using your hand or a ruler, gently strike the patellar tendon just below the kneecap and observe what
happens. Note: You may need to repeat this experiment several times to get a response.

Part 3: Ruler drop

1 Have your partner lean their forearm on a bench with their hand extending over the edge. Ask them to make a
pincer grip with their thumb and index finger with a gap of about 2 cm between them.
2 Dangle the ruler so that the end marked 0 cm is hanging between their thumb and index finger.
3 Instruct them to catch the ruler with their thumb and index finger when they notice you have released it.
Release it without warning.
4 Take note of the measurement on the ruler where they have caught it. This is the number of centimetres that
the ruler fell before the person responded.
5 Repeat the experiment several times for each person and average their results.

Results
Tabulate your results as follows.

My results My partner’s results

Part 1: Pupillary reflex Describe Describe

Part 2: Knee-jerk reflex Describe Describe

Part 3: Ruler drop _______ cm dropped through on average _______ cm dropped through on average

Evaluation
Part 1
1 Explain what you observed when your partner opened their eyes, noting the stimulus and the response.
2 How might this reflex assist us in everyday life?
3 Is pupil size under voluntary or involuntary control?

Part 2
1 Draw a reflex arc for the knee jerk reflex, showing the stimulus and response.
2 Label the neurons that are involved. continued…

…continued
Part 3
1 The ruler drop experiment is not really testing a reflex. Draw a stimulus–response flow chart, highlighting the
part that proves this is not a simple reflex. Explain why this is the case.
2 What did you notice with repeated trials? Did people improve? Give one reason why this may be the case.
3 Suggest two ways the experimental design could be improved (for any of the three parts).
4 Suggest one potential source of error in this experiment (any of the three parts).

Conclusion
1 Make a claim from this experiment regarding reflexes and response times.
2 Support the statement by using your observations (include potential sources of error).
3 Explain how your observations support your claim.

Conscious and unconscious responses Did you know? 3.3

A reflex action is an unconscious process as the brain is not initially
involved in activating a response. This is different from a conscious process where the brain is WIDGET
involved in activating a response. The differences are shown in the table below. Reaction
times
Conscious response to stimuli Unconscious response to stimuli
• Reaction involves the brain and a level of • Reaction does not involve a level of
awareness awareness by the brain
• Paid attention to stimulus • Do not have to pay attention for it to happen
• Voluntary or intentional reaction • Involuntary or unintentional
• Often goal directed or purposeful • Reflexive or automatic, increasing
• Can be a more complex response chances of survival
• Tend to vary • Most are simple responses
• Can be learned • Tend to occur in the same way each time
• Can control it • Do not require learning
• May not be able to control it

1 True or false? Quick check 3.5

The brain is
not immediately involved in a reflex arc.
2 Draw a reflex arc for a person touching
a flame.
3 Compare a reflex arc and the stimulus
response models of the nervous system.
In what ways are they similar and
different?

Causes and effects of spinal

cord damage
Figure 3.15 Light micrograph (LM) of a cross-section
The spinal cord is a bundle of nerves that through the human spinal cord in the lumbar region. The
carries messages between the brain and the spinal cord consists of a butterfly-shaped core (yellow)
known as grey matter, which consists of nerve cells.
rest of the body. It contains both white matter Surrounding the grey matter is a larger region of white
and grey matter, as shown in Figure 3.15. matter, made up of myelinated nerve fibre bundles or tracts.

Figure 3.16 Spinal cord showing all sections – cervical spine, thoracic spine, lumbar spine, sacrum and
coccyx, along with a diagram of the vertebrae

The spine consists of 33 vertebrae: Classification Description

• 7 cervical (neck) Quadriplegia Four limbs affected by
• 12 thoracic (upper back) (‘quad’ means four) impaired sensation and
• 5 lumbar (lower back) movement. If spinal injury
• 5 sacral (sacrum – located within the pelvis) is high up the spine, then
• 4 coccygeal (coccyx – located within chest muscles, such as the
the pelvis). diaphragm, can also be
By adulthood, the five sacral vertebrae fuse affected
to form one bone, and the four coccygeal Paraplegia Two limbs affected (left
vertebrae fuse to form one bone. (‘para’ means two) and right legs) by impaired
sensation and movement
The level where the injury occurs determines Triplegia Rare incomplete spinal cord
the effects that the person suffers (see (‘tri’ means three) injury leads to three limbs
Figure 3.17). Spinal cord damage is classified (one arm, two legs) affected
according to the person’s type of loss of by impaired sensation and
motor and sensory function. Table 3.5 lists movement
the main types of classification. Table 3.5 Classification of spinal cord injuries

Site of spinal
cord injury

Figure 3.17 The effects the person suffers depend upon the location
and severity of the injury – the higher up the spine, the more severe
the effects.

The types of symptoms experienced by a • problems regulating their heart rate and
person with spinal cord injury depend upon blood pressure
the location and severity of the injury. They • loss of control over bowel and bladder
may include: function.
• muscle weakness or paralysis (including
difficulty breathing if the diaphragm Prognosis of spinal cord injuries
muscle is affected) The level that the spinal cord injury occurs at
• sensory dysfunction such as loss of will determine the extent of symptoms and
sensation or pins and needles the prognosis for rehabilitation. Figure 3.19
• sexual dysfunction shows the levels of spinal cord injury and the
• digestive problems rehabilitation potential.

Figure 3.18 Paralympic Winter Games 2018: paraplegic competitors in the Men’s 7.5 km
Sitting Classic

Level of
Possible impairment Rehabilitation potential
injury
Unable to breathe,
C2 - C3 potentially fatal
Dependant for care

Quadriplegia and Dependant for care, may need

C4 breathing difficulty ventilator
May need some respiratory support.
Quadriplegia with little shoulder
C-5 and elbow function
May be able to self-feed with assistive
devices or technology
Quadriplegia with shoulder, May be able to use wheelchair, feed and
C6 elbow, and some wrist function dress. Usually needs help with bowel
and bladder.
Quadriplegia with shoulder, May be able to assist with bowel
C7 elbow, wrist, and some hand function and bladder management
May be able to drive a car with
Quadriplegia with normal arm function;
C8 hand weakness
modifications and assist with bowel
and bladder management.
Paraplegia with loss of function below
T1 - T6 mid-chest; full control of arms
Quite independent with wheelchair

Paraplegia with loss of function below May be able to participate in athletic

T6 - T12 the waist; good control of torso activities with wheelchair.

Paraplegia with varying degrees of May be able to walk short distances

L1 - L5 muscle involvement in the legs with braces or other assistive devices

Figure 3.19 Spinal cord injury and potential for rehabilitation

1 What are the names of the different regions of the spine? Quick check 3.6
2 Define the terms ‘quadriplegia’ and ‘paraplegia’.
3 List three ways a spinal cord injury might occur and name three symptoms that might result
from that injury.

Spinal cord injury Explore! 3.4

There is currently no cure for spinal cord injuries, however, stem cells have
presented some possibilities for treatment. Research the following questions to discover how
harnessing these unspecialised cells might assist in the recovery from a spinal cord injury.
1 What are stem cells?
2 How have they showed promise for use in spinal cord injuries?
3 What are some of the positives and negatives of using stem cells in treatment of spinal
cord injuries?

Practical 3.2

Garfi sh dissection – investigating the spinal

cord
Aim
To observe the spinal cord of a garfish and how it is
protected by the spine.

Materials
• garfish
• Petri dish
Figure 3.20 A catch of silver garfish
• forceps
continued…

…continued
• scalpel Be careful
• probe • Scalpels are extremely sharp.
• newspaper • Extreme care is required when
• dissection microscope handling the scalpel.
• dissection board • Proper cutting technique should be
• disposable gloves demonstrated before student use.
• Never use the scalpel by cutting
Method
towards any part of your body.
1 Working in pairs, place garfish on a clean board.
• Use forceps – not your fingers – to
2 Using forceps and scalpel carefully make an incision
cut towards and away from.
down the underbelly from pectoral fins to anus.
• User discretion is advised.
3 You may need to remove the guts.
4 Remove as much flesh as possible surrounding the
backbone so it is ‘clean’.
5 Place spine/backbone onto a Petri dish.
6 Discard flesh (wrap in newspaper before placing in bin).
7 Using the microscope, sketch the backbone showing the individual vertebrae. Include a title, labels and
magnification.
8 Once this first sketch is completed, remove the dish from under the microscope for the next part of the activity.

Separating the spinal cord from the spine

9 You are now to carefully try and separate the vertebrae from each other to try to locate and examine the spinal
cord. If you are careful you will be able to feel the resistance of the spinal cord. Do not rush this, as the spinal
cord is very fine and will break easily.
10 Once you have a section of the spinal cord, place it (with the vertebrae, if it is still attached) under the
microscope and sketch. Include a title, labels and magnification.

Results
Record your observations and include your two sketches.

Evaluation
1 Comment on the appearance of the garfish’s spine. Decide whether or not there was sufficient protection to
the spinal cord.
2 Differentiate between the appearance of the garfish’s spinal cord and spine.
3 Discuss whether you expect fish to require a backbone as strong as land creatures.

Conclusion
1 Make a claim from this experiment regarding the spinal cord of garfish.
2 Support the statement by using your observations.
3 Explain how your observations support your claim.

Section 3.3 questions

Remembering
QUIZ
1 A person suffers a spinal cord injury whilst surfing and loses motor control and sensation in
their legs. How would this spinal cord injury be classified?
2 Define what is meant by reflex action. Include its role in defending the body against
damage.
3 Provide an example of a reflex action. continued…

…continued
Understanding
4 Extend your understanding of causes of spinal cord damage, by listing four different activities (perhaps
activities you take part in!) that could pose a potential risk.
5 Distinguish between the stimulus and the response in the knee jerk reflex.
6 What are two differences between conscious and unconscious responses?

Applying
7 Construct a hypothesis for this experiment: Ask a friend to stand on the other side of a glass window and
look straight ahead. Throw a cotton wool ball at their eyes from a close distance (about 20 cm away). Did they
blink? Describe the type of action you predict.
8 Imagine this: if you sneak up behind someone and make a sudden loud noise, they may respond by blinking,
twitching, moving their head suddenly, screaming or throwing their hands up. Using your knowledge of
reflexes, discuss whether their response is voluntary or not and give some reasons why this reflex might be a
helpful mechanism to have.

Analysing
9 Joshua has been diagnosed with quadriplegia. Infer which part of his spinal cord is likely to have been
damaged and suggest possible symptoms he might show.
10 Luke has damage to his spinal cord at L3. Classify his injury as paraplegia or quadriplegia.

Evaluating
11 Assess the following sentences and change one word to make them true.
A sensory neuron carries information from the central nervous system to the peripheral nervous system.
Unconscious responses to stimuli are often the most complex actions.
A spinal cord injury in the cervical region is likely to result in paraplegia.
12 A person picks up a very hot cup of coffee and immediately drops it, breaking the mug. Draw a flow chart,
beginning at stimulus and ending in response and highlight the section of the flow chart that demonstrates
whether this is a reflex, or a response that is coordinated by the brain.

3.4 The brain

Cerebral cortex
it would be the size of a cerebral cortex
outer layer of the brain
The cerebrum is the largest part of the pillow case! The cerebral
WORKSHEET corpus callosum
human brain. Its outer layer of the brain cortex is divided into two a bundle of nerve fibres
connecting the left and right
is called the cerebral cortex. It is only hemispheres (left and right) hemispheres of the brain
2–3 mm thick, yet it contains three- which each contain four
quarters of the brain’s neurons. It is folded lobes. The left and right hemispheres are
VIDEO to increase cortical surface area, and connected by a thick band of nerve fibres
Glands in the
brain. amazingly, if you were able to unfold it, called the corpus callosum.

The hemispheres functions. This is known as hemispheric

Each of the left and right hemispheres is specialisation. Yet it is a simplistic view of
responsible for movement and sensation the two hemispheres, as with any activity
in the opposite side of the body. This is both hemispheres are always active.
known as contralateral organisation. Each
hemisphere is also involved in The scientific approaches to studying
contralateral organisation specific functions; for example, hemispheric specialisation include:
each hemisphere of the brain
is responsible for the motor the left side specialises in • studying people with brain damage
function and sensation in the
opposite side of the body your ability to formulate and • studying people who have had a ‘split-
hemispheric specialisation understand language. Each brain’ operation
each hemisphere of the brain
can exert greater control hemisphere can specialise or • studying people with intact, undamaged
over specific functions
exert greater control in various brains.

Figure 3.21 Both the left hemisphere and the right hemisphere of the brain are responsible for
specialised functions.

The lobes
The cerebral cortex is responsible for many processes such as language, memory, learning,
thinking, problem solving and personality traits. There are four lobes of the cerebral cortex on
each side of the brain and they are called the frontal lobe, the parietal lobe, the occipital lobe
and the temporal lobe. They each have their own specialised functions.

CLEAR AND
FLUENT
BEHAVIOUR SPEECH

BEHAVIOUR
UNDERSTANDING
SPEECH

BREATHING BLOOD
PRESSURE

SWALLOWING HEARTBEAT

Figure 3.22 Specialised functions of the different lobes of the brain, as well as the cerebellum and brain stem, which are located
below the cerebral cortex

Brain poster Try this 3.6

Make a poster/slideshow that would be suitable for teaching Year 7 students about the brain.
Use information from this chapter, but you may also search for additional information online. Your poster
should include:
• a side view of the brain clearly showing the frontal lobe (and motor cortex), parietal lobe (and somatosensory
cortex), occipital lobe, temporal lobe and their functions
• Broca’s area and Wernicke’s area and describe their special roles
• a dorsal view of the brain (looking down from the top) showing the left and right hemisphere, corpus callosum
and detail their roles in processing of sensory information and control of activities on each side of the body.

1 What are the names of the four lobes of the cerebral cortex? Quick check 3.7
2 Define the roles of the following areas:
a Corpus callosum
b Left and right hemispheres
c Brain stem
d Cerebellum
3 List two structures found in the temporal lobe.
4 What is the role of the primary visual cortex?
5 Where in the brain is Broca’s area found and what is its function?

Structures within the brain

There are other important brain structures involved with behaviour that are not found on the
cortex (outer) of the brain, but within the brain, as shown in Figure 3.23.

Hippocampus
• involved with learning
and memory
Hypothalamus
• controls body temperature,
hunger, and thirst

Amygdala
• plays an important role
Cerebellum in emotional behaviour
• Controls posture, movement,
Pons
and the sense of balance
• Regulates sleeping, breathing and some
sensations

Brain Stem
• Controls simple reﬂexes, such as
coughing, breathing and digestion, Medulla
and has two main parts— Regulates breathing, heart rate, respiration
pons and medulla and blood pressure

Figure 3.23 A cross-section of the brain, revealing the hidden structures within

Practical 3.3

Dissecting a sheep’s brain

Aim Be careful
To observe the different regions within a sheep’s brain. Ensure gloves are worn
Materials at all times during the
• sheep’s brain • dissecting board dissection.
• disinfectant • disposable gloves
• scissors • newspaper
• forceps • paper towel
• probe
• Optional: pre-prepared slides of a cross-section of the brain tissue for observation under a microscope

Method
1 Place a few sheets of newspaper on the workstation.
2 Put the dissecting board on top of the paper together with the dissecting implements.
3 Collect the brain and carefully place it on the board. Take care as it will be slippery.
4 Using the scissors, cut the brain into two symmetric halves (hemispheres). Identify the corpus callosum,
cerebrum, cerebellum and brain stem.
5 Observe the colour and appearance of each section.
6 Cut one of the hemispheres lengthways to observe the cerebellum.
7 Draw and label a diagram of the brain.
continued…

…continued
8 Ensure dissection is discarded appropriately and the work area is disinfected.
9 Optional: view a pre-prepared cross-section of the brain under a microscope.
Corpus callosum

Cerebrum
Cerebellum

Brain stem

Results
Draw and label the diagram of the brain.

Evaluation
1 Why is the brain encased in the skull?
2 What is the difference between white and grey brain matter?
3 The brain stem is located at the base of the brain. What is it responsible for?
4 Explain why there are two hemispheres and detail their roles.
5 What connects the left and right hemispheres?
6 Can you easily differentiate between the lobes of the cerebral cortex?
7 What is the role of the cerebellum?

Conclusion
1 Make a claim from this experiment regarding sheep brains and human brains.
2 Support the statement by using the structures you observed.
3 Explain how your observations support your claim.

Brain freeze Did you know? 3.4

Have you ever experienced a ‘brain freeze’ when drinking
a very cold drink or eating ice cream? When something
extremely cold touches the upper palate (roof of the mouth),
it can lead to a feeling of a headache. Harvard University
scientists have found that the headache stems from the
constriction of the capillaries in your sinuses when a cold
stimulus is applied. As they dilate (relax) again when
warmer air touches the palate, there is a rush of blood
through the brain’s anterior cerebral artery. This rapid
change near the sensitive nerves in the palate creates the
‘brain freeze’ phenomenon.

Figure 3.24 Any cold stimulus can result in the painful

sensation of a brain freeze.

Practical 3.4

Does talking interfere with right-hand motor tasks?

Humans are the only animals which are predominantly right-handed. Don’t believe me? Do a quick survey
in your class! The part of the brain responsible for speech and language is in the left hemisphere of the
cerebral cortex. It is also known that the left and right hemispheres control the movement in the opposite
sides of the body.

Aim
To investigate whether talking will interfere with a balancing (motor) task.

Materials
• a 30 cm wooden rod or similar • stopwatch

Method
1 Construct a hypothesis: ‘Will people be better at balancing
the rod when they are talking or silent? Will there be a
difference between balancing on the left or right-hand side?’
2 Each person should practise balancing the rod on the left and
also the right index finger. Ensure that the person balancing
is standing, and that the rod is i the same position between
the middle knuckles (as shown in the image).
3 Form groups of three and record whether each person is left- or right-handed.
4 Take it in turns: To begin with, the person being tested should balance the rod on
their right finger and remove the steadying hand when instructed. Time how long they
can balance it on their left and right hands. Record these results in the table.
5 Now repeat this experiment, but as the person removes the steadying hand and the clock starts, the third
person should start saying words the person must spell. Use the words suggested below. Record these
results in the table.
Words to spell:
brain, conclusion, cerebral cortex, hemisphere, frontal, neuron, receptor, vision, sensory, spinal cord,
vertebrae, parietal, occipital, experiment, reflex, hypothesis, cerebellum
6 Repeat the experiment with the other two group members.

Results

Which is their Time balanced Time balanced Time balanced Time balanced
dominant (secs): Left (secs): Right (secs): Left hand, (secs): Right
hand? hand, silent hand, silent speaking hand, speaking
Person 1
Person 2
Person 3
Average N/A

7 Create a graph of your results, showing each individual and their four times.

Evaluation
1 Do the results confirm your hypothesis?
2 Explain the average results obtained using the facts stated prior to the Aim.
3 Do you think the order the tasks were completed in might have affected the results of the experiment?
Suggest a way the experimental design could be improved.
4 Suggest two potential sources of error in this experiment.
continued…

…continued
Conclusion
1 Make a claim from this experiment regarding left- or right-handedness and speaking.
2 Support the statement by using your observations (include potential sources of error).
3 Explain how your observations support your claim.

Sensitivity of body parts discovered by Penfield and Rasmussen.

They mapped the primary somatosensory
Figure 3.25 shows a homunculus, which
cortex by electrically stimulating different
is Latin for ‘little man’. It represents how
areas on the somatosensory cortex of
sensitive the different parts of the
homunculus
patients whose skulls were opened for
a representation of the body
body are by representing them as
parts in the brain where size tumor removal. They asked the patients to
shows level of sensitivity large if they are highly sensitive,
identify where on their bodies they felt the
and small if the body part is not very
sensation.
sensitive. This representation of touch was

Figure 3.25 In the sensory homunculus the fingers,

thumb, tongue and lips, are disproportionately Figure 3.26 The pictorial representation of where
represented to show that they are more sensitive the body parts are located along the actual primary
and so more space in the primary somatosensory somatosensory cortex. The larger the space along
cortex is devoted to these body parts. the cortex, the more sensitive the body part.

Practical 3.5

Determining the sensitivity of body parts

Aim
To determine whether the fingertip, upper arm or the back is the most sensitive body area.

Materials
• ruler with millimetres or • paperclip
centimetres • paper and pencil
continued…

…continued
Method
1 Construct a hypothesis for this experiment: Predict which part of the body (fingertip, upper arm or back) will
be the most sensitive and why.
2 Decide who will be the experimenter and who will be the participant.

3 Open your paperclip.

4 Spread the ends and use the ruler to measure the distance between them.
5 Adjust them until they are exactly 4 cm apart.
6 The experimenter alternates touching with either both ends of the paperclip or one end of the paperclip to
the participant’s fingertip. (A gentle touch is all that is required.)
7 If they correctly feel whether one or both ends were used, tick the column (√), or place a (x) if they do not feel
the number of ends correctly.
8 Repeat step 6 on the participant’s upper arm and back and record your results in your table.
9 Repeat steps 5 and 6, bringing the paperclip ends closer each time until they are touching.
10 Complete the results table below using following ranges of distances and record in the table below.

Results
Distance between Fingertip Fingertip Upper arm Upper arm Back Back
paperclip ends One point Two point One point Two point One point Two point
(cm) (√) (√) (√) (√) (√) (√)
4 cm
3 cm
2 cm
1 cm
0.5 cm
Ends touching

Evaluation
1 Which body parts proved to be the most sensitive? Did this support your hypothesis?
2 Why do you think different parts of the body have different levels of sensitivity? What function does this
serve?
3 Looking back at the somatosensory cortex, suggest one other body part that would have tested as highly
sensitive and one other body part that would have shown low sensitivity.
4 Suggest two ways the experimental design may have been improved.
5 What were two potential sources of error in this experiment?

Conclusion
1 Make a claim from this experiment regarding sensitivity of various areas of the body.
2 Support the statement by using your observations (include potential sources of error).
3 Explain how your observations support your claim.

1 What is the main role of the hippocampus? Quick check 3.8

2 A person suffers a brain stem stroke. What vital body functions might be affected?
3 What is the main role of the cerebellum of the brain?
4 Define the term ‘homunculus’ in your own words.

Alzheimer’s disease Science as a human endeavour 3.2

Alzheimer’s disease is an example of a neurodegenerative disease.
It occurs when neurons in the brain shrink and eventually ‘die’ at a greater rate than normal. This causes the
brain to shrink, which is especially seen in the ventricles of the brain. Over time, amyloid plaques (deposits
of protein around other neurons) and neurofibrillary tangles (twisted fibres built up inside the neuron) form,
preventing the neurons of the brain from communicating properly.

Figure 3.27 On the left is half of a healthy brain with normal neurons, while on the right the Alzheimer’s brain shows amyloid
plaques and brain shrinkage.

Early symptoms of Alzheimer’s disease include the inability to form new memories, impaired recent
personal memories. impaired memory for names, difficulty finding the right word when speaking, confusion,
unusual irritation and impaired decision-making. Progressive symptoms include frequent repetition of stories
or questions and the failure to recognise family members. There is no cure for Alzheimer’s disease, but
medications can slow the progression of symptoms.
In 2016, scientists found a new way to use brain imaging technology called positron emission tomography
or PET scans. These scans are able to look at changes in the brain at a cellular level, while current scans only
looked for a decrease in brain cells. PET scans involve the injection of a radioactive solution into the patient’s
brain. The amount of radiation measured in particular regions of the brain indicates how active those regions
are at a particular time.
continued…

…continued
This new way of using technology was tested on 53 adults
and 33 pensioners without any neurodegeneration and 15 who
had suspected Alzheimer’s disease. The scientists were able
to prove definitively which were clear, at risk and those who
had the condition. The findings also have helped scientists
understand more about how the neurofibrillary tangles and
amyloid plaques build up as the brain ages.

Figure 3.28 Computer graphic of a vertical slice

through the brain of an Alzheimer’s patient (left half)
compared with a normal brain (right half).

The brain’s plasticity amplifies and records the electrical activity

of the brain, which allows scientists to make
Plasticity is the term used to describe the
assumptions based on the readings.
ability of the brain’s neural structure or
function to be changed through
plasticity A four-week-old foetus forms new neurons
the ability of the brain to experience at any time during
change its neuron structure at a rate of 250 000 every minute. When
and function over time, in your life. This refers to the
response to experiences a child is three years old, their brain will
brain’s ability to be modified (it
process close to 1000 trillion connections
is flexible, pliable and malleable). Plasticity is
between neurons. It is no surprise then
necessary for learning.
that a baby’s brain uses three times the
amount of energy that an adult’s brain uses –
The development of the brain is an amazing
that’s a busy brain! By late childhood the
process. We know that babies are born
number of connections increases to around
with approximately 100 billion neurons
with each neuron having the capacity to
connect with around 2500 other neurons.
A child’s environment and experiences
determine the connections each neuron
makes, and the number of connections
each neuron has ranges from thousands of
connections to just a few. Some studies on
infants use electroencephalograms (EEG)
to study their brain activity while the infants
complete different tasks. The scientists use
various experiments, often based on simple
games, and test the babies’ physical or
cognitive (mental) responses with sensors
including eye-tracking, brain activation
and motion capture. Despite the lack of Figure 3.29 This infant is wearing an EEG during studies of
verbal communication, the EEG detects, cognitive development. By three years of age a child’s brain will
have grown to 80% the volume of an adult brain.

parts of the brain to form alternative neural

connections, which can compensate for any
missing or damaged part of the brain. This
is also why it is easier to learn new skills and
languages at a younger age.

One of the most famous plasticity

findings occurred when Jody Miller, aged
three-and-a-half, survived an 11-hour
hemispherectomy, or the removal of the
defective right hemisphere of her brain. The
plasticity of a child’s brain is what allowed
for new neural connections to be made
Figure 3.30 Each neuron can transmit 1000 nerve impulses per second
and make tens of thousands of synaptic contacts with other neurons.
in Miller’s left brain that would perform
functions once handled by her right brain.
15 000 per neuron. Yet, by adulthood this For example, when she left the hospital
number decreases to around 8000 as unused 2 weeks following the surgery, she was
connections are destroyed. walking on both legs, despite the whole
right side of her brain being removed.
As a child’s brain has greater plasticity Eight months later she was also completely
than an adult’s, it is able to utilise other free of seizures.

1 Define the term ‘brain plasticity’. Quick check 3.9

2 What is brain plasticity useful for?
3 How much more energy does a baby’s brain use compared to an adult’s brain?
4 Explain what an EEG stands for and what it is used for.

Bones in the human brain Did you know? 3.5

The brain is protected by the solid bones of the skull, which is actually composed of
22 bones that are fused together. Newborns have soft spots on their head called fontanelles, where the areas of
bone making up the skull have not hardened. To avoid brain damage, you must be extremely careful to protect a
baby’s head. It is not until the age of one when the skull begins to fuse together and harden, forming visible lines
called sutures.

Figure 3.31 A medical professional gently feels the Figure 3.32 The skull of a 4-month old baby is not
fontanelle. yet fused together completely.

Addiction and the activity (such as gambling or shopping) that

adolescent brain can be pleasurable, but the continuation of
which becomes compulsive and interferes
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
with the functioning of the person’s life.
technology has given us an insight into why
This leads to dysfunction, which is a major
teenagers are prone to impulsive, risk-taking
characteristic of any mental illness. Engaging
behaviours. A teenage brain is still developing,
in the activity or substance actually triggers
and continues to do so until around age 25.
the release of the ‘pleasure’ hormone called
When you consider teenagers who have
dopamine. Addiction is preventable and
developed addictions to substances such as
treatable if intervention is early enough.
drugs and alcohol, it is necessary to remember
that teenagers are not just ‘less-experienced
Neural connections that are activated on a
adults’ but are still a work in progress. They
regular basis become strengthened in the
are prone to errors in judgement and reliance
brain. This can be a positive thing in the case
on more primitive, emotion-driven areas of
of learning and memory formation, but it can
the brain such as the limbic system (thalamus,
have negative consequences in terms of the
hypothalamus, hippocampus and amygdala).
forming of habits. At the same time, as your
This is why adolescents are more at risk for
brain develops, unnecessary or underutilised
substance addiction than any other age group.
neural connections are ‘pruned’ or disconnected
Unfortunately, the use of these substances
in a process known as ‘synaptic pruning’, which
can also have dramatic effects on their brain
continues from childhood through to early
development, with risks for permanent
adulthood. Repeated actions become a habit,
intellectual and emotional damage.
so for teenagers who develop a dependency on
alcohol, this habit can slowly become ingrained
Addiction is a condition that results
in the wiring of the brain, for life.
when a person ingests a substance (such
as alcohol, or nicotine) or engages in an
So why are teenage brains wired for risk-
taking? From an evolutionary perspective,
this would have had advantages, as it is
around this age that offspring would need to
leave the safety of the home and head out to
make lives of their own.

As the brain is developing during

adolescence, there are sections of the brain
that are highly sensitive to alcohol, as shown
in Figure 3.34.

Heavy drinking during adolescence can lead

to disruptions in some or all of these areas
of the brain. Unfortunately, regular and
excessive amounts of alcohol can even cause
permanent brain damage. It is not surprising
then that research shows that a hangover
Figure 3.33 Incorporating imaging techniques can allow a great can be just as damaging to the brain as heavy
deal of information to be gathered on patients. This image shows
the composite of a magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scan of drinking, compromising a person’s ability to
the brain and 2D and 3D computed tomography (CT) scans. learn new information and recall memories.

Pre-frontal cortex Frontal lobe

- memory, personality, rational - speech, movement,
thought process emotions

Parietal lobe
- sensations
(touch, pain)

Occipital lobe
Temporal lobe - vision
- interpreting
language and
sounds

Cerebellum
Hippocampus (hidden) - coordination,
- memory balance

Brain stem
- vital functions (physical growth,
body communication)

Figure 3.34 Areas of the adolescent brain that are susceptible to the effects of alcohol

Addiction Explore! 3.5

Choose from one of the following diagnosable substance-use addictions:
caffeine; cannabis; methamphetamine; cocaine; tobacco. Research and answer the following
questions in any multimedia format: poster, video clip, PowerPoint (with or without voiceover),
Prezi, website or similar.
1 Describe the addiction you are investigating and what it involves on a biological level.
That is, explain the activation of specific neurotransmitters or brain areas when taking the
addictive substance – especially in the developing adolescent brain.
2 Define the term ‘withdrawal’ in the context of addiction. List some symptoms that may be
shown and explain why they occur.
3 What treatments are available? Describe one in detail.

1 Define the term ‘addiction’. Quick check 3.10

2 Why are adolescent brains particularly vulnerable to addiction?
3 What symptoms would you expect to see in someone who has damaged their hippocampus
and prefrontal cortex through excessive alcohol consumption during adolescence?
4 Which neurotransmitter is released when the reward pathway is activated?

Section 3.4 questions

Remembering QUIZ
1 Name the outer layer of the brain and state how thick it is.
2 Where does the word ‘homunculus’ come from and what does it mean?
3 Name the brain’s most primitive part and state its functions.

Understanding
4 Explain what you might see if you were to remove the cerebral cortex.
5 Interpret the term ‘brain plasticity’.
6 Outline reasons why adolescents are more vulnerable to addiction.
7 Explain why humans have a thick skull.

Applying
8 Why is it incorrect to say that someone is ‘right-brained’ or ‘left-brained’?
9 Apply your knowledge of the sensitivity of body parts in order to explain the unusual
dimensions of the ‘homunculus man’ on the primary somatosensory cortex.

Analysing
10 Mariam has suffered brain damage to her frontal lobe. List three symptoms she may display.

Evaluating
11 Evaluate whether you think it is easier for a child to learn a new language or skill compared
to an adult. Justify your response.

Review questions

Remembering
1 Redraw and label the key structures of a neuron.
SCORCHER

2 What is the synapse?

3 State the four lobes of the brain and one function for which they are responsible.

Understanding
4 List the steps involved in neurotransmission across a synapse.
5 How do paraplegics differ from quadriplegics?
6 How does the right side of the brain control the movement of the left side of the body?

Applying
7 Ali had a motorcycle accident and suffered brain damage in his left temporal lobe. Discuss
three possible symptoms he may display.
8 If a particular drug blocked the receptor sites on the dendrites of the post-synaptic neuron,
how may this impact the neurotransmitters?

9 Sophia accidentally touches a hot pan and automatically snatches her hand away from it.
The diagram shows the structures involved in this action.
a Label the diagram below.

b Draw a stimulus–response model referring to the diagram above.

10 Construct a continuum showing these terms going from smallest to largest:
molecule, atom, nervous system, neuron, brain, lobe, receptor.

Analysing
11 How does a neurodegenerative disease differ from brain damage due to an accident?

Evaluating
12 Taking the drug cocaine causes a build-up of dopamine in the synapse. Based on what you
have read about dopamine, give your opinion on the statement, ‘I will just take it a couple of
times, it won’t affect me’. Justify your response by discussing the effects that taking cocaine
could have.
13 Broca’s area is involved in speech and motor
movement. Damage in that area results in the Broca’s area Wernicke’s area
inability to speak fluently and affects grammar.
Wernicke’s area is involved in language
comprehension and damage to the area may
result in difficulties comprehending speech.
Individuals may have trouble producing
meaningful speech. Based on the information
above, match which of the following would be
more appropriate to aid talking to an individual
suffering from each condition.
In your answer, refer to using:
• gestures
• questions that require yes/no answers.

STEM activity: Texting and reaction times – what

do the numbers say?

Background information
VCDSTS054 VCDTCD050 VCSSU117
Many people might consider that reacting to a
stimulus is an automatic process, however, that
could not be further from the truth. Imagine that you
are in a car driven by a friend, you are all having a
VCSSU118 VCSIS134 VCSIS136
great time and getting ready to enjoy your outing
when suddenly, a dog runs in front of the car.
The driver reacts quickly and the dog manages to
escape unharmed.
The example above can be used to illustrate the the nervous system with the correct combination of
powerful cooperation between many sensors in our contraction and expansion of very specific muscles;
bodies and the brain. First, light sensors (your eyes) this is when your friend presses the brake pedal.
recognise the sudden change in light conditions In the meantime, your brain sends an instruction
on the road, that information is sent for processing, to the light sensors asking them to keep feeding
then your brain can decide what that information data while the whole process takes place, in case a
is and if any action is required. Then, your brain different action is required.
compares the information coming from your light This whole process described above takes
sensors to information contained in a vast collection place during 0.25 seconds on average. However,
of images (memory), the brain finds a match and that value will considerably change, depending on
determines that something stored under the name your state of alertness! For example, imagine if your
‘dog’ is very likely the same thing that is running in friend was texting while driving, do you think the
front of your car. Finally, the brain sends signals via outcome could have been different?

Figure 3.35 In Victoria there are penalties for using a mobile device while driving or stationary but not properly parked.

Evaluate and modify

Design brief: Investigate whether texting is a
distraction to people performing tasks. 1 Imagine that you received a table with reaction
time values (t) for a laboratory experiment.
Activity instructions Knowing that a (gravitational force) is almost
constant and does not need to be worked out,
In this activity, you will use materials, a very elegant how could you rework the equation below
mathematical formula and your imagination to to estimate the distance value used in that
create an experiment that produces: experiment? In other words, how could you
1 at least three sets of data rework the equation below to solve for distance
2 at least three bar graphs instead of time?
3 a conclusion that clearly answers the following
2d
scenario: t=
a
Victoria’s Transport Accident Commission
where t = time, d = distance and a = 9.80 cm/s2
(TAC) is so worried about young people’s
(acceleration due to gravity).
attitudes towards texting while driving that it
2 Discuss with at least three of your colleagues the
hired your young startup company to conduct
challenges you have encountered throughout
a sequence of experiments in the community
this project. List the strategies or actions that
to determine whether texting can slow down a
allowed you to overcome each challenge.
person’s reaction times.
3 Reflection is an integral and vital aspect of any
project out there in the real world. How could
Suggested materials
you use ICT tools (for example, apps, video, slow
• 30 cm ruler motion camera) to enhance this experiment?
• scissors 4 The results may change when a different type
• cardboard of ruler is used, such as metal, plastic or timber.
• paper Predict how the size or length of the ruler might
• pen have impact on the results.
• mobile phone to record amazing slow 5 Repeat this activity and compare your results
motion videos when you use your dominant hand (the one you
• Microsoft PowerPoint for presentations write with) and when you use your other hand. Is
• video editing software for making short there any difference in reaction times between
documentaries hands?
Consider adding other distracting sounds and
Mathematical formula sights during the activity, such as turning on a
TV set or flicking a flashlight on and off. Do your
2d responses slow with so many sensory signals?
t=
a 6 Create a PowerPoint presentation to relay your
where t = time, d = distance and a = 9.80 cm/s 2 findings to the TAC.
(acceleration due to gravity).

Chapter 4 Ecosystems

Chapter introduction
The many varied ecosystems on Earth are composed of living organisms, non-living components and
the interactions that occur between them. Humans can have a dynamic impact on the effectiveness and
health of ecosystems, but humans are just one species of consumer. Thousands of other consumers
hunt for prey, compete for resources and rely on specific characteristics of their habitats, such as
temperature, oxygen levels and water, for survival. This chapter examines the relationships between the
biotic and abiotic components within ecosystems and the many different forms of interactions between
organisms. You will also explore how populations change in size and the environmental changes that
can occur within ecosystems.

Curriculum
Ecosystems consist of communities of interdependent organisms and abiotic components of the
environment; matter and energy flow through these systems (VCSSU121)
• exploring interactions between organisms, for example, predator/prey, parasites, 4.2
competitors, pollinators and disease vectors
• using modelling to examine factors that affect population sizes, for example, seasonal 4.3
changes, destruction of habitats, introduced species
• investigating how ecosystems change as a result of environmental change, for example, 4.1
bushfires, drought and flooding

Victorian Curriculum F–10 © VCAA (2016)

Glossary terms
abiotic emigration photosynthesis
apex predator eutrophication pollinator
autotroph exponential growth population
biome food chain predator
biotic habitat prey
capture–mark–recapture method heterotroph primary consumer
carrying capacity immigration producer
cellular respiration interspecific competition quadrat
commensalism intraspecific competition secondary consumer
community limiting factor symbiotic relationship
consumer logistic growth tertiary consumer
ecological niche mutualism trophic level
ecosystem parasitism vector

Concept map

4.1
Ecosystems are
communities of 4.2
interdependent
4.3
organisms and
abiotic factors

Consists of Affected by

Biotic Natural impacts

Abiotic Bushfires
Interactions Droughts
Interactions between Floods
abiotic and biotic

Competition
Symbiotic relationships:
- Mutualism, e.g. pollinators Human impacts
- Commensalism Invasive species
- Parasitism Energy flow
Habitat destruction
Disease vectors (trophic levels)
Land clearing
Predator prey Photosynthesis
Cellular respiration
Eutrophication

Affected by

Population size

Calculated by Modelled by Estimated by

Birth Exponential growth Quadrats

Death Logistic growth Capture-mark-recapture
Immigration Limiting factors and method
Emigration carrying capacity Drones

4.1 What is an ecosystem?

Ecosystems consist of all the organisms

Desert: second largest Tropical
living in a certain community, all of the in area after the Sahara rainforests
WORKSHEET non-living components (such as air, rocks, Desert in Africa
temperature, humidity, Savannah
ecosystem salinity) and all of the grasslands
a biological unit made up
of the community of living interactions taking place
organisms, the non-living
components and the between the community and
interactions between them
its surroundings.
community
all the populations of
different species living
in a particular area at a
given time

Temperate
forests

Figure 4.2 Location of some Australian ecosystems

Biome Biosphere
Reef ecosystem

Figure 4.1 Antarctica is an example of a desert ecosystem with

its thick ice sheet covering a continent made almost entirely Community
of dry, bare rock. Only mosses grow in this desert ecosystem,
supporting only a few bird species.
Population

Ecosystems consist of many different habitats

Individual
and are often connected in a larger biome.
biome A biome is one of the world’s
a region of Earth’s
surface and the particular
major ecosystems, classified
combination of climate,
plants and animals that are
according to the main climatic
found within it feature, vegetation and specific
adaptations of the organisms Figure 4.3 Levels of organisation in a reef ecosystem
within that environment. The biomes within
Australia have their own organisms and Ecosystems vary greatly in size. The tide
climate and contain many of the major world pools in Figure 4.4 represent quite a small
biomes within it. ecosystem. When the tide is in, these pools

are underwater and organisms such as

seaweed thrive. When the tide goes out, tiny
pools are left and organisms, such as hermit
crabs, come out in search of food.

Figure 4.5 Falls Meander Forest Reserve, Great Western Tiers,

Tasmania, showing abiotic factors of sunlight, rocks and light
intensity along with biotic factors of plant life

An ecosystem can also be classified as a

community and its habitat.

habitat + community = ecosystem

Within an ecosystem, the habitat is the place

in which an organism lives. You can think of
Figure 4.4 Tidal pools at Cape Schanck on the Mornington Peninsula, it as the organism’s physical surroundings,
Victoria
for example, a pond, grassland, treetop
canopies. It is usually considered abiotic, but
Components of an ecosystem the habitat could be considered biotic if the
organism lives on or in another organism.
An ecosystem consists of three essential
VIDEO components: A population is a group of one species living
Features of an
ecosystem. 1 A living component (biotic factors) in a certain habitat at a given time; for example,
made of different populations of different a herd of water buffaloes who habitat
the environment an organism
organisms (for example, humans, live near a certain river. They lives within
biotic
living factors, such as plants,
plants, animals, fungi, bacteria), some may be dispersed in an evenly population
animals and bacteria of which are microscopic, as well as spaced, clumped or random members of one species living
in a particular area at a given
abiotic
non-living factors, such as
the organic matter produced by these manner. Clumped patterns time

temperature, pH, salinity, organisms, such as faeces or decaying are the most frequently occurring within
rocks, water
organic matter. ecosystems. Abiotic factors play an important
2 A non-living component (abiotic factors) role in the overall distribution and abundance
that includes things such as rocks and of organisms within an ecosystem.
sand, but also all the things that can be
measured – such as temperature, light A community is a group of all the
intensity, wind speed, rainfall, humidity, populations of different organisms that live
pH and salinity. within a habitat at a particular time and
3 The interaction between the biotic factors is therefore always considered biotic. The
and the abiotic surroundings. river community might include the water

buffalo, but also the birds, grasses, bacteria, community interact with one another, but
fish and crocodiles. All of the species in the also with the habitat.

Individual Population Community Ecosystem

A single living organism A group of individuals Populations of various The interactions between
living in a particular species in a the community and the
place and time particular region (biotic) habitat (biotic + abiotic)

Figure 4.6 The various levels of complexity, beginning from an individual organism right through to a complete ecosystem

The interdependence of both biotic and each other to survive and thrive – they cannot
abiotic factors is of utmost importance to the live without the other. Living organisms tend
productivity of an ecosystem. This means to form different types of relationships with
that both biotic and abiotic factors rely on one another that benefit the community.

Draw a diagram or a flow chart connecting these key Try this 4.1
concepts: individual, ecosystem, biosphere, biome,
population, community. Annotate arrows in the flow chart by
demonstrating the links between the terms. If you are unsure
where to begin, you might like to consider setting it out using
a pyramid like the one shown at right. This will give you a
starting place to organise the key terms by size.

1 Define the terms ‘population’, ‘community’ and ‘ecosystem’. Quick check 4.1
2 What are the three essential components that are present within an ecosystem?
3 Distinguish between a biotic component and an abiotic component of an ecosystem. Include examples of each.

Practical 4.1

Testing soil pH
Introduction
One of the abiotic factors that affects plant growth is the pH level of the soil. Plants are unable to absorb the
nutrients they require for growth if the soil is too acidic (pH <7) or too basic (pH >7).

Aim
To determine the pH of a soil sample.

Materials
• 5 soil samples collected from different locations around the schoolgrounds
• distilled water
• 5 × 100 mL beakers
• 100 mL measuring cylinder
• spatula
• pH meter or universal indicator

Method
1 Using the measuring cylinder, add 50 mL of distilled water to a
beaker and record its pH by using a pH meter or universal indicator.
2 Add half a spatula of soil to the 50 mL of distilled water.
3 Mix thoroughly then allow to sit for 2–3 minutes so that the sediment
has time to settle on the base of the beaker.
4 Use a pH meter or universal indicator to determine the pH of the
water above the sediment.
5 Repeat steps 1–4 for the other four samples of soil.

Results
Complete the results table.

Experiment pH
Distilled water (control)
Soil sample 1
Soil sample 2
Soil sample 3
Soil sample 4
Soil sample 5

Discussion
1 Were your soil samples acidic, basic or neutral?
2 Describe the vegetation where your soil samples were taken from in terms of abundance, and overall health.
3 What conclusions can you draw about the measured pH and the health of the plant life where you took your
samples from?
4 Suggest what could happen if the pH of the soil increased or decreased substantially.
5 Suggest two ways you could improve the design of this experiment.
6 Suggest two potential sources of error in this experiment.

Conclusion
1 Make a claim from this experiment regarding soil samples and pH.
2 Support the statement by using your observations (include potential sources of error).
3 Explain how your observations support your claim.

Abiotic factors can be classified into chemical or physical components. Using the factors Try this 4.2
below, select whether they belong to the chemical or physical domain by copying the table
and placing a tick in the appropriate column.

Abiotic factor Physical component Chemical component

Humidity
pH of soil
Day length
Temperature range
Dissolved oxygen concentration
of water
Wind speed
Rainfall
Concentration of mineral ions
in soil

Energy flow through A food chain shows the flow of energy from
ecosystems organism to organism through an ecosystem.
The sun is the original source of all
The simplest way to describe the relationship food chain
energy but is rarely included in the the flow of energy from
between organisms within an ecosystem is by organism to organism, in an
food chain. A simple example of a ecosystem
using a food chain, which you have already
food chain is shown:
seen in Year 7. If you recall, within a food
chain, organisms gain nutrients and energy
plant → mouse → snake → kookaburra
from other organisms, as shown in this
photograph of a kookaburra eating a snake
on an Australian bush track.

Figure 4.7 A laughing kookaburra, Dacelo novaeguineae, eating a yellow-naped snake, in Queensland.

As in the previous example, food chains perform photosynthesis. Plants are able to
typically start with a producer, in this turn the radiant energy they receive from
case, the plant. The consumer that eats the Sun into glucose, a form of sugar, which
the producer is called a primary consumer they can then use to grow. Because plants
(in this case, the mouse), and the produce their own food they are called
producer
otherwise known as an consumer that eats the primary producers or autotrophs (self-feeding).
autotroph, an organism
capable of making its own
consumer is called a secondary
food consumer (in this case, the snake). Consumers are organisms that must eat or
consumer Organisms that then feed on consume other plants or animals (producers
also known as a heterotroph,
an organism that must eat secondary consumers are known as or other consumers) to obtain their energy,
or consume other plants
or animals as a source of tertiary consumers (in this case, the as they cannot produce their autotroph
energy
kookaburra) and organisms feeding own food. They are known otherwise known as a
producer, an organism
primary consumer
the first consumer who eats on tertiary consumers within an as heterotrophs (varied capable of making its own
the producer in a food chain food
ecosystem are known as fourth order feeding). Without producers heterotroph
secondary consumer
the consumer who eats the consumers. Numerous food chains living within an ecosystem, also known as a consumer;
primary consumer an organism that must eat or
exist within ecosystems and these can herbivorous consumers would consume plants or animals
tertiary consumer as a source of energy
the consumer who eats the all be interlinked in a complex pattern not have a source of energy,
secondary consumer
called a food web. and it would be impossible for all other
organisms to exist. Producers capture the
Redraw the food chain we have been
Sun’s energy and bring it into the ecosystem
Try this 4.3
looking at and add the following labels: in a useable form.
producer, primary consumer, secondary consumer, tertiary
consumer. You can also annotate it to show which of the Any organism may be classified as either
consumers are herbivores and which are carnivores. an autotroph or a heterotroph according to
Reflect: Must a primary consumer always be a herbivore? their energy requirements and pathways.
Now add the terms ‘autotroph’ and
‘heterotroph’ to the food chain diagram you
The term trophic level refers to the feeding drew in Try this 4.3.
level of an organism, i.e. how far along the
trophic level
food chain the organism is. These
the feeding level of an are easily represented in a pyramid
organism within a food chain
shape. Producers make up the first
apex predator
the highest level consumer in a trophic level and herbivores, which
food chain
are the first consumers in the food
chain, are in the second trophic level. Add
trophic levels to your food chain diagram
from the ‘Try this’ activity. Food chains
do not have an infinite number of trophic
levels. Typically, land-based food chains
have fewer than six levels. The highest
ranked consumer is sometimes referred to
as the apex predator.
Figure 4.8 Identify the autotrophs and heterotrophs in this picture.
Can you also identify the apex predator?
The Sun is the key abiotic factor that mushrooms, all the animals; apex predator: crocodile.
provides plants with the energy required to Answer: autotrophs: trees and bushes; heterotrophs:

You may recall from Year 7 that energy available to organisms decreases with each
transfer between trophic levels is not very trophic level. This produces a pattern called a
efficient, with only approximately 10% of the ‘pyramid of energy’.
energy an organism takes in being passed
on to the next organism in the food chain The energy pyramid in Figure 4.9 shows how
(that is, up to the next trophic level). The much energy is present in each stage of an
remaining 90% is lost as heat, or in wastes Australian woodland ecosystem.
like faeces. Therefore, the amount of energy

1 unit of energy

1000 units of energy

Figure 4.9 A trophic pyramid or ‘pyramid of energy’ showing the energy flow from
the grass through to the kookaburra

1 Complete the energy pyramid in Figure 4.9 by showing the units of energy per trophic level. Try this 4.4
2 Only 10% of the energy from one trophic level is transferred to the next level, so what
happens to the 90% energy that is lost?
3 Do you think a pyramid is a good shape to represent how matter and energy transfer in an ecosystem? Why or
why not?

1 Take a look at Figure 4.9. State the organism that would fulfil the following roles: Quick check 4.2
producer, primary consumer, apex predator.
2 Construct a food chain for the diagram above.
3 Distinguish between a producer and a consumer, providing an example of each.
4 Explain why energy is an essential component required within an ecosystem.

Practical 4.2: Self-design

Design your own ecosystem in a closed plastic bottle

Aim
To design and build a closed (sealed) ecosystem using plastic drink bottles.

Method
1 Create a drawing of your design, showing a step-by-step method of how your ecosystem will be made.
2 Make a list of all the materials you will need to use in your ecosystem; for example, dirt, worms, plant material.
3 Check your design with your teacher.
4 Once you have your teacher’s approval, construct your ecosystem.

Results
Take some pictures of your completed ecosystem in a bottle each day for one week.

Evaluation
1 How is energy received and produced in your ecosystem?
2 Identify three producers and consumers of your ecosystem.
3 Explain how your ecosystem works.
4 List the biotic and abiotic factors that affect your ecosystem.
5 Discuss how efficient you believe your ecosystem is and provide reasons for your answer.
6 Suggest two ways you could improve the design of your ecosystem if you repeated this activity in the future.

Conclusion
Write a conclusion for this activity. Include the strengths and weaknesses of your design and what you learned.

Energy within ecosystems: plants to capture the Sun’s radiant energy and
photosynthesis, respiration and use it to produce glucose. This then forms
eutrophication the energy source for all the consumers along
the remainder of the food chain, including
Photosynthesis
us! Plants also use the glucose as their own
An ecosystem derives its energy from the Sun,
energy source. Even the waste product of
and this energy is cycled through the plants,
photosynthesis is incredibly useful for us
animals and microorganisms
photosynthesis
humans, as plants release oxygen as a product
the chemical reaction by
living within it. The process
which organisms make their of the chemical reaction.
own food called photosynthesis allows

sunlight sunlight

chloroplasts in plant
cells perform
photosynthesis

Figure 4.10 Plants trap sunlight in tiny organelles called chloroplasts and use it to produce
glucose and oxygen from the reaction of carbon dioxide and water.

The chemical reaction named photosynthesis uses carbon dioxide and water, and in the
presence of sunlight converts these into glucose and oxygen. The plant joins the glucose
molecules together to form starch and stores it for later use.

This reaction can be described with the simple equations shown below:
Carbon dioxide + Water Glucose + Oxygen

6CO2 + 6H2O C6H12O6 + 6O2

Figure 4.11 Chemical and word equations of the photosynthesis reaction

Photosynthesis occurs in chloroplasts, an Plants can either immediately use the glucose
organelle in plant cells that contains the they produce, store it as starch or build it
substance chlorophyll, which is responsible into cellulose to make their cell walls or other
for absorbing the Sun’s energy. Light energy cellular components. Photosynthesis can be
is converted and stored as chemical energy in affected by the plant’s environment, with
glucose, through the steps of photosynthesis. factors such as the availability and intensity
of sunlight and the availability of water
determining the effectiveness of the process.

Practical 4.3

The effect of light on plants

Aim
To investigate whether light is needed for plants to
produce glucose (stored as starch) by photosynthesis.

Materials
• a plant that has been left in a sunny position for
2–3 days. Some of its leaves should have been
exposed to sunlight, while some of the leaves
should have been wrapped in aluminium foil to
block out the sunlight.
• 1% starch solution • 2 test tubes
Figure 4.12 A leaf (from pondweed Elodea
• methylated spirits • test tube holder
canadensis) as seen under a microscope at
magnification of ×200. Note the green chloroplasts. • iodine • white tile
• hot water bath • forceps
• Petri dish
Looking at chloroplasts under a light Try this 4.5
microscope Method
1 Collect one leaf that has been exposed to sunlight
Materials
and one leaf that was wrapped in foil.
moss or spirogyra plant, dilute iodine solution, water, light
2 Place each leaf in boiling water for 30 seconds.
microscope, slides, coverslips, tweezers
3 Remove the leaves and place each in a test tube
Method with enough methylated spirits to cover them.
1 Using tweezers, carefully remove a leaf from the plant Test tube 1: leaf from plant kept in light
and place it on a microscope slide. Test tube 2: leaf from plant kept in dark
2 Put a drop of water on the leaf and cover with a coverslip. 4 Place the test tubes in a hot water bath for
3 Starting at the lowest magnification, observe the approximately 10 minutes.
leaf through the light microscope. Can you see any 5 Remove the leaves from the test tubes with
chloroplasts? forceps and wash in cold water.
4 Remove the slide and gently lift the coverslip. Stain your 6 Place leaves in a Petri dish on a white tile and add
sample by putting a drop of the dilute iodine solution on 2–3 drops of iodine to each leaf. Iodine reacts with
the leaf. Iodine stains starch a dark blue-black colour. starch to produce a blue-black colour, as shown
5 Repeat step 3. Can you see any chloroplasts? in the diagram on the next page. You can test this
6 Discuss with a partner the observed characteristics of the with the 1% starch solution by adding iodine to it.
chloroplasts. continued…

…continued

Iodine solution

Petri dish

White tile

Effect of iodine on the leaf

Figure 4.13 Experimental set-up

Results
Draw up a results table showing the leaf type, reaction and presence of starch.

Leaf type Reaction of leaf to iodine Starch present (✓) or absent (✗)

Exposed to sunlight

Wrapped in aluminium foil

Evaluation
1 Why do you think the methylated spirits was added to the test tube?
2 What reaction happens when iodine encounters starch?
3 What did you observe when the methylated spirits was added to the leaves in the test tubes?
4 Identify the independent variable in this experiment.
5 Explain the results you obtained, with reference to the terms photosynthesis, chloroplasts, glucose and energy.
6 Did the results support your hypothesis? Why or why not?
7 Suggest two ways the experiment design could be improved.
8 Suggest two possible sources of error for this experiment.

Conclusion
1 Make a claim from this experiment regarding light and photosynthesis.
2 Support the statement by using your observations.
3 Explain how your observations support your claim.

Cellular respiration dioxide and water as waste products. Small

Plants do not simply perform photosynthesis packets of energy (in the form of ATP) is
to produce glucose just for consumers to eat! also released, and plants, animals, bacteria
cellular respiration Producers, just like consumers, need and humans all need that energy to power
a chemical process where
glucose is burnt with oxygen,
to break down that glucose to release the functions of our cells.
producing carbon dioxide
and water and releasing
energy in a useable form. This process
energy is called cellular respiration. The chemical reaction for cellular respiration is
shown in Figure 4.14.
During cellular respiration, glucose is broken
down with oxygen and it produces carbon

Energy (ATP)

Glucose + Oxygen Carbon dioxide + Water

C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O

Energy (ATP)
Figure 4.14 The process of cellular respiration

The overall process of respiration is carried (singular: mitochondrion) in plant and

out in cell organelles called mitochondria animal cells, as shown in Figure 4.15.

Photosynthesis

O2 + C6H12O6
Light energy Chloroplast

CO2 + H2O

Cellular Mitochondrion
respiration
Chemical energy
(ATP)

Figure 4.15 The relationship between photosynthesis and respiration. They are almost
opposites of each other!

Eutrophication
Linking back to the energy processes the term given to killing of life in a lake as a
eutrophication of photosynthesis and respiration, result of excessive growth of algae, which has
killing of life in a lake as a
result of excessive growth is another process known as occurred as a result of an overabundance of
of algae
eutrophication. Eutrophication is nutrients in the water.

Figure 4.16 An example of algae overgrowth in a lake

Eutrophication Explore! 4.1

1 Research how eutrophication occurs, then draw a flow chart summarising the key steps in
the process of eutrophication.
2 Find some locations in Australia where eutrophication has or is occurring. Make a list of five waterways
affected and the states of Australia they are in.
3 How can governments help prevent eutrophication and how can they fix the problem after it has already
started? Summarise in dot points what you find out.

Practical 4.4

Phosphates in fertilisers and detergents

Aim
To investigate the effect of detergent on the health of plants.

Materials
• water plant
• detergent diluted to 84% solution (distilled water), 1% detergent, 5% detergent and 10% detergent
• 4 × 250 mL beakers
• 10 mL measuring cylinder
• 100 mL measuring cylinder
• glass stirring rod
• weighing balance
• ruler

Method
1 Construct a hypothesis for this experiment relating to the effect that the detergent has on the overall health
of the plant.
2 Cut four 20 cm lengths of a water plant then weigh and record each.
3 Label the beakers 1–4, and place one length of the water plant in each beaker. continued…

…continued
4 Fill the first beaker with 100 mL of tap water Measuring cylinder
using a 100 mL measuring cylinder.
5 Measure 1 mL of detergent in the 10 mL
10 0 mL
measuring cylinder and then transfer to
the 100 mL measuring cylinder.
6 Dilute with water by adding water up to
Water
the 100 mL mark. Use a glass stirring rod to 50 mL
ensure the solution is mixed consistently.
7 Transfer the 1% detergent solution to
10 mL Detergent
beaker 2.
8 Repeat steps 5–6 with 5 mL of detergent to Stir and pour into
create a 5% solution. Add to beaker 3. beaker number 4
9 Repeat steps 5–6 with 10 mL of detergent to
create a 10% solution. Add to beaker 4.
10 Place the four beakers, uncovered, on a
window sill to stand for 7 days. Plant
11 After 7 days have passed, weigh and make
observations of the plants. You can use the 1 2 3 4
ruler for appropriate measurements.
Figure 4.17 Experimental set-up
Results
Complete the results table below and graph these results.

Detergent solution Plant mass Plant mass Observational change

(original) (after 7 days)
0%
1%
5%
10%

Evaluation
1 In a scientific experiment, it is often important to include a ‘control’ as it provides a benchmark to measure
the other results against. No interventions are done to the control. State which beaker in this experiment
represented the control and give a reason for your answer.
2 Explain whether the observational changes related with the change in the plant’s mass after 7 days.
3 Can you explain the effect detergent had, with reference to eutrophication?
4 Compare the results from the graph with your predictions about which percentage detergent solution would
impact the plant the most.
5 Suggest two possible sources of error in this experiment.
6 Suggest two ways the experimental design could be improved.

Conclusion
1 Make a claim from this experiment regarding detergent and the health of plants.
2 Support the statement by using your observations (include potential sources of error).
3 Explain how your observations support your claim.

1 Rewrite these sentences by filling in the blanks: Quick check 4.3

a Photosynthesis glucose by capturing radiant
from the Sun.
b Cellular respiration breaks down to release useable energy.
c Plants perform and cellular respiration.
d Humans can only perform and must other organisms for a source
of glucose.
2 What are the worded equations for photosynthesis and cellular respiration?
3 What happens when an excess supply of nutrients is introduced to a healthy body of water?

Environmental changes The fires lit by Aboriginal and Torres Strait

affecting ecosystems Islander Peoples were regular in frequency
and low in intensity, contained within
Many biotic and abiotic factors may also VIDEO
manageable areas. This regular use of fire
affect population size. These factors are Cause of bush
likely resulted in vegetation of varying ages fires.
known as secondary ecological events as
across the landscape.
they affect one or more of the four primary
ecological factors (birth, death, immigration
and emigration rates). For example, seasonal
changes, such as drought or flood, may
increase the death rates within a population.
Within Australia, fires, drought and flood
all have consequences on population size of
organisms living within ecosystems.

Seasonal changes effects on

ecosystems: fire
Bushfires have a major influence on
Australian ecosystems. They have both
positive effects such as encouraging plant
development, and negative effects such as
killing wildlife.
Figure 4.18 A controlled burn in the Northern Territory clears the brush.
Bushfires can stem from natural causes such
as lightning strikes, however, they can also The primary fuel for bushfires is dead, fine
be deliberately lit. Aboriginal and Torres vegetation on the forest floor. Bushfire
Strait Islander Peoples learned to harness risk has a lot to do with how moist the
bushfires as an important tool for purposes fuel is. If the vegetation is green and
such as: contains greater than 30% moisture it will
• easier access through thorny and thick not ignite; however, when the moisture is
vegetation lower, fires can ignite and spread easily. In
• attracting animals for hunting purposes Victoria on ‘Black Saturday’, 7 February
through new growth of vegetation 2009, the entire landscape for much of
• developing the growth of useful plants for the afternoon had a moisture content of
food and spiritual purposes. less than 5%. Under these conditions the

slightest spark can ignite the fuel and fires Fire does not just destroy homes, but also
will spread very rapidly. ‘Black Saturday’ destroys the landscape, therefore, many
was Australia’s worst-ever bushfire and animals will either die in the fire or escape
worst peace time disaster. The fires, of to a safer area, but are then unable to return
which there were over 400 recorded, to their natural habitat, because there are
resulted in 173 confirmed deaths, and more no food sources available or their home is
than 2000 homes destroyed, with entire gone. It may take years for the food sources
towns badly damaged and some almost to recover. This results in an increase in the
destroyed. death rate and a decrease in the birth rate.

Figure 4.19 New tree growth sprouts on the 3-month anniversary of ‘Black Saturday’.

The positive outcomes of fire include: • the bushy undergrowth burns away,
• burning releases nutrients locked in plant allowing more sunlight to reach seeds and
and rotting organic materials, enriching young plants
the soil for germinating seeds • some seed pods are triggered to open.

Practical 4.5

Seed germination after a fire

Be careful
Aim Ensure only a small quantity
To determine whether it is the ash or the heat of the fire that encourages of leaves is burning at
seeds to germinate. any one time. Prolonged
Materials exposure of metal forceps
• wattle seeds to fire will cause the forceps
• leaves to burn to become hot. This may
• newspaper cause burns.
• water continued…

…continued
• metal forceps
• container to burn leaves
• container with soil to plant seeds in
• matches

Method
1 Construct a hypothesis for this experiment.
2 Light some dry leaves using the matches. You can add some newspaper if you wish.
3 While the leaves are burning, subject half of the seeds to heat by holding them with forceps close to the fire.
4 Plant these seeds in one end of the container with the soil. Press small thumb holes into the soil, drop the
seed in at a depth of around 0.5 cm and cover with soil. Label this end ‘heat’.
5 Plant the other half of the seeds in the other end of the container. Instead of covering them with soil, drop
them into the small holes and cover with ash. Label this end ‘ash’.
6 Water gently.
7 Observe your seeds over the next two weeks.

Results
Record which seeds successfully germinated.

Evaluation
1 What do your results suggest about the effect of bushfires on seeds?
2 Did your results support your hypothesis? Give a reason for this.
3 Suggest two possible sources of error in this experiment.
4 Suggest two ways the experimental design could be improved in the future.

Conclusion
1 Make a claim from this experiment regarding seed germination and fire.
2 Support the statement by using your observations.
3 Explain how your observations support your claim.

Seasonal changes effects on degradation (such as erosion and loss of

ecosystems: droughts and floods mineral nutrients) and spread of disease. In
Droughts can play a significant role on the Australia, flooding is estimated to cause in
overall effectiveness of ecosystems. They can excess of $400 million in damage per year,
have major impacts on the rural economy more than any other natural disaster.
and can lead to other environmental
problems such as severe fires, dust storms
and the degradation of land.

It is common in parts of Australia to

experience droughts that are ended by floods.
Flash floods tend to be localised, short-lived
and generally the result of an extreme storm.
Conversely, longer-lasting flooding can
result from heavy rain over the catchments
of extensive river systems. The negative
impact that can result from flooding incudes
loss of human life, livestock and wildlife,
damage to homes and infrastructure, land Figure 4.20 An example of soil after a drought

The environmental benefits of flooding result

1 State two Quick check 4.4
from recharging the underground water negative and
systems and flushing excess salts from the positive outcomes of bushfire.
soil. They can also deposit sediments on the 2 What is the main fuel for bushfires?
flood plains, resulting in a nutrient-rich soil, 3 What is a flash flood?
and allow fish and other animals that need 4 State two environmental benefits of
the water to disperse to other areas. This flooding.
results in an increase in emigration rates.

Section 4.1 questions

QUIZ Remembering
1 What are the three components of an ecosystem?
2 What are the word and chemical equations for cellular respiration?
3 What are the word and chemical equations for photosynthesis?
4 When energy is transferred along a food chain from organism to organism (or up the trophic
pyramid) approximately what percentage is efficiently transferred?
5 Provide two specific examples of biotic factors found within the biome of an Australian desert.
6 Recall how burning helps to maintain biodiversity within an ecosystem. List two ways that
fire can maintain diversity.

Understanding
7 Explain why humans are not considered to be autotrophs.
8 Classify the organisms in the food web below as producers, primary consumers, secondary
consumers and tertiary consumers.
9 A rabbit eats some
grass to gain its
energy. Explain
where this energy
originated from, and Rat
Dragonfly
what processes it Frog
went through to be
in a useable form for
the rabbit to carry out
cellular functions.
10 Outline two examples Grasshopper Butterfly
of how floods may
negatively influence
an ecosystem.

Applying
11 Discuss the biological
impacts that the use of
detergents could have
Corn Flowering plant Lavender
within ecosystems.

Analysing
12 Compare and contrast the role of a heterotroph with an autotroph within an ecosystem.
13 The table at the top of the next page shows oxygen levels around plants at different light
intensities.
a Graph the results.
b Analyse the findings.
continued…
Cambridge Science ISBN 978-1-108-62918-8 © Ardley et al. 2019 Cambridge University Press
Victorian Curriculum Year 9 Photocopying is restricted under law and this material must not be transferred to another party. Updated September 2023
Section 4.2 INTERACTIONS BETWEEN ORGANISMS AND THEIR ENVIRONMENT 145

…continued
Light intensity (%) Oxygen (µL/min)
9 4
15 9
28 17
48 29
55 34
90 55
100 60
14 In your own words, outline one similarity and one difference between photosynthesis and respiration.
15 Explain the difference between a community and a habitat.

Evaluating
16 Construct a mind map showing the relationship between the different levels of consumer within an
ecosystem.
17 Evaluate the following statement: ‘Ecosystems would cease to exist, should producers be eliminated.’

4.2 Interactions between

organisms and their
environment

Abiotic factors play an important role in different species within the niche and takes
the overall distribution and abundance into account changes in behaviour during
of organisms within an ecosystem. Some different times of the day and different WORKSHEET
organisms will only tolerate a narrow range seasonal times. Examples of different types
of a certain abiotic factor, for example, of interactions that take place include
temperature, and this determines where they competition and symbiotic relationships such
can live. as mutualism, commensalism and parasitism.

The role an organism fulfils within an Competition

ecosystem is known as the ecological niche
Organisms in a similar niche within an
ecologic niche of a species. This includes its
the role an organism ecosystem compete with one another
habitat, its nutrition and its
fulfils in an ecosystem,
when they use the same resources that are
e.g. its habitat, nutrition,
relationships or interactions VIDEO
interactions with other in short supply. Competition for finite Examples of
organisms with other organisms within
resources usually means that different interspecific
the ecosystem, for example, where it makes and
organisms require the same resources, intraspecific
a home, what it eats, what time of the day it relationships.
such as food, space, shelter and mates, to
is active. The interaction between organisms
survive and thrive. Competition within and
may occur between the same species or
between species is a common feature of all

communities. Interspecific competition Symbiotic relationships

refers to the competition for the same
When individuals from two different species
interspecific competition resource, such as a specific
competition for food or resources share a close and long-term biological VIDEO
between members of different species food source, between members Relationships
relationship, it is known as a symbiotic
intraspecific competition of a different species. One such between
relationship. There are three different organisms.
competition for food or resources
example is kangaroo and sheep
between members of the same
forms of symbiotic relationships and they
species competing for grass as their
differ according to how
major food source. Whereas intraspecific symbiotic relationship
the organisms are affected.
competition refers to the competition that a relationship between two
They are: types of living things that
occurs between the members of the same help at least one of them
1 Mutualism survive
species, such as male brolgas (Australian
2 Commensalism
cranes) competing with one another to find
3 Parasitism.
a mate. Note that intraspecific competition
is usually more intense than interspecific
Mutualism
competition because organisms of the same
Mutualism is a symbiotic
species will have identical needs. mutualism
relationship that occurs a symbiotic relationship
where both organisms
when both species within benefit

the relationship benefit pollinator

an organism, such as an
from living closely together insect, that carries pollen
from one plant, or part of a
and neither are harmed. plant, to another
For example, plants have a
mutualistic relationship with pollinators.
Pollinators are vital for many flowering
plants to reproduce. Like grasses, some

Figure 4.21 Male brolgas competing for mates is an example of

intraspecific competition.

If two species are in competition with each

other for the same limited resources, the
better suited and more effective species will
be able to utilise the resource more than the
other species. This may lead the less efficient
competitor to leave the ecosystem to find an
environment with less competition.

1 Define the term ‘interspecific Quick check 4.5

competition’.
2 Define the term ‘intraspecific competition’.
3 What happens when two species are competing for food,
and one species is better adapted or stronger? Figure 4.22 A bee pollinating a flower is an example
of mutualism.

plants can be pollinated by wind, yet many Because the pollinator benefits from feeding
flowering plants do rely on pollinators such on the nectar from the plant and the plant
as insects, birds, small mammals or reptiles benefits by being pollinated, the relationship
to transfer pollen from one plant to another. is mutualistic.

Salamanders and algae relationship Science as a human endeavour 4.1

In 2017, scientists discovered a new type of symbiotic relationship
between salamanders and algae, and a very strange one
at that! In a bizarre and intimate arrangement, these
two very different species seem to share cells. The
photosynthetic algae make their home inside the body
cells of the salamander but it is not clear what benefit
this has. The algae were already known to grow inside
the eggs of the salamander, which was a mutualistic
relationship. The algae releases oxygen into the egg and
feeds off the nitrogen-rich waste the egg produces.
Scientists sequenced the DNA of both organisms,
revealing that the salamander does still recognise
the algae as ‘foreign’. They hypothesise that it might
potentially benefit the salamander by teaching its Figure 4.23 A salamander hatching out of an egg
immune system to not let disease-causing agents
migrate into their cells in the future.

Commensalism amongst stinging sea anemones in the Great

Commensalism is a symbiotic relationship in Barrier Reef. The clownfish in this example
which one organism benefits, while the other typically uses the stinging sea anemone to
organism is not affected (neither harmed nor hide in not for food but rather for survival:
benefits). These types of relationships are to protect it from predators. Other examples
much rarer than mutualism include hermit crabs making use of the shells
commensalism
a symbiotic relationship or parasitism. One example from dead snails or seashells as their homes,
where one organism benefits,
and the other neither benefits is that of a clownfish as seen and mites getting a ‘free ride’ by attaching to
nor is harmed
in Finding Nemo that lives other larger insects.

Figure 4.24 An example of clown fish living amongst sea Figure 4.25 A hermit crab looking to upgrade his
anemone to help protect it against predators home to a larger shell

Parasitism There are two main types of parasites:

Parasitism is a symbiotic relationship in ectoparasites and endoparasites. ‘Ecto’ means
which one species benefits and the other is outer or external, so ectoparasites live on
harmed. The species that benefits is called the surface of other organisms, for example,
the parasite and the one that is harmed is lice found on a lizard. ‘Endo’ means inner or
the host. The host is often harmed, but not internal, so endoparasites are found living inside
usually killed, as then the parasite would die other organisms. An example of an endoparasite
too! Instead, the parasite survives could be a tapeworm living in a sheep’s digestive
parasitism
a symbiotic relationship on or in the host, and causes minor system. Many species of animals are parasites,
where a parasite benefits
from living on or in a host damage such as stealing nutrients. at least during some stage of their life. Most
(which is harmed) species are also host to one or more parasites.

Figure 4.26 These are tapeworms, which are endoparasites that inhabit the digestive tracts of animals and
humans. They use their specialised hooks to anchor themselves in the intestine and absorb nutrients through
their body wall. Disturbingly, they can grow to several metres in length, but do not necessarily cause symptoms.

1 Complete the table below, describing the types of relationships between organisms. Quick check 4.6
Use a smiley face, sad face or neutral face to show how each organism is affected.

Relationship Definition Organism 1 Organism 2

Competition
Mutualism
Commensalism
Parasitism

2 What is the key difference between an ectoparasite and an endoparasite?

Disease vectors
Within an ecosystem there are organisms,
called vectors, that are capable of spreading
disease by carrying and transmitting
vector a pathogen (a disease-causing agent,
an agent (either a human,
animal or microorganism) such as bacteria or a virus). Some
that carries and transmits a
pathogen (disease-causing examples of vectors are mosquitoes,
agent) from an infected
organism to a non-infected ticks and flies. The disease can Figure 4.27 Female mosquitoes of certain species
organism
be transmitted directly into the within the genus Anopheles can transmit malaria.

bloodstream flow from a bite. According to waste systems, as well as deforestation that
the World Health Organization, mosquitoes results in loss of biodiversity. The areas
are the primary vector for transmitting both in which vector organisms can breed can
malaria and the Zika virus. be reduced by managing our environment
and ensuring there are not large, stagnant
Increase in vector-borne diseases may pools of water.
be linked to poorly designed water and

Zika virus Explore! 4.2

The Zika virus is transmitted to people through the bite of an infected Aedes genus mosquito
in tropical regions. This is the same mosquito that transmits dengue, chikungunya and yellow fever. A mosquito
becomes infected with the Zika virus by sucking the blood of an infected person. The infection develops in the
mosquito, and after 1–2 weeks, there will be viral particles present in the mosquito’s saliva. When it bites another
human, the viral particles can be transmitted, causing this previously healthy person to contract the Zika virus.
1 Research and summarise the latest statistics on the prevalence of Zika worldwide.
2 Summarise the key symptoms that a sufferer of Zika virus will show.
3 Integrated vector management (IVM) strategies are designed to interrupt or reduce the transmission of
vector-borne viruses, such as the Zika virus. Make a list of the things you could do, while travelling in tropical
regions, to prevent being bitten by a mosquito.

Mosquito factories Did you know? 4.1

China is home of the world’s largest mosquito factory. The factory’s male mosquitoes
are infected with a strain of Wolbachia pipientis, a common bacterium that is shown to inhibit the spread of the
Zika virus or result in unsuccessful reproduction. These male mosquitoes are then released on Shazai and
Dadao Islands to mate with wild female mosquitoes uninfected with Wolbachia. The resulting eggs are unable to
hatch, so fewer mosquitoes develop. Researchers hope that this will help eradicate mosquitoes carrying the virus
in areas affected by Zika and other diseases.

Figure 4.28 A lab technician pours mosquito pupae into containers at the facility in
Guangzhou, China.

Predator–prey of drought, they eat whatever they are able

to find, which amplifies their impact. They
A predator-prey relationship occurs when
have contributed to the decline of native
one organism, known as the predator, kills
plants and animals, and have even been
and eats another organism, known as the
WIDGET linked to the extinction of several small
prey. It is unusual for predators to depend
Predator-prey mammals in Australia.
interaction upon one species of prey, so that if the prey
species reduces in supply, the predator can
turn to other species to prey upon.
predator
an animal that hunts other
For example, foxes prey on rabbits,
animals as its source of food but are also capable of hunting and
prey
living animal that is captured
eating newborn lambs and other
and eaten by a predator small mammals.

The relationship that exists between predator

and prey is usually balanced, but occasionally
there is a change in balance due to a change
in conditions. For example, under favourable
conditions, there may be an increase in the
prey population, and as a consequence, the
number of predators can also increase. If a Figure 4.30 Feral rabbits have caused damage in many different
Australian habitats.
period of adverse conditions occurs to reduce
the prey population, predators will turn to
another prey species and there may be an Rabbit-proofing Explore! 4.3
increase in intraspecific competition amongst Within Australia, there are three
the predators. different methods used for effective rabbit control:
biological, chemical and mechanical. Combining two
Prey–predator cycles or more techniques was found to be more effective
than just using one.
Research the three methods that are currently
Prey
Population used within Australia to control the population size of
feral rabbits, and then summarise how each is used.
Predator
population

Time
Figure 4.29 Predator and prey populations exhibit
fluctuations in size. The prey cycle is mainly driven
by an increase or decrease in predation, but other
factors, such as a winter food shortage or draught,
may also be important.

Modelling predator–prey cycle using

the feral rabbit
In Australia, feral rabbits impact upon the
natural ecosystems by competing with native
wildlife, damaging vegetation and degrading
the land through their burrowing. They Figure 4.31 Despite the 1700 kilometre-long rabbit-proof
fence that was built in 1901–07, rabbits have infiltrated
also eat seeds and seedlings, which prevents
Western Australia. The holes in the ground indicate their
regeneration. When food is scarce, such as extensive warrens.
immediately after a fire or during seasons

Feral rabbits do have natural predators such as the red fox; however, their ability to reproduce Try this 4.6
quickly has seen rabbits continue to thrive within Australia. Generally, if there is a shortage in
the number of prey, then there will be fewer of their predator surviving in that environment. Another example of a
predator and prey relationship in the deserts of Australia, is that of the red kangaroo and the dingo. The dingo is
the key predator in this biome and although their prey are not usually kangaroos, sometimes when food is scarce,
they will hunt and kill them.
Using the graph below, answer the following questions.

3000 60

Red kangaroo 2500 50

2000 40

Dingo
1500 30
1000 20
500 10
0 0
1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010
Years

Figure 4.32 Population sizes changing over time for the dingo (in
blue) and the red kangaroo (in red)

1 When was the greatest abundance of red kangaroos?

2 What happens to the dingo population as red kangaroo numbers increase?
3 Examine what happens to the dingo population size when the red kangaroo population size decreases.
4 Describe the pattern of the predator–prey relationship shown in the graph above.
5 Identify and discuss a factor, other than the red kangaroo population, that may influence the size of the dingo
population.
6 Identify and discuss a factor, other than the dingo population, that may influence the size of the red kangaroo
population.

Section 4.2 questions

Remembering QUIZ
1 What type of symbiotic relationship does a pollinator and a plant share?
2 List three insects that can act as vectors.
3 When there is a large increase in the population size of an animal that is prey, what tends to
happen to the population size of the predators?

Understanding
4 Two male bull elephants fight for access to females. What sort of competition is this an
example of?
5 A recent flood has left large pools of stagnant water in a rural village. Infer what might
happen to mosquito-transmitted diseases in the area, giving a reason for your answer.
6 Explain what is meant by an organism’s ‘ecological niche’.

Applying
7 If all the predators from an area were removed, discuss the positive and negative effects on
the overall sustainability of the ecosystem.
8 Copy and complete the table on page 152, detailing the types of relationships between
organisms. Give an example that has not appeared in this chapter.
continued…

…continued
Relationship Definition New example
Competition – interspecific
Competition – intraspecific
Mutualism
Commensalism
Parasitism
Predator–prey

9 List three examples of predators and research what their preferred prey is.

Analysing
10 Compare and contrast the role of an ectoparasite and an endoparasite, providing examples for each.
11 Examine the role of mutualistic relationships within ecosystems, using examples not already used in this chapter.

Evaluating
12 Justify the importance of both interspecific and intraspecific competition within an ecosystem.
13 Decide whether the following descriptions are examples of mutualism, commensalism or parasitism.
a A man notices he has tinea (a fungus) growing between his toes.
b A woman notices her cat looks very bloated. She takes it to the vet and they suggest de worming the cat,
as it likely has tapeworm.
c Small fish swim around on the back of whale-sharks for protection from predators.
d Birds stand close to wild buffalo and eat the insects that are stirred up as the buffalo graze.

4.3 Population dynamics

within ecosystems

How does population size It is the combination of these immigration

the movement of individuals
change? four factors that produce the into the population
WORKSHEET change in the numbers and emigration
Population sizes may fluctuate within an
size of a population over time. the movement of individuals
ecosystem. Demography is the name we give to out of the population
Immigration refers to the
the study of vital statistics that affect population
movement of individuals into the population,
size. There are four primary ecological events
whereas emigration refers to the movement
that determine population size:
of individuals out of a population. The
1 Birth rates
equation below best represents this change in
2 Death rates
population size:
3 Immigration rates
4 Emigration rates.
Change in population size = (births + immigration) – (deaths + emigration)

It makes sense that if the sum of the births Exponential growth is not a very sustainable
and immigration is greater than the deaths or realistic model within the real world as it
and emigration of the population, then the depends on infinite amounts of resources,
population should increase in size, and vice such as food. Even growth of bacteria in the
versa. This is known as the population’s lab will slow down eventually, as they start to
growth rate. Many other factors may also compete for space and food, exhausting both.
affect population size and they include both
biotic and abiotic factors. These factors are Logistic growth
known as secondary ecological events as they A better model that may be more realistic in
have an influence over one or more of the the real world is known as logistic growth.
four primary ecological factors discussed. The population can increase rapidly at first,
but then starts to plateau (flatten out) as
Population growth models resources are limited and competition logistic growth
increases. You can see in Figure 4.34 population growth that
Exponential growth increases initially, but then
that this creates an S-shaped curve. plateaus (flattens out) once
Within an ecosystem, population growth it reached a certain point
The population size at which the
fluctuates. When exponential growth is carrying capacity
curve levels off, which represents the the maximum population
observed, the population’s size a particular environment
exponential growth maximum population size a particular can support
a rapidly accelerating growth rate rapidly accelerates
increase in population size environment can support, is called
or increases over time.
the carrying capacity (in other words, the
Bacteria grown in a laboratory provide an
sustainable capacity of a given environment).
excellent example of exponential growth, as
shown in Figure 4.33. Bacteria reproduce by Carrying capacity
binary fission (splitting in half ), and the time
between divisions is about 20 minutes. For
example, if we start by placing 10 bacteria in
Population size

a flask with an unlimited supply of nutrients,

after 20 minutes each bacterium will divide,
yielding 20 bacteria, an increase of 10. After
40 minutes, each of the 20 bacteria will
divide, producing 40 bacteria, an increase of
20 bacteria. After 2 hours, or 120 minutes,
there would be 640 bacteria. The growth
Time
rate increases as the population increases.
Figure 4.34 A graph showing logistic population
growth versus time (note the S-shaped curve)

As populations approach their carrying

capacity, individuals start to die because of
Population size

insufficient resources. They may also emigrate

to find areas with more space and resources.

Population size tends to conform to the

carrying capacity, as shown in Figure 4.35
on page 154. For example, when a population
of kangaroos move into a new area with
Time abundant food, they may reproduce rapidly.
Figure 4.33 A graph showing an exponential
However, there is only so much grass that
increase in population size versus time can grow, so as the number of kangaroos

approaches the carrying capacity of that grow any larger. In this example, food is
habitat, their rates of reproduction slows the limiting factor.
down to ensure the population size matches
the carrying capacity. Apart from food, there are other factors that
can limit population growth such as:
• shelter (for example, owls that rely on
hollows in trees will search new locations
for nesting spots)
Population size

• the number of predators

Carrying • availability of water
capacity • the balance of male and female numbers
• the presence of diseases.
Limiting factors are associated with carrying
capacity. For example, a group of koalas
may strip the leaves from a small group of
eucalyptus trees. Food becomes a limiting
Time
factor and the forest now has a reduced
Figure 4.35 A graph showing population size versus carrying capacity for koalas as it requires
time. Note how despite the fluctuations in population
size, it tends to hover close to the carrying capacity.
time for the leaves to grow back. The koalas
may need to move to another area to prevent
Limiting factors versus carrying starvation.
capacity
Any form of biotic or abiotic factors within
1 What is the difference Quick check 4.7
an ecosystem that prevent the population between exponential
limiting factor from growing any larger, are known growth and logistic growth within a population?
biotic or abiotic factor that
prevent a population from
as limiting factors. For example, 2 How do limiting factors relate to the carrying
growing 100 grey kangaroos may live in an capacity of a species’ population size within a
ecosystem that has enough water, shelter habitat?
and space to support 200 grey kangaroos,
but if there is only enough food for 100
grey kangaroos, the population will not Methods used to determine the
size of a population
Using a quadrat
In some cases, it may be possible to count
the number of individuals of a particular
species; for example, the number of echidnas
in an area of state forest. However, in most
cases counting the individual organisms
would be impossible or impractical, and
hence a sampling method
quadrat
may be necessary. A quadrat a tool used to measure
is a tool used to record the species abundance

abundance or density of a particular species

in a study area, without needing to count
Figure 4.36 The carrying capacity of the grey kangaroo population would
be 100 if there are only enough resources for 100 grey kangaroos to every organism. For example, a quadrat can
feasibly survive. be used to help count the population size of

plants, slow-moving animals and marine algae. Using quadrats, the population number and
density of each species can be estimated.

Figure 4.37 Using a 1-metre square quadrat, like this one Figure 4.38 Students using quadrats to examine the
shown above, would allow scientists to count the frequency of abundance of seaweed and other living organisms
a particular species in that area. on the seashore

A quadrat is placed using random sampling After counting the sample of plants or
or systematic sampling within the area you animals in a quadrat, you then calculate the
are studying, and the number of individual average number of individuals per quadrat
species you are studying is counted for each (total number of individuals counted divided
quadrat. To achieve truly random sampling, by number of quadrats), and then calculate
a grid of numbers and letters should be laid the total population using the following
over the sampling area and the numbers and equation:
letters generated at random.

Average number per quadrat Total area being studied

Total population
Area of quadrat

For example, four quadrats are randomly The average number of orchids per quadrat
placed in a bushland area of 1200 m2 and the ° in total
is = 1.5 orchids.
number of native orchids is counted. The ° quadrats
results are as follows:
The best estimate of the total population
Quadrat 1 3 orchids or orchids in this bushland area using the
Quadrat 2 1 orchid formula is:
Quadrat 3 2 orchids
Quadrat 4 0 orchids

Average number per quadrat Total area being studied °.° °°°°
Total population °°°° orchids
Area of quadrat °

Practical 4.6

Sampling an ecosystem
Aim
To investigate an ecosystem such as a bushland or native grassland.

Materials
• quadrats or wooden frames
• measuring tape or wheel
• string
• plant species identification guide

Methods
1 As a class, decide on the type of area you will be investigating and the number of quadrats that are needed to
cover 5% of the total area being studied. This could be done around school or as part of an excursion by going
out on a field trip to a designated national park, etc.
2 In groups of four, investigate the plant species found in one quadrat. Take photographs of the different
species you see.
3 Using the plant species identification guide, try to identify the plant species. Alternatively, take a photo of
plants within the quadrat for later analysis.

Results
Establish the percentage species cover by following these steps.
1 Using graph paper, divide into 100 squares to mark the location of each plant.
2 Estimate how much of each square the plant covers. For example, if it covers half the square, list it as 50%. If
in the next square it covers a quarter of the square, list it as 25%.
3 You can do this for all 100 small squares, or you can take a sampling of say 10 squares, tally up the
percentage, then divide it by 10 to get the average percentage cover.

Sum of % cover from each square

Percentage of species cover =
Total number of squares sampled

4 Collate the class results.

Figure 4.39 Setting up quadrats and counting plants. The dark green
plant covers 25% of the 1 m by 1 m quadrat. continued…

…continued
Evaluation
1 Identify the most frequent vegetation species in the area that was investigated.
2 Discuss two factors within the area that may have contributed to it being the most frequent species.
3 Suggest a strength and a limitation of using a quadrat to determine plant abundance in certain areas.
4 Suggest a way you could improve this practical activity if you were to complete it again in the future.

Conclusion
Summarise your results, with reference to the Aim of your activity.

Capture–mark–recapture
Capture–recapture Try this 4.7
Measuring the population size of fast- modelling
moving animal species is sometimes
difficult. Therefore, a more appropriate Be careful
way of measuring population size, rather No food items are to be
than setting up quadrats consumed.
capture–mark–recapture
method or individually counting all
a method for estimating 1 Several chocolates (M&Ms) have been put in
animal population sizes that the individuals within the
involves capturing, tagging, a container. Look in the container and make
releasing and recapturing a species, is the capture–mark– an estimate as to how many M&Ms there are.
sample of the animal
recapture method. Record your estimate.
1 A sample of the species is captured 2 Using a spoon, dig out a sample of M&Ms.
(maybe about 100 individuals). This is your first trapping sample, M.
2 These individuals are tagged or marked Record this.
in an inconspicuous way, and then 3 To ‘mark’ these M&Ms, simply replace them
released. with Smarties. These marked individuals
3 Sometime later, another sample of must be placed back into the population
the same size is captured from the (container).
population. 4 Shake the container and, without looking,
4 Ecologists count how many marked remove another spoonful of chocolates. This is
individuals are in the second sample and your second trapping sample, n. Record this.
then this information is used to find an 5 How many of the chocolates in your second
estimate of the population size using the trapping sample were Smarties? This is m.
following equation: Record it.
6 Now use the equation on the left to calculate
your population estimate, N.
N n
= 7 Count the actual number of total chocolates in
M m
the container. Record the number.
where 8 Was your estimate using the formula closer
than your initial guess?
N = Population estimate
9 Suggest some ways that could increase the
M = Number of animals captured and
accuracy of your estimate.
marked in first sample
10 Deduce for which species of animal this
n = Number of animals captured in
technique would work well. For which species
second sample
would it not work well? Justify your opinions.
m = Number of n that were already
marked

The northern hairy-nosed wombat Did you know? 4.2

There were as few as 35 northern hairy-nosed wombats (Lasiorhinus krefftii) living
in the wild at one stage, so the species was
placed on the endangered species list. Over
time the northern hairy-nosed wombat has
undergone extensive environmental protection
and management. To monitor the population
size of this species of wombat, it is important
to be able to accurately and regularly monitor
the population. The most accurate technique
used these days is using extracted DNA, which
identifies the individual wombats. By placing
strips of sticky tape across the burrow entrances,
the hairs of the wombats can be collected and
analysed by the scientists. Also, by counting the Figure 4.40 A significant part of the northern hairy-nosed
number of burrows and using cameras at the wombat recovery program occurs at the Epping Forest National
feed stations and burrows in the areas within Park and a second colony has been established at Richard
Underwood Nature Refuge, both in Queensland.
the recovery program, it is possible to monitor
wombat activity and identify reproductive females. It is now estimated that there are at least 200 northern
hairy-nosed wombats in the wild, due to the implementation of the recovery program.

1 For which of the following organisms would a quadrat be an appropriate tool for Quick check 4.8
estimating the population?
a Hawks
b Cacti
c Starfish
d Beetles
2 Place these in the correct order to show how to estimate the number of organisms in an area.
A Count the number of organisms present in the quadrat.
B Randomly place the quadrats.
C Multiply by the number of quadrats that would occupy the area you wish to estimate the population
within.
D Calculate the average number of organisms per quadrat.
3 A biologist captures a sample of wallabies and tags them for later identification. A year later, another sample
is captured and the number of tagged wallabies is used to estimate the population size. What is the name of
this method?

Using drones for population sampling Science as a human endeavour 4.2

Are ecologists working in the field a thing of the past? A 2018 study
suggests that drones are more accurate at counting populations of wildlife than doing it the old-fashioned way!
Whereas a ground-counting researcher needs to find a good location and rely on a set of binoculars, a drone can
hover above the colony of animals and get a superior vantage point. The digital images taken by the drones can
then be re-used later if researchers want to do review the data manually.
continued…

These are some examples of invasive

…continued
More research is required into the impact of the
organisms.
drones on the wildlife, so that drone protocols can be • The plant disease, myrtle rust, was
established to ensure no undue stress is caused to first discovered in April 2010. It has
the animals. now spread from New South Wales to
Queensland, Victoria, Tasmania and the
Northern Territory, threatening several
plant species.
• The Athel pine is considered a weed
in Australia and has economic and
environmental impacts. It consumes
water more quickly than native plants,
reducing water holes, and excretes
concentrated salt through their leaves,
making the ground under them much
saltier, preventing native pasture grasses
from growing. This alters the flow
Figure 4.41 Drone collecting data on elephant numbers pattern of rivers, causing flooding and
in Botswana
bank erosions.

Unfortunately, some native animals have

Human impact on population
disappeared or have suffered from loss of
dynamics
habitat or competition and predation by
Many different organisms have been moved a variety of introduced animals, resulting
from one part of the country to another in adverse effects on the ecosystems that
or brought to Australia from overseas, exist within Australia. The feral rabbit
either deliberately or accidentally. In fact, and feral camel are just a few examples of
approximately 24% of Victoria’s flora introduced animals.
consists of plant species that were not
evident at the time of European settlement.
Feral camels Explore! 4.4
A lack of predators, increase in
favourable conditions and available food sources would
increase the birth rates within a population. An absence
of natural predators allows the population to exceed
carrying capacity, which may result in overgrazing
of the habitat. Take, for example, the world’s largest
herd of feral camels. There are approximately 1 to
1.2 million feral camels in Australia, and their numbers
are thought to be doubling every 8–9 years. Feral camels
now roam freely across an area of 3.3 million square km
encompassing the states of Western Australia, South
Australia, Queensland and the Northern Territory. They
are mainly dromedaries, but some are Bactrian camels.

Figure 4.42 An ecologist collects a tiny beetle that has been continued…
released into strategic areas with the aim that it will kill the
invasive Athel pine. This is a form of natural pest control.

…continued

Figure 4.43 Wild camels in the outback of Australia

1 Find out when and why camels were introduced to Australia.

2 Not long after their introduction, the internal combustion engine was invented, and the camels were no
longer needed, so several thousand were released into the wild. What sort of problems did the camels cause
because of their release? Consider their impact on water availability, farms, cattle and sheep, and native
animals.
3 Write a paragraph about the camels and their impact on native wildlife. Use words such as: competition,
interspecific competition, herbivore, heterotroph, logistic growth, carrying capacity and limiting factors.

Are animals getting smaller? Science as a human endeavour 4.3

Scientific research suggests that human-related impacts on natural
ecosystems have caused many species to evolve to smaller
body sizes. In fact, in Australia, the average mammal body
mass today is only around one-tenth of what it was around
125 000 years ago. Over time, humans established themselves
as the leading predator of mammals, preying upon large
animals to feed hungry families. This led to shrinking
mammals becoming more prevalent, with the overall size of
many species much smaller today than it was in the past.
Dr Martino Malerba, a postdoctoral researcher from
Monash University, and his team, conducted an experiment Figure 4.44 The case of shrinking mammals may
using microscopic algae called Dunaliella tertiolecta that continue to claim species, like polar bears, who
revealed the physiological reasons why many species are a valuable part of our ecosystem. A reasonable
concern is that eventually there may not be anything
are becoming smaller in response to global warming,
larger than an average dairy cow, worldwide.
overhunting and overfishing. As the algae reproduced, the
research team purposely allowed only the medium-sized algae to reproduce, removing the algae that were
deemed too big, or too small. Findings from the experiments are that modifying the size of a species ultimately
impacts its ability to use energy. Larger organisms can convert four times as much food into energy than the
equivalent volume of smaller organisms. This means that being small can be quite a disadvantage, if you are not
as efficient at converting food into energy.
continued…

…continued

Figure 4.45 Tasmanian tigers were hunted to extinction by humans.

Human actions remain a major threat to a variety of species – whether through direct hunting, habitat
destruction or indirectly due to global warming. In ecology a population with few, large individuals will have a
much larger impact on the ecosystem compared to a population of many, smaller individuals. This can lead to
future implications for the successful maintenance of species living within their specific ecosystems.

Section 4.3 questions

Remembering QUIZ
1 State two events that can increase a population size and two events that can decrease a
population size.
2 List the damage and hazards posed by feral camels.
3 What is the equation used to estimate the population size of a species using the capture–
mark–recapture process? Define the variables (letters) in your answer.

Understanding
4 What is the word equation used to represent the change in population size?
5 Summarise the key advantages of using quadrats to determine the population size of
marine algae within a tidal coast ecosystem.
6 A population of animals immigrates to a new area where there is abundant food and space.
They begin reproducing rapidly. Which model best depicts their population growth?
7 An ecologist wants to estimate the number of birds living in a wetland. Suggest a reason
why a quadrat would not be an appropriate tool.

Applying
8 Using your understanding of the equation used to represent change in population size,
predict what would happen to the size of a feral rabbit population, should an increase in
predators and decrease in food source occurs.
continued…

…continued
9 Use the graph on the right to answer the questions about
feral camels. Feral camel population
a Provide one possible reason why the population

Feral camel population

decreased initially in 1990 after reaching its carrying
Carrying capacity
capacity.
b Hypothesise why the population exceeded its carrying
capacity around 1992.
10 Estimate the population size of the northern hairy-nosed
wombat, if 80 animals were captured and marked in the
first sample, 60 were captured in the second sample, with
30 of this second sample already marked from the first
sample. 1985 1990 1995
Analysing Years
11 Discuss how the capture–mark–recapture method is used
to estimate population size within ecosystems.
12 Analyse the following statement: ‘The population size is only as big as its carrying capacity.’
In your analysis, discuss what factors come into play once the population size exceeds carrying capacity.
13 Develop three possible reasons why a species may immigrate to a new habitat.

Evaluating
14 Deduce the impacts of the following introduced species into the Australian ecosystem and copy and
complete the following table. You may need to research the consequences and possible solutions to the
following introduced species.

Introduced species Consequence to Australia’s Possible solutions

ecosystem
Feral camels
Feral rabbits
Cane toads Predators were poisoned by the
toads, allowing other smaller
prey to increase in number.
Feral cats They have caused declines
in a number of small native
mammals and birds and are an
obstacle to reintroducing nearly
extinct native species.
Red fox

15 Knowledge of the natural world is key to Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples. Deduce how the
introduction of invasive species may have influenced or affected their traditions and culture.

Review questions

Remembering
1 What are the products from the process of photosynthesis?
2 What are the products from the process of cellular respiration? SCORCHER
3 What are the three components of an ecosystem?
4 Finish this sentence: A quadrat can be used to estimate _________________.
5 How can seasonal changes affect ecosystems?

Understanding
6 Compare which organisms perform photosynthesis and which organisms perform cellular
respiration.
7 Look at the population growth versus time graph below.

1200

1000
Number of individuals

800

600

400

200

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Year/Generation

a Identify the exponential growth graph from the logistic growth curve.
b What is the carrying capacity of the population shown from this graph?
8 Outline the steps between the Sun (as a source of energy) and a secondary consumer.
9 Compare the roles of a bee and a flower in their mutualistic relationship.

Applying
10 Model this scenario using beads or counters.
A population of 10 wallabies immigrates into a new area. Eight of the wallabies have a joey, one
of whom dies when only a few days old. One of the mothers is shot by a farmer, and two new
wallabies immigrate into their mob. How many wallabies remain?
11 A ‘parasitoid’ has characteristics that are halfway between a parasite and a predator. An
example of this is a female wasp, who lays her eggs just underneath the skin of a caterpillar.
When they hatch, they eat the host from the inside out. Identify which elements of this
interaction are like a parasite and which are like a predator.

12 A plant biologist undertook a quadrat technique to estimate the population size of the red
flowered plant. The red square shows the placement of the quadrat. Based on the results,
estimate the population of the red flowered plant in this ecosystem and compare your result to
the actual population size.

Analysing
13 It was suggested to Elijah that plants require sunlight and oxygen to grow. To test this, Elijah
set up four glass jars, A to D, as shown below.

A B C D
Sunlight Sunlight Darkness Darkness
and oxygen and no oxygen and oxygen and no oxygen

a Examine the set-up above to justify which of the three jars demonstrate the answer to the
question: ‘Do plants need sunlight and oxygen to grow?’
b List three variables that Elijah must control to get valid results.

14 The energy pyramid on the right shows how

much energy is present in each stage of an
Australian woodland ecosystem.
Food chains do not have infinite trophic
levels. Typically, land-based food chains
have fewer than six levels.
a A blade of grass weighs 0.5 grams.
An average-sized grasshopper (like the
one in the food pyramid on the right)
weighs 5 grams and must consume half
of its body mass in food per day. Use the
energy pyramid to calculate how many
blades of grass the grasshopper needs
to eat per day.
b Assume a lizard must eat five grasshoppers per day, while a kookaburra must eat two
lizards per day. Use this information along with your answer from part a to calculate how
many blades of grass are needed to keep a kookaburra alive for a day.

Evaluating
15 Judge which trophic level is the most important for an ecosystem and explain why.
16 The table below shows population numbers of feral rabbits and red fox, by year, in a specific
niche. Answer the questions that follow.

Year Feral rabbits Red fox

1900 18 000 6000
1910 65 000 18 000
1920 40 000 61 000
1930 28 000 28 000
1940 25 000 4000
1950 51 000 10 000
1960 70 000 32 000
1970 30 000 42 000
1980 52 000 11 000
1990 78 000 28 000
2000 18 000 42 000
2010 4000 5000

a Using the above data, produce two line graphs on the same graph. Be sure to include all
the appropriate labels including title, label of x-axis and label of y-axis as well as a legend.
b These population growth curves are said to fluctuate. Explain what this means, using data
from the graph.
c Give reasons for the relationship between the two population growth curves.
d It can be stated that a good predator–prey relationship keeps the two populations ‘in
balance’. Discuss what this means.

STEM activity: Saving an endangered species!

Background information
VCSSU121 VCMSP324 VCDSCD061 VCSIS137 VCSIS140
According to scientists, the extinction of
species is happening at a scarily fast rate. Exact
reasons are rarely known, but we do know that
most contributing factors are a consequence
of humans; for example, habitat destruction
(clearing of land for agriculture or urban
developments); habitat change and destruction
(erosion, grazing, fires); introduced animals and
plants (rabbits, goats, pigs, cane toads); and
direct exploitation (hunting, fishing). Since many
Australian species are found nowhere else in
the world, Australians have a responsibility to
conserve them.
What role do engineers play in the prevention
of extinction?

Type of Example of a possible role

engineer
Materials Develop products that can act as Figure 4.46 Southern corroboree frog
engineers alternatives to rainforest timber
Architectural Develop energy efficient
engineers buildings to reduce the impact
of greenhouse gases and global
warming on ecosystems
Chemical Develop a way to lessen the
engineers harmful effects starfish (sea
stars) have on coral reef
Mechanical Develop technologies like clean
engineers cars that reduce the production
of greenhouse gases
Environmental Develop ways to combat global
engineers warming, which adversely
affects coral reef
Agricultural Develop farming techniques that
engineers limit depletion of soil nutrients
and maintain soil health Figure 4.47 Mountain pygmy-possum

Evaluate and modify

Design brief: Design a product that can help an
endangered species survive. 1 Define, in your own words, the problem you are
being asked to solve.
Open-ended instructions on design 2 List all the questions you have about your
endangered species and then write a detailed
Taking on the role of an engineer, you and your summary of your findings. Remember the
team are going to work through the design process. important question of why your species is
This includes: defining the problem, researching endangered. Include a map of Australia
the problem, proposing a solution, designing and showing your species’ distribution, tabulated
building a prototype, testing the solution and data showing the population change of your
evaluating. species over time, and a graph representing
As you work through the design process, you this data.
will need to select an endangered species from 3 Write a summary of your proposed solution,
Victoria to investigate, research all about your draw a detailed design (including materials and
organism, including why it is now endangered, and annotations) for your solution, and describe how
then design a product that will help prevent your your design will work to solve the problem. Keep
endangered species from becoming extinct. You in mind what your prototype is made of and try to
will not build your product, so this allows you to choose renewable resources.
come up with a greater range of ideas. Your design 4 Discuss how you could test your prototype to
will be pitched to your fellow engineers in class, so, determine if it meets your needs.
as a class, you can evaluate your team’s design and 5 Discuss with your class the positive, negative
give feedback as critical friends. and interesting features of each team’s design.

Suggested materials
• web browser/internet access
• pencil
• paper

Chapter 5 Atoms

Chapter introduction
This chapter is all about atoms. You will learn that atoms are made of very small subatomic particles
called protons, neutrons and electrons. You will compare and contrast the masses and charges of these
subatomic particles. You will learn about the many different scientists who contributed to the current
knowledge and understanding of atomic structure. You will also learn how unstable atoms release
different forms of radiation.

Curriculum
All matter is made of atoms which are composed of protons, neutrons and electrons; natural
radioactivity arises from the decay of nuclei in atoms (VCSSU122)
• describing and modelling the structure of atoms in terms of the nucleus, protons, 5.2
neutrons and electrons
• comparing the mass and charge of protons, neutrons and electrons 5.2
• describing in simple terms how alpha and beta particles and gamma radiation are 5.5
released from unstable atoms
The atomic structure and properties of elements are used to organise them in the periodic table
(VCSSU123)
• describing the structure of atoms in terms of electron shells 5.3, 5.5
• explaining how the electronic structure of an atom determines its position in the 5.3, 5.5
periodic table and its properties

Victorian Curriculum F–10 © VCAA (2016)

Glossary terms
alpha particle electromagnetic spectrum molecule
atom electron neutron
atomic number gamma ray nucleus
beta particle ion proton
bioplastic isotope radioactive decay
compound mass number subatomic particle

Concept map

5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
Elements Compounds 5.5
Made of a single Two or more
atom type called different elements
‘pure substances’ chemically bonded

Contains subatomic
particles
Proton (+1)
Neutron (0)
Electron (–1)
Can have isotopes
that are likely to
undergo radioactive
Alpha (α) radiation decay releasing Everything is Current models
Beta (β) radiation made Planetary model
Gamma (γ) radiation up of atoms Electron cloud model

Periodic table of elements

A type of electromagnetic radiation Development of the atomic contains information on
Can be ionising and penetrating model spans centuries • Atomic number
Has many important uses but (number of protons in
Democritus 460BC
can also be dangerous the nucleus of an atom)
Greek philosopher who
• Atomic mass (total number
developed one of the first
of protons and neutrons)
atomist theories of the
universe
John Dalton 1803
Elements contain atoms
J J Thomson 1906
Discovered the electron
and proposed the
‘plum pudding’ model
Ernest Rutherford 1911
Discovered the nucleus
Niels Bohr 1913
Discovered electron shells
Erwin Schrödinger 1926
Proposed electron
cloud model
James Chadwick 1932
Discovered the neutron

5.1 What are atoms, elements

and compounds?

Atoms element on the periodic table. There is a

unique atom for every element. For example,
Someone once told me not to trust atoms
if you had a silver ring and cut that ring in WORKSHEET
because they make up everything (apart
half and then in half again and continued to
from energy)! To develop
atom
do this, you would be left with an atom of
the building block of matter
a language, you need an
molecule silver; however, if you cut this atom of silver
alphabet; similarly, to build
a group of two or more
in half, you would no longer be in possession
atoms complex structures such
of the element silver.
as molecules, you need atoms. The word
‘atom’ comes from the Greek word atomos,
which means ‘indivisible’ or ‘un-cuttable’.
This means that if you had an atom of
silver, you would not be able to divide it
into smaller pieces. Modern physics shows
this is not true, which will be discussed later
in the chapter.

An atom is the smallest possible form of an

You are a star! Did you know? 5.1

More than 98% of all the
Figure 5.2 A ring made of silver atoms
atoms in the universe come from the two lightest
elements, hydrogen and helium. The heavier
elements are created at the end of a large star’s
Atoms are so small that you will probably never
lifecycle in
see one. Take a human hair for example – it is
a massive about as thick as 500000 carbon atoms stacked
explosion called over each other. Even with examples like this
a supernova. So, it is almost impossible to truly understand
next time your how small atoms are. You can only see an atom
teacher calls you with a highly specialised microscope called
a star, they may a scanning tunnelling microscope, as shown
be right! You can in Figure 5.3 on the following page. The
be safe in the world’s first images of atoms were produced
knowledge that by a research team at IBM. In 1981, physicists
the elements Gerd Binnig and Heinrich Rohrer developed
that make up all the first scanning tunnelling microscope and
humans have, at were awarded a Nobel Prize for Physics in
Figure 5.1 A digital impression of an one point, come 1986 for their efforts. This discovery allowed
exploding supernova from a star. scientists to view images of many different
atoms that had previously been unseen.

1 Define an atom. Quick check 5.1

2 Recall the name of the
microscope which allowed scientists to view atoms.

Elements and compounds

Elements
You might recall that elements are
considered to be ‘pure substances’. All
VIDEO
elements contain atoms, but they contain Uses of
only one unique type and these atoms are elements.

identical to one another. They cannot

be changed chemically into a different type of
Figure 5.3 The interior of a scanning tunnelling microscope used to view atom. All the known elements are arranged on
the first image of an atom
the periodic table (by their chemical symbol)
according to their atomic properties.
The world’s Science as a human endeavour 5.1
smallest Strange element Did you know? 5.2
movie symbols
In 2013, researchers at IBM created the world’s smallest Most of the symbols for the chemical elements in
movie. They used carbon monoxide molecules and the the periodic table look like they go with their English
small tip of the scanning tunnelling microscope to make name; for example, O for oxygen and Zn for zinc.
them move. The movie is entitled A Boy and His Atom, in There are, however, 11 elements whose symbols do
which a boy meets an atom and they become friends. It not match their English name. Nine of these symbols
was created using individual frames, which were then put come from Latin, one from Greek and one from
together using stop-motion software. You can search for German. Hydrargyrum is the Greek word for mercury
this film in your preferred web browser. Although it was (Hg) meaning ‘liquid silver’. The symbol for tungsten
constructed for fun, it shows just how far physics has come (W) comes from its Germanic name wolfram, named
in the study of atomic and molecular systems. after the mineral in which tungsten was discovered.
See if you can pick out the nine elements whose
symbols come from their Latin names.

Compounds
H
1 2
He Compounds are
1.0 4.0 compounds
formed when two chemical combination
Hydrogen Helium

3 4 Atomic number 79 5 6 7 8 9 10
Symbol of element
Li Be Au B C N O F Ne
of two or more elements
6.9
Lithium
9.0
Beryllium
Relative atomic mass 197.0
Gold Name of element
10.8
Boron
12.0
Carbon
14.0
Nitrogen
16.0
Oxygen
19.0
Fluorine
20.2
Neon or more elements combined in a fixed and
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
definite proportion by
Na
23.0
Sodium
Mg
24.3
Magnesium
Al
27.0
Aluminium
Si
28.1
Silicon
P
31.0
Phosphorus
S
32.1
Sulfur
Cl
35.5
Chlorine
Ar
39.9
Argon
combine with weight.
19
K
39.1
20
Ca
40.1
21
Sc
45.0
22
Ti
47.9
23
V
50.9
24
Cr
52.0
25
Mn
54.9
26
Fe
55.8
27
Co
58.9
28
Ni
58.7
29
Cu
63.5
30
Zn
65.4
31
Ga
69.7
32
Ge
72.6
33
As
74.9
34
Se
79.0
35
Br
79.9
36
Kr
83.8
one another
by chemically bonding.
Potassium Calcium Scandium Titanium Vanadium Chromium Manganese Iron Cobalt Nickel Copper Zinc Gallium Germanium Arsenic Selenium Bromine Krypton

37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
85.5
Rubidium
87.6
Strontium
88.9
Yttrium
91.2
Zirconium
92.9
Niobium
96.0 (98)
Molybdenum Technetium
101.1
Ruthenium
102.9
Rhodium
106.4
Palladium
107.9
Silver
112.4
Cadmium
114.8
Indium
118.7
Tin
121.8
Antimony
127.6
Tellurium
126.9
Iodine
131.3
Xenon The properties of the
55 56 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
Cs
132.9
Caesium
Ba
137.3
Barium
57–71
Lanthanoids
Hf
178.5
Hafnium
Ta
180.9
Tantalum
W
183.8
Tungsten
Re
186.2
Rhenium
Os
190.2
Osmium
Ir
192.2
Iridium
Pt
195.1
Platinum
Au
197.0
Gold
Hg
200.6
Mercury
Tl
204.4
Thallium
Pb
207.2
Lead
Bi
209.0
Bismuth
Po
(210)
Polonium
At
(210)
Astatine
Rn
(222)
Radon
compound formed are usually
87
Fr
(223)
88
Ra
(226)
89–103
Actinoids
104
Rf
105
Db
(262)
106
Sg
(266)
107
Bh
(264)
108
Hs
(267)
109
Mt
(268)
110
Ds
(271)
111
Rg
(272)
112
Cn
(285)
113
Nh
(280)
114
Fl
(289)
115
Mc
(289)
116
Lv
(292)
117
Ts
(294)
118
Og
(294)
very different from the original
(261)
Francium Radium Rutherfordium Dubnium Seaborgium Bohrium Hassium Meitnerium Darmstadtium Roentgenium Copernicium Nihonium Flerovium Moscovium Livermorium Tennessine Oganesson
elements that it is made up
57
La
58
Ce
59
Pr
60
Nd
61
Pm
62
Sm
63
Eu
64
Gd
65
Tb
66
Dy
67
Ho
68
Er
69
Tm
70
Yb
71
Lu
of. For example, aluminium
is a shiny silver metal, oxygen
138.9 140.1 140.9 144.2 (145) 150.4 152.0 157.3 158.9 162.5 164.9 167.3 168.9 173.1 175.0
Lanthanum Cerium Praseodymium Neodymium Promethium Samarium Europium Gadolinium Terbium Dysprosium Holmium Erbium Thulium Ytterbium Lutetium

89
Ac
90
Th
91
Pa
92
U
93
Np
94
Pu
95
Am
96
Cm
97
Bk
98
Cf
99
Es
100
Fm
101
Md
102
No
103
Lr
is a colourless gas but their
compound (aluminium oxide)
(227) 232.0 231.0 238.0 (237) (244) (243) (247) (247) (251) (252) (257) (258) (259) (262)
Actinium Thorium Protactinium Uranium Neptunium Plutonium Americium Curium Berkelium Californium Einsteinium Fermium Mendelevium Nobelium Lawrencium

Figure 5.4 The periodic table. is a white solid.

ELEMENT Molecules Explore! 5.1

ATOM The elemental form of hydrogen
has the formula H2, meaning that two hydrogen
atoms have bonded together. This form of hydrogen
is called a hydrogen molecule. Water has the
MOLECULES formula H2O, meaning that two hydrogen atoms and
one oxygen atom have bonded together to make a
water molecule.
Molecule of 1 Account for why H2 is described as a molecule
elements COMPOUNDS and not a compound.
2 Discuss why water is described as both a
Figure 5.5 A diagram showing the difference between elements, molecule and a compound.
compounds, atoms and molecules

Practical 5.1

Splitting molecules into atoms

Be careful
Aim
Ensure connectors of the
To split molecules into atoms.
leads are separated and
Materials not in contact with each
• baking soda • safety glasses other when attached to the
• distilled water • spatula switched-on power pack.
• 250 mL beaker • 2 power leads
• 250 mL measuring cylinder • 2 alligator clips
• stirring rod • power pack

Method
1 Using the 250 mL measuring cylinder measure 150 mL of distilled water and pour into the beaker.
2 Add a heaped spatula of the baking soda to the beaker and stir using the stirring rod until the baking soda
has dissolved in the water.
3 Attach each lead to the DC terminals on the power
pack, setting the voltage to 9 V.
4 To the other end of each lead, attach an alligator
clip, making sure the wires do not touch each
another.
5 Put the ends of the leads with the alligator clips into
the beaker of baking soda solution, again making
sure the leads do not touch each other at any point.
6 Leave this set up for 10 minutes. During this time you
should see bubbles forming at each wire.

Results
Compile a list of the observations that you could make
from this experiment. Remember, observations are
things that you can see happening, not an explanation Figure 5.6 This molecular model of a water molecule shows
of what is happening. two hydrogen atoms (white) and one oxygen atom (red).
continued…

…continued
Evaluation
1 In this experiment, you split up water molecules into their atoms. Identify which atoms make up water
molecules and how many of each single atom there are.
2 Propose a reason why the use of distilled water was specified and suggest what, if any, effect this may have
had on the outcome.

Conclusion
1 Make a claim from this experiment regarding water and compounds.
2 Support the statement by using your observations.
3 Explain how your observations support your claim.

1 Copy and complete the following table, showing the elements (types of atoms) that Quick check 5.2
form each compound.

Compound Types of atoms that are chemically bonded

water – H2O
carbon dioxide – CO2
sodium chloride – NaCl (table salt)

2 Evaluate if you can tell whether a substance is an element or a compound by its chemical formula. Can you
tell by its name?

Practical 5.2: Teacher demonstration

Forming a compound using magnesium and oxygen

Be careful
Aim Do not stare directly at
To show that compounds formed from elements have different physical and combusting magnesium.
chemical properties.

Materials
• small piece of magnesium ribbon • matches
• tongs • Bunsen burner
• crucible • heatproof mat
• safety glasses

Method
1 Set up a Bunsen burner on a heatproof mat.
2 Hold the piece of magnesium ribbon in the tongs and put it into the hottest part of the flame until it
catches alight.
3 Collect the compound formed in a crucible and observe the contents.

Results
Complete the results table below, listing the physical properties (appearance) of the substances in the reaction.

Substance Physical properties (appearance)

Magnesium metal
Oxygen gas
Compound formed
continued…

…continued
Evaluation
1 Predict the name of the compound that was formed in the demonstration.
2 Propose a word equation for the reaction demonstrated.
3 List some other observations in the reaction other than the new substances formed.

Conclusion
1 Make a claim from this experiment regarding the formation of new compounds.
2 Support the statement by using your observations (include potential flaws).
3 Explain how your observations support your claim.

Section 5.1 questions

Remembering QUIZ
1 Name the two most common elements in the universe.

Understanding
2 Outline the similarities and differences between an atom, an element and a compound.

Applying
3 Identify the different elements present in vinegar (CH3COOH).

Analysing
4 Decide which of the following substances are compounds. Justify your choice.
oxygen potassium water sugar
candle wax hydrogen petrol

Evaluating
5 Evaluate why you do not find carbon dioxide (CO2) on the periodic table.

5.2 The structure of the atom

Subatomic particles
You have already learned that the word ‘atom’
WORKSHEET
comes from the Greek word atomos meaning
‘indivisible’. This idea, despite having a long
history, only became widely accepted in the
twentieth century. Even Dmitri Mendeleev,
who many call the ‘father of modern
chemistry’ for a while refused to believe
that atoms existed. The periodic trends he Figure 5.7 Dmitri
Mendeleev, often called
observed formed the basis of the table of the the ‘father of modern
elements that he first published in 1869. chemistry’

As new technologies developed, physicists

Ordinary hydrogen – an Did you know? 5.3
discovered that the atom is made up of three
unusual element
subatomic particles: protons, neutrons and Hydrogen is the only element that does not contain
electrons. Since 2008, physicists have learned all three subatomic particles. A hydrogen atom only
subatomic particles a lot more about particles within contains one proton and one electron. It is missing a
the particles that make up an atom
atoms from studies using the neutron!
proton
a subatomic particle with a positive European Organization for
charge in the nucleus of an atom
Nuclear Research (CERN) Large
neutron
a subatomic particle with a neutral
Hadron Collider, a tunnel which
charge in the nucleus of an atom spans 27km in circumference Particles smaller than the Explore! 5.2
electron
around the France–Switzerland electron
a subatomic particle with a negative
charge found in all atoms border. Here, subatomic particles There was once a time when scientists thought that
are smashed together at speeds close to the the atom was the smallest particle that existed. You
speed of light. The remains are then analysed. know that protons, neutrons and electrons make up
When the collider was first developed, some the atom, but is there anything that makes up these
subatomic particles? The size of an electron (due to
scientists believed that very small black holes
its wavelike properties) is extremely problematic to
(regions in space whose gravity is so strong that
define/measure/know. Some writers think that they
not even light can escape) could be created that
could be larger than protons.
could lead to other dimensions, while other
scientists thought that a black hole big enough
to swallow our planet could be made. No need
to panic yet though! Many of these ideas came
from a lack of understanding surrounding the
world’s biggest machine; science knows much
more about its capabilities today.

Figure 5.9 These Russian dolls fit inside each other, getting
progressively smaller just like an atom and the subatomic
particles within it.

Research the particles that make up protons,

neutrons and electrons. What are their names? What
is known about them?

Modern atomic models

Even with the most powerful microscopes
scientists are, as yet, unable to see inside
the atom, so they create models of the
atom to represent ideas that cannot be
Figure 5.8 The Large Hadron Collider observed. To help visualise the structure of
the atom, model it as a mini solar system.
There are different numbers of these In the middle of our solar system is the Sun
subatomic particles in each element. This and orbiting the Sun are the planets, with
will be discussed in more detail later in most of the rest of the solar system being
this chapter. empty space.

Another model of the atom is the electron

cloud model. As electrons are moving
around the nucleus continuously it is
difficult to predict exactly where each
electron will be at a given moment.
Therefore, the electron cloud model shows
a large area in the atom where electrons are
most likely to be situated.

+
Nucleus Neutron
+ + Proton
Figure 5.10 The solar system. The planetary model of the atom is
based on the structure of our solar system. Cloud of
electrons (3)
The atom has a similar kind of structure. In
the middle of the atom there is a structure Figure 5.12 The electron cloud model shows the nucleus
in the middle of a lithium atom surrounded by a cloud of
called the nucleus, which is where the electrons.
nucleus protons and neutrons are
the central part of the atom
containing its protons and situated. Orbiting the
Build your own model of the atom using Try this 5.1
neutrons (nuclei is the plural)
nucleus in orbitals or shells
everyday household objects. Make sure
are the electrons. The shells are drawn as
that you include labels.
circles and are at different energy levels
depending on how far they are away from
the nucleus. This planetary-style model was
proposed by Niels Bohr in 1913 and is often 1 What is the name of the Quick check 5.3
referred to as a Bohr diagram. structure at the centre of the
atom and what does it contain?
– 2 Where are the electrons located?

–
– Electron
+
– + +
Nucleus +
Properties of subatomic
+ Proton
+ particles
Neutron
To understand more about atoms and how
– they behave, you need to know more about
–
the three subatomic particles within them.
VIDEO
Figure 5.11 A Bohr diagram shows the positively charged
Charge What are
subatomic
nucleus (containing both protons and neutrons) and electrons
orbiting in shells of different energy levels. You may be wondering what keeps the particles?

electrons inside the atom. If they are

Just like the solar system, most of the atom is whizzing around at enormous speed inside
made up of empty space. To give you an idea the atom, why don’t they just fly off into
of how empty, if the atom was an Olympic space? Why they remain has to do with the
athletics track, then the nucleus would only electrical charges of the subatomic particles.
be the size of a pea in the middle of it! Remember, the protons in the nucleus in the

middle of the atom have a positive charge charge at all (0). Table 5.1 summarises what
(+1). Electrons orbiting the nucleus have you need to know about the charges of the
a negative charge (–1). Just like magnets, subatomic particles.
opposite charges attract and like (the same)
Subatomic particle Charge
charges repel. This means that the protons
Proton +1 (positive)
and electrons in an atom are attracted to each
Neutron 0 (no charge)
other, stopping the electrons from flying
off into space. Neutrons also play their part. Electron –1 (negative)

They are neutral, which means they have no Table 5.1 The charges of the three subatomic particles

Practical 5.3: Teacher demonstration

Demonstrating the attractions between charged objects

Aim
To investigate attractions between charged objects.

Experiment 1

Materials
• 2 balloons
• 2 pieces of string (about 1 m long)
• plastic tube

Method
1 Blow up both balloons and tie one piece of string to each balloon.
2 Hang both balloons from a common point on the ceiling.
3 Charge a plastic tube by rubbing it on some fabric.
4 Note the position of the two balloons.
5 Put the plastic tube between the two balloons and observe the effect.

Experiment 2

Materials
• balloon
• a willing student to be a volunteer

Method
1 Rub the balloon on the hair of the volunteer.
2 Bring the balloon away from their head and observe what happens.

Results
Record your observations for each experiment.

Evaluation
1 Determine which experiment showed repulsion. Suggest a reason for your answer.
2 Determine which experiment showed attraction. Suggest a reason for your answer.

Conclusion
1 Make a claim from this experiment regarding the attraction between charged objects.
2 Support the statement by using your observations.
3 Explain how your observations support your claim.

Mass ¬
th of a proton or a neutron. Table 5.2
As well as knowing the charge of the ¬¬¬¬
subatomic particles, you also need to be able summarises what you need to know about the
to recall their masses. Protons and neutrons masses of the three subatomic particles.
both have very similar masses. Protons have a
mass of 1.673 × 10–24 grams and neutrons
Subatomic particle Relative mass
have a mass of 1.675 × 10–24 grams. These are
Proton 1
very small numbers, too small for scientists to
Neutron 1
do calculations with, so atomic mass units
Electron 1
(amu) are used instead. When using atomic
1840
mass units, protons and neutrons both have a
mass of 1 amu, which is much easier to Table 5.2 The relative mass of the three subatomic
remember and work with. They have a mass particles

Complete this table summarising the differences in charge and mass of the three Quick check 5.4
subatomic particles.

Subatomic Symbol Location Charge Mass

particle
Proton p
Neutron n
Electron e–

Section 5.2 questions

Remembering QUIZ
1 Name the three subatomic particles that make up the atom.
2 Identify which subatomic particle has the smallest mass.
3 Recall the name of the structure at the centre of atom where the protons and neutrons
are located.

Understanding
4 Compare and contrast the properties of protons, neutrons and electrons.

Applying
5 Construct a labelled diagram that shows the planetary model of the atom.

Analysing
6 Draw the electron cloud model of the atom. Using your Bohr diagram from question 5,
examine the similarities and differences between the two models.

Evaluating
7 Propose several reasons why models are so useful in science. Explain the limitations of
using models.

5.3 Atomic number and

mass number

1 2
H He
1.0 4.0
Hydrogen Helium

3 4 Atomic number 79 5 6 7 8 9 10
Li Be Au Symbol of element B C N O F Ne
WORKSHEET 6.9 9.0 Relative atomic mass 197.0 10.8 12.0 14.0 16.0 19.0 20.2
Lithium Beryllium Gold Name of element Boron Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen Fluorine Neon

11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
23.0 24.3 27.0 28.1 31.0 32.1 35.5 39.9
Sodium Magnesium Aluminium Silicon Phosphorus Sulfur Chlorine Argon

19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
39.1 40.1 45.0 47.9 50.9 52.0 54.9 55.8 58.9 58.7 63.5 65.4 69.7 72.6 74.9 79.0 79.9 83.8
Potassium Calcium Scandium Titanium Vanadium Chromium Manganese Iron Cobalt Nickel Copper Zinc Gallium Germanium Arsenic Selenium Bromine Krypton

37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
85.5 87.6 88.9 91.2 92.9 96.0 (98) 101.1 102.9 106.4 107.9 112.4 114.8 118.7 121.8 127.6 126.9 131.3
Rubidium Strontium Yttrium Zirconium Niobium Molybdenum Technetium Ruthenium Rhodium Palladium Silver Cadmium Indium Tin Antimony Tellurium Iodine Xenon

55 56 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
Cs Ba 57–71 Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
132.9 137.3 Lanthanoids 178.5 180.9 183.8 186.2 190.2 192.2 195.1 197.0 200.6 204.4 207.2 209.0 (210) (210) (222)
Caesium Barium Hafnium Tantalum Tungsten Rhenium Osmium Iridium Platinum Gold Mercury Thallium Lead Bismuth Polonium Astatine Radon

87 88 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118
Fr Ra 89–103 Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn Nh Fl Mc Lv Ts Og
(223) (226) Actinoids (261) (262) (266) (264) (267) (268) (271) (272) (285) (280) (289) (289) (292) (294) (294)
Francium Radium Rutherfordium Dubnium Seaborgium Bohrium Hassium Meitnerium Darmstadtium Roentgenium Copernicium Nihonium Flerovium Moscovium Livermorium Tennessine Oganesson

57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
138.9 140.1 140.9 144.2 (145) 150.4 152.0 157.3 158.9 162.5 164.9 167.3 168.9 173.1 175.0
Lanthanum Cerium Praseodymium Neodymium Promethium Samarium Europium Gadolinium Terbium Dysprosium Holmium Erbium Thulium Ytterbium Lutetium

89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103

Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr
(227) 232.0 231.0 238.0 (237) (244) (243) (247) (247) (251) (252) (257) (258) (259) (262)
Actinium Thorium Protactinium Uranium Neptunium Plutonium Americium Curium Berkelium Californium Einsteinium Fermium Mendelevium Nobelium Lawrencium

Figure 5.13 The periodic table of elements

The number of subatomic particles in an Number of protons

atom depends on the type of element on the The atomic number is sometimes called
periodic table. Look at the periodic table the proton number as it tells you how many
and you will notice that each element has a protons the element has. For example, the
symbol and two numbers. These numbers atomic number of carbon is 6, therefore
provide information about the number of carbon has six protons.
protons, neutrons and electrons in a each
atom. You will not find Atomic 6
another element number
C
Atomic number that contains 12.0
The smaller of the two numbers given with six protons. Carbon
each element is called the atomic number. This is because
Figure 5.14 The atomic
This will usually be the top number on the atomic
atomic number symbol for carbon shows the
the number that denotes
the elements on most of the periodic number defines atomic number of 6. You can
the number of protons in
an atom of an element tables you will see; however, you may also the element. therefore conclude that it
has six protons.
see some periodic tables where the atomic Any atom that
number is at the bottom. This is why it is contains six protons will always be carbon,
important that you remember the atomic no matter how many neutrons and electrons
number as the smaller of the two numbers. it contains. If another proton is added to

carbon, then an element with seven protons

Using an element of your choice as Quick check 5.5
would be formed – otherwise known as
an example, explain what the atomic
nitrogen. Carbon is a black solid and nitrogen number tells you about the atom.
is a colourless gas; one proton can make a big
difference to an element’s properties.
Number of electrons and formation
of ions
The atomic number also gives you
information on the number of electrons in
an atom of an element. Recall that protons
have a positive charge and electrons have
a negative charge. An atom is neutral,
meaning that it has an overall charge of
zero. So, what does that mean about the
numbers of protons and electrons? An atom
must have the same number of positive
protons and negative electrons for the overall
Figure 5.15 Carbon, a black solid with an atomic charge to equal zero (neutral). Carbon has
number of 6
an atomic number of 6, meaning it has six
protons or six positively charged particles.
Therefore, for the atom to have zero charge
it must have six negative electrons. So,
neutral atoms have the same number of
electrons as they do protons.

Changing the number of electrons in an

element will not change the type of element,
as you saw with protons; however, it will
change the chemical properties of the
element. The atom is now referred ion
to as an ion and is said to become a charged version of an atom
that has either gained or lost
charged. This is denoted by a (+) or electrons

(–) sign after the chemical symbol.

Figure 5.16 Liquid nitrogen, a colourless gas cooled A (+) sign indicates the atom has become
down to –196°C with an atomic number of 7
more positive (lost negatively charged
electrons), whereas a (–) sign indicates the
This is the same for any other element on the atom has become more negative (gained
periodic table. Likewise, hydrogen has one negatively charged electrons). For example,
proton. Any other substance found to have Mg2+ denotes a magnesium atom that has
one proton will be the element hydrogen. donated two electrons to another atom
and is now carrying an overall charge of
Atomic 1 +2. It has 12 protons in the nucleus, but as
number H it has given away 2 electrons it now only
1.0 has 10 electrons. Atoms tend to give or
Hydrogen receive electrons according to how many
electrons they possess in their outer shell
Figure 5.17 The atomic symbol for hydrogen shows
the atomic number of 1, so you can conclude that it – you can explore these patterns further in
has one proton. Explore! 5.3.

electrons barely contribute to the mass of

Charged particles Explore! 5.3
the atom. Therefore you can think of it as
When the number of electrons is
changed in an atom, the properties of the element are
the mass of the nucleus (and equal to the
affected. You are going to research why this happens. number of protons and neutrons in the
1 When fluorine atoms become ions (negatively charged) nucleus). Mass numbers are
isotope
they can combine with other element-forming fluorides. usually not whole numbers form of the same element
with the same number of
An example would be sodium fluoride. Research the because of different forms protons but different number
of neutrons
properties of fluorine and compare them with the of elements called isotopes,
properties of sodium fluoride. which will be discussed later in the chapter.
2 The elements in the last group (column) of the periodic For now, you will just round the mass
table are known as the noble gases. They all possess a numbers to the nearest whole number.
full outer shell of electrons and do not form ions readily.
The elements in the second last group of the periodic Number of neutrons
table (depending on whether you include the middle The mass number can be used to calculate
section of the table, this is group 7 or 17) are known as the number of neutrons in the nucleus of an
the halogens and all are one electron short of a full outer atom. You know that the mass number is the
shell. Research what type of ions they form. number of protons and neutrons in an atom
3 The elements in the first group of the periodic table are and you have also learned that the atomic
known as the alkali metals. They all possess one electron number is the number of protons. Therefore,
in their outer shell. Consider, whether it would be easier if you subtract the atomic number from the
to donate one electron to have a full outer shell, or to try to mass number, you are left with the number
gain seven! Research what type of ions they form. of neutrons:
4 The elements in the second group of the periodic table
are known as the alkaline earth metals. They all possess number of neutrons
two electrons in their outer shell. Research what type of = relative atomic mass – atomic number
ions they form.
5 Predict what type of ion the following elements would form. Recall the example of carbon. Carbon has
a Sulfur
a relative atomic mass of 12 (rounded to
b Barium
the nearest whole number) and an atomic
c Iodine
number of 6. Using the equation above,
you can calculate that carbon has a total of
six neutrons.
1 How does an atom become Quick check 5.6
positively or negatively charged?
2 Using your knowledge of the number of protons and
6
electrons in an atom explain why atoms become charged
C
12.0 Mass
when the number of electrons is changed. number
Carbon

Figure 5.18 The atomic symbols for carbon showing

Mass number the atomic number of 6 and relative atomic mass
of 12. These numbers can be used to calculate the
The mass number, or relative atomic mass, number of neutrons in a carbon atom.
is the larger of the two numbers and usually
is the bottom number. The mass Number of neutrons in a carbon atom
mass number
also known as relative atomic
number gives us information = relative atomic mass – atomic number
mass; it gives the mass of the
atom (usually thought of as the
about the total mass of the atom, = 12 – 6
number of protons and neutrons
in the nucleus) but as you learned in section 5.2, =6

Unlike the number of protons, changing the number of neutrons in an element will not change
the type of element, but it will change how it behaves. You will learn more about this later in
this chapter.

Locate the following elements on the periodic table. Using their atomic numbers and Quick check 5.7
their relative mass (rounded to the nearest whole number), state the number of protons,
neutrons and electrons each atom contains.

Atomic Relative atomic mass (amu) Number of Number of Number of

number (rounded to nearest whole number) protons neutrons electrons
Nitrogen
Sodium
Sulfur
Gold

Practical 5.4: Teacher demonstration

Invisible spaces in water

Aim
To investigate the three-dimensional structure of molecules.

Materials
• 100 mL propan-2-ol
• 250 mL beaker
• 100 mL measuring cylinder

Method
1 Measure 100 mL of water using the 100 mL measuring cylinder and pour into the beaker.
2 Using the same measuring cylinder measure 100 mL of propan-2-ol and pour into the same beaker already
containing water.

Results
Complete the table below to summarise your results.

Prediction of volume with 100 mL of water and 100 mL

of alcohol
Actual volume with 100 mL of water and 100 mL
of alcohol

Evaluation
1 Predict what will happen to the total volume when the alcohol is added to the water. Propose what the total
volume of the solution should be.
2 Note the actual total volume when the two solutions are mixed together. Propose a reason why this volume is
not the same as your prediction.

Conclusion
1 Make a claim from this experiment regarding the structure of molecules.
2 Support the statement by using your observations (include potential sources of error).
3 Explain how your observations support your claim.

Section 5.3 questions

QUIZ Remembering
1 State the names of the two numbers that accompany each element on the periodic table.
2 Identify which of the numbers you have named in question 1 is always the largest.
3 What is the name of the element that has an atomic number of 20?

Understanding
4 Explain why the mass of the electron is not considered in the mass number.
5 An atom has a mass number of 45 and an atomic number of 16. How many neutrons does it
have? Show your working.

Applying
6 Identify the subatomic particles that have nearly the same mass.

Analysing
7 Compare the mass number and the atomic number of an element.
8 Copy and complete the table using the information in the periodic table.

Atomic Relative atomic mass (amu) Number Number of Number of

number (to nearest whole number) of protons neutrons electrons
Hydrogen
Oxygen
Potassium
Aluminium

Evaluating
9 ‘The mass number determines the identity of the element.’ Propose whether this statement
is true or false. Justify your answer.
10 Justify why there are no elements on the periodic table with the same atomic number.
11 ‘Atoms always are neutral.’ True or false? Explain your answer.

5.4 Development of the

atomic model

Discussions surrounding our discoveries that have contributed to our

understanding of the atom and its understanding of the atom and highlight
WORKSHEET structure have been ongoing within the how new experimental evidence can lead
scientific community throughout history. to a scientific model being updated or
In this section you will examine the major replaced.

Significant developments in Explore! 5.4

Aristotle 384–322 BCE
the atomic model throughout Aristotle rejected the ideas
history of Democritus, instead
Before you read on and find out about the significant believing that matter on
developments that occurred surrounding our Earth was made up of
understanding of atomic structure, it would be useful four elements: earth, air,
for you to do some of your own research. fire and water and the
1 Make a list of at least five scientists who have
amounts of these elements
contributed to our understanding of atomic
determined how materials
structure.
behaved. Aristotle had
2 What were their significant discoveries and how
such an influence over
did each discovery change the model of the atom
people at the time that it
around at that time?
took about 2000 years for
Figure 5.20 Sculpture of the Greek
Democritus’ theory to be philosopher Aristotle
Democritus 460–370 BCE re-examined.

Democritus was the first scientist to theorise

John Dalton 1766–1844
about the atom. In the year 442 BCE he said,
if you take an object and cut it into smaller Dalton is credited for
and smaller pieces, eventually you would igniting research into
reach a point where you could no longer cut it modern atomic theory
anymore. You would end up with a piece that in 1803, more than 2000
was indivisible. It was Democritus that called years after Democritus first
this piece atomos, which means ‘indivisible’ in proposed his ideas on the
Greek. He thought, for example, that gold atom. He suggested that all
was made of gold atoms, bread was made of elements, which were now
bread atoms and soil was made of soil atoms. arranged in the periodic
This may sound silly now, but it was quite table, contained atoms,
a sophisticated idea at the time, bearing in and that atoms of the same
mind he had no modern technology, such as element would be identical
microscopes, to view these substances. in size, shape and mass. He
also stated that compounds
were a combination of Figure 5.21 John Dalton was an
elements. The question he English chemist, physicist and
meteorologist. He is best known for
could not answer though, sparking research into modern atomic
was why atoms behaved theory.
the way they do.

Joseph John Thomson 1856–1940

Thomson was the first scientist to discover
particles smaller than the atom, disproving
Dalton’s and Democritus’ theories.
Surprisingly, the first subatomic particle to
be discovered was the lightest – the electron
– and he won a Nobel prize for his work in
Figure 5.19 Sculpture of the Greek philosopher 1906. By studying ‘rays’ within a cathode
Democritus ray tube, Thomson was able to determine

that these ‘rays’ had a mass He predicted that if the atom was like
1000 times smaller than a Thomson’s plum pudding model, then
hydrogen atom, the lightest all the alpha particles should pass straight
piece of matter known to through the atom undisturbed. This is not
science at the time. He what happened! It was true that almost
therefore concluded that these all (99.99%) of the alpha particles passed
‘rays’ were not rays at all, but straight through the foil
alpha particle
very light particles. These and were detected at the a positively charged particle
particles were also attracted other side by the detector, ejected spontaneously
from the nuclei of some
to a positively charged metal indicating that the atom radioactive elements

plate, indicating that they was mainly empty space.

themselves were likely to be However, some of
negatively charged. He named the alpha particles
Figure 5.22 J J Thomson proposed these particles ‘corpuscles’; surprisingly bounced
the ‘plum pudding’ model and
however, they are now called back or were deflected
is credited with discovering the
electron. electrons. as if they had hit
something. He
The first model of the structure of the atom concluded that there
was proposed by Thomson and named the must be an area of
plum pudding model. He knew that electrons charge, concentrated
were negatively charged and that atoms in the middle of the
are neutral, so he theorised that there must atom, with enough
also be positive charge within the atom that mass to cause the
equalled the negative charge of its electrons. alpha particles to Figure 5.24 Ernest Rutherford
He imagined the atom as negatively charged deflect or bounce stated that there was a large
concentration of charge and
electrons (plums) embedded in a large ‘sea’ of back, thus disproving mass situated in the centre of the
positively charged ‘pudding’. the plum pudding atom and that most of the atom
model altogether. was empty space.

– +
+ +
– Detector
+ Radioactive
– + + – Negative ‘plums’ source
+ – A
+ or electrons
– + B
+ Alpha
+ – particles
+ – + D C
Gold
Sea of positive foil
‘pudding’ A: Moderate
deflection
Figure 5.23 The plum pudding model, comprising a
sea of positive charge (the pudding) and, scattered B: Passed straight
through this, negative electrons (the plums). through
C: Large deflection
Ernest Rutherford 1871–1937 D: Bounced back

In 1911, Ernest Rutherford and his team of Figure 5.25 The gold foil experiment conducted
by Ernest Rutherford proved that most of the atom
scientists fired alpha particles (helium nuclei)
was empty space and that there was an area of
at a thin piece of gold foil, in his famous charge and mass concentrated in the middle of
gold foil experiment. the atom.

In analysing the results of this experiment, it repelled the positively charged alpha
Rutherford devised his own model of the particles. Rutherford concluded the negative
atom. This model depicts a charged area electrons orbited around this central region.
with substantial mass concentrated in the While many other scientists contributed to
middle of the atom, called the nucleus, the developing knowledge at the time, it
which was assumed by Rutherford and was Rutherford who named the positively
many other scientists working in the field charged particles in the nucleus protons.
at the time, to be positively charged as

a J J Thomson b Rutherford
Alpha
+ particle
Alpha –
– – –
+ particle –
+
+
+ –
– Nucleus
–
– –
–
+ +
+
– –
–
+ –
+

Figure 5.26 Comparison between atomic models: (a) Thomson’s plum pudding and (b) Rutherford’s central region of
mass and charge

1 Recall what Aristotle believed all matter on Earth was composed of. Quick check 5.8
2 What subatomic particle did Thomson discover and what was the name of his atomic
model?
3 Complete the sentence below using the word list.

alpha empty space plum pudding model

concentrated mass and positive charge passed through

Rutherford conducted the gold foil experiment, firing particles at a thin piece of gold foil. Most
of the alpha particles ; however, a small number were deflected back.
Rutherford hypothesised that the reason for this was that the alpha particles hit a region of
or , disproving the theory.

Practical 5.5

Most of an atom is empty space

In this experiment, you are going to make a scale model of a hydrogen atom. Hydrogen atoms contain one proton
and one electron, it is the simplest atom on Earth. You may need a larger space than the classroom to do this,
therefore a corridor or playing field may be more suitable. To complete the experiment correctly, you need to
know these following important facts.
• The distance between an electron and a proton is 50 000 times the diameter of a proton.
• The mass of a proton is 1840 times greater than the mass of an electron.
continued…

…continued
Aim
To represent the distances between subatomic particles in an atom.

Materials
• calculator
• metre ruler
• various spherical objects; for example, marbles, table tennis balls, dried peas
• pencil
• 30 cm ruler
• scissors
• ball of string
• pair of compasses (for drawing a circle)
• A4 plain paper

Method
1 Using the pair of compasses, draw a small circle on a piece of paper and record the exact diameter in the
results table. This represents a proton.
2 Using the important facts at the start of the activity, calculate the relative distance of the electron from
the proton.
3 Measure a piece of string to the distance calculated in step 2 and record the length in the results table. If you
are outside on a field, you could stick the metre ruler into the grass, tie the string around it and draw out how
big the atom would be.
4 Measure the diameter of your chosen spherical object with the 30 cm ruler and record it in the results table.
5 This is the new diameter of the proton, now calculate the relative distance of the electron from the proton
in hydrogen.
6 Measure a piece of string to the distance calculated in step 2 and record the length in the results table.
Again, if you are on a field, you could stick the metre ruler into the grass, tie the string around it and draw
out how big the atom would be.
7 If you have time, repeat for the other spherical objects.

Results

Diameter of spherical object (cm) Length of string/radius of the atom (cm)

Your circle

Evaluation
1 Propose how this experiment supports the work of Ernest Rutherford on the atom.
2 Design another way in which you can show the relative size of an atom.

Conclusion
What can you conclude about the size of the proton and the distance between it and the electron?

By the early twentieth century, scientists had Scientists now know that Bohr’s model was
a fairly good idea about atomic structure, flawed, but it provided some important
they just needed to work out what exactly understanding surrounding the behaviour of
the electrons were doing in the atom. electrons. Perhaps more importantly, it is the
model that you will recognise and use the
Niels Bohr 1885–1962 most in your studies.
Niels Bohr proposed
Erwin Schrödinger 1887–1961
his model of the atom
(a modification of The position and behaviour of
Rutherford’s theory) electrons in the atom was still
in 1913 after looking an area that scientists knew
at the behaviour of very little about. Schrödinger
electrons. Bohr was stated that it is impossible
trying to compare the to predict where a specific
behaviour of electrons electron will be situated in the
and light. He said atom at any given time. The
electrons moved in only thing you can predict
fixed circular orbits is where in the atom you are
around the nucleus most likely to find an electron.
Figure 5.27 Niels Bohr proposed
that electrons were not just in structures called This contradicted Bohr’s idea
spread across the atom randomly shells, and that these of electrons being in fixed Figure 5.29 Erwin Schrödinger
but were arranged in discrete
shells were specific shells around a central nucleus. proposed the electron cloud
energy levels or shells. model, contradicting Bohr’s
distances away from Schrödinger proposed the model of fixed electron shells.
the nucleus and the same for all atoms. electron cloud model, which
Electrons located in shells that were further shows the locations in the atom with the
away from the nucleus had higher energies greatest probability of finding an electron.
than those closer to it. He stated that when This is connected with the wave properties of
electrons absorb energy, or get excited, they the electron (quantum- or wave-mechanics).
will jump to the next energy level or shell.
When they fall back to their original level
they will emit some light, which matches the
amount of absorbed energy. +
+
Nucleus + Neutrons
Highest energy shell + + Protons

–
Cloud of
– electrons (5)
– Electron
Figure 5.30 The electron cloud model of a boron atom
–
Nucleus James Chadwick 1891–1974
containing
protons There is one subatomic particle yet to be
– discussed. You may not be surprised that the
– neutron was the last of the three subatomic
Figure 5.28 Bohr’s model of the atom is sometimes
particles to be discovered. As it has no charge
called the planetary model. It shows electrons in and does not repel the protons in the nucleus
fixed shells around a central nucleus. it was relatively undetectable. This was the

case until James Chadwick started working with beryllium atoms

and alpha particles in 1932. When he smashed these two particles
together an unknown radiation made up of neutrally charged
particles was released. He named these particles neutrons. With this
discovery, a relatively accurate model of the atom was now available
to scientists.

1 Recall the name Bohr gave to the Quick check 5.9

structures that contained electrons.
2 How did this explanation of these structures differ from
Rutherford’s model?
Figure 5.31 James Chadwick 3 Identify the subatomic particle that James Chadwick
discovered the neutron,
completing the atomic model in
discovered.
use today.

The Higgs boson Science as a human endeavour 5.2

Our understanding of the structure of the atom and the particles
within it did not stop with James Chadwick in 1932. In 1960,
a British-born theoretical physicist named Peter Higgs
proposed the existence of a particle he named the Higgs boson.
The detection of this particle now became his goal as well as
the goal of many other theoretical physicists around that time.
In 2012, CERN announced that they had conducted
experiments which showed promising results of a particle that
could be a Higgs-like boson. You can imagine the excitement
Higgs must have been feeling after all this time! In 2013,
after almost 55 years of research, CERN finally had enough
evidence to confirm that they had recorded the presence of a
Higgs boson, and Higgs won a Nobel Prize for Physics in the
Figure 5.32 Peter Higgs (1929–present) discovered
same year. This is a great example of how with hard work and the presence of a new particle, which was named the
persistence, you can eventually achieve your goals! Higgs boson.

Figure 5.33 Engineers attending to a part of the Large Hadron Collider at

CERN where the Higgs boson was discovered

The evolution of the atomic model is an –

excellent example of how different scientists
individually contribute to and continue –
to revise our understanding of atomic – Electron
structure. However, it is important to note +
that they still may not be right! After all, – + +
there was a time when it was thought that +
+ Proton
the plum pudding model was correct. It +
Neutron
is important that scientists continue to
ask questions, conduct experiments and
–
critique other people’s work to increase
our understanding of atomic structure. –

Figure 5.35 summarises the development

Figure 5.34 The modern-day atomic model
of the modern atomic model.
John Dalton 1803
Elements contain atoms

JJ Thomson 1906 Section 5.4 questions

Discovered the electron
and proposed the plum Remembering QUIZ
pudding model
1 What does the Greek word atomos
mean in English? How does this relate
to the word ‘atom’?
Ernest Rutherford 1911 2 Who discovered the neutron?
Gold foil experiment
supported the existence Understanding
of the nucleus
3 Before carrying out the gold foil
experiment, summarise what
Niels Bohr 1913
Electrons orbit the Rutherford thought would happen
nucleus in fixed shells. when alpha particles were fired at
ATOMIC MODEL TIME LINE

Thomson’s plum pudding model.

4 Compare and contrast Rutherford’s
model of the atom with the plum
Erwin Schrödinger 1926 pudding model.
Electron cloud model,
electrons are not Applying
in fixed shells 5 Identify the reason why some alpha
particles bounced back towards the
detector in Rutherford’s gold foil
James Chadwick 1932 experiment.
Discovered the neutron
Analysing
6 Analyse the differences between
Schrödinger’s and Bohr’s models
of the atom.

Evaluating
7 Describe and explain the evidence that
led to Rutherford concluding that most
of the mass and all the positive charge of
the atom was concentrated in the centre.
Figure 5.35 A summary of the development of the
atomic model

5.5 Isotopes
Earlier in this chapter you learned how occurred until James Chadwick discovered
changing the number of protons in an the neutron.
WORKSHEET atom results in a totally different element.
You also saw how changing the number of Let’s take a look at an example. There are
electrons results in a charged atom called three forms of carbon that exist naturally.
an ion. Now you will learn what happens All three of these forms are the element
when the number of neutrons in an atom carbon as they all have an atomic number
is altered. of 12 (12 protons).

What are isotopes?

6 6 6
Two atoms that have the same atomic
C C C
number but different mass numbers are 12.0 13.0 14.0
called isotopes. This means that they have Carbon Carbon Carbon
VIDEO
Too many
the same number of protons as each other
Figure 5.37 The three naturally occurring isotopes of
neutrons! (same atomic number, therefore the same
carbon
element), so their differing mass numbers
must be explained by having a different
number of neutrons. Notice that they all have different mass
numbers. This difference in mass number
Who discovered isotopes? is because they all have different numbers
of neutrons. Remember that the number
The presence of isotopes was first proposed
of neutrons in an atom is calculated by
by Fredrick Soddy in 1913. In his early
taking away the atomic number from the
career Soddy worked closely with Ernest
mass number. Therefore, the first form
Rutherford in Canada, but it was his
of carbon has six neutrons, the second
work on uranium,
has seven and the third has eight. As they
which he conducted in
have different numbers of neutrons but
Scotland, that earned
the same atomic number, they are called
him the Nobel Prize for
isotopes of carbon.
Chemistry in 1921. He
noticed that atoms of the
Naming isotopes
same element could have
different atomic masses It is important that you learn the
but behave the same. He conventions when naming isotopes. They
named these elements are named based on their mass number.
isotopes, which means The element name comes first and then
‘same place’, as they were the mass number. You will notice that on
in the same place on the periodic table the atomic number is
the periodic table. For written at the top, this is because this is
Figure 5.36 Fredrick Soddy discovered a while, scientists could the number used to define the element.
isotopes in 1913 in his work on not explain why this When you write the symbols for isotopes,
uranium.

the convention is to write the mass number

Unusual mass numbers Explore! 5.5
on the top and the atomic number on the
The mass number of chlorine on the
bottom, as this time it is the mass number periodic table is 35.5. If you were to use this number to work
that defines the isotope. For example, the out the number of neutrons, then it would have 18.5 neutrons.
first isotope of hydrogen in Figure 5.38 This is clearly incorrect as half a neutron does not exist.
is called hydrogen-1 (H-1), also known Chlorine has two naturally occurring stable isotopes, Cl-35
as protium; the second is hydrogen-2 and Cl-37.
(H-2) or deuterium and the third, as you Use the information above and your own research to answer
may have guessed, is hydrogen-3 (H-3) the following questions.
or tritium. 1 What is the difference between Cl-35 and Cl-37?
2 Why is the mass number of chlorine recorded as 35.5 on
the periodic table?
3 Which isotope of chlorine do you think there is more of in
nature?

Protium Deuterium Tritium

1 Define the term ‘isotope’. Quick check 5.10
Figure 5.38 The three naturally occurring isotopes
2 How would you name an isotope
of hydrogen
of magnesium that has a mass number of 25?

Practical 5.6

Isotopes
Aim
To investigate the number of subatomic particles in isotopes of the same element.

Materials
• 3 plastic containers containing two different colours of balls of similar size

Method
1 Fill each container with two different colours of balls of similar size. These containers represent individual
atoms. Each container must have the same number of balls of one colour, and varying numbers of the
other colour. The number that does not change is representative of the protons, and the other, the number
of neutrons.
2 Count the number of ‘protons’ in each of the isotopes and record in the results table.
3 Count the number of ‘neutrons’ in each of the isotopes and record in the results table.
4 Using the number of protons and neutrons record the mass number of the isotopes in the results table.

Results
Copy and complete the results table below.

Isotope Number of protons Number of neutrons Mass number

1
2
3

Evaluation
1 If the three isotopes were weighed using a balance, would they all have the same mass? Give a reason for your
answer.
2 Propose a way of determining the average mass of the three isotopes. continued…

…continued
3 What is the same about all three isotopes?
4 Other than the number of neutrons, explain what else is different between the isotopes.

Conclusion
Describe the composition of subatomic particles in isotopes of the same element.

Stable and unstable isotopes Recall the characteristics of Quick check 5.11
The stability of an isotope means how unstable isotopes.
likely it is to break down or decay into
other, lighter elements. Often, the heavier
the isotope (that is, the more neutrons it Radioactive decay
has), the less stable it is. Unstable isotopes, You have already learned that isotopes of
such as the isotopes of the element atoms that have an unstable nucleus are
uranium, are often called radioisotopes. In likely to undergo radioactive decay. The
radioactive decay
these types of isotopes radioactive radiation that is released during the decay
when an unstable nucleus decay occurs to try to achieve or splitting up of a nucleus can be alpha (α),
emits radiation (alpha and
beta particles or gamma a stable nucleus. (This will be beta (β) or gamma (γ) radiation.
waves) and breaks down to
form another element discussed later in this section.) On
the other hand, stable isotopes are Alpha decay
not radioactive as their nucleus is stable An alpha particle consists of two protons
and therefore not prone to radioactive and two neutrons, which is the same as
decay (splitting of the nucleus). Elements the nucleus of a helium atom. Therefore,
WIDGET
Nuclear
can have more than one stable isotope, when an atom undergoes alpha decay, the
equations. such as carbon-12 and carbon-13. Table atomic number decreases by 2 and the mass
5.3 summarises the differences between number decreases by 4. You know that
stable and unstable isotopes. when the atomic number changes, a new
element is formed, in this case two elements
lower on the periodic table. The equation in
Stable isotopes Unstable isotopes
Figure 5.39 shows what happens when an
Have a stable nucleus Have an unstable nucleus
atom of uranium undergoes alpha decay.
Not radioactive Radioactive
Table 5.3 A comparison between stable and unstable isotopes
238
92 U 234
90 Th 4
2 He
alpha
particle
Mass numbers in brackets Did you know? 5.4
Figure 5.39 When a uranium-238 nucleus undergoes
Look at francium (Fr) on the bottom
alpha decay, it becomes a thorium-234 atom. The
left of the periodic table. It has parentheses around its mass atom of uranium has changed into an atom of
number (223). Elements written like this are radioactive, so thorium.
they are very unstable. Most of their isotopes decay into other
elements relatively quickly. The mass number in parentheses As a helium nucleus is emitted, the
therefore represents the most stable isotope of that element – uranium atom loses two protons and
the one that exists the longest. therefore becomes a thorium atom. The
Can you find other radioactive elements on the periodic mass number also decreases by 4 from
table? 238 to 234. You will also see that a
helium nucleus is emitted in the process.

When this happens, the emitted He-4 is Electromagnetic radiation

often described as an alpha particle. Note As previously discussed, a gamma
gamma rays
that the helium nucleus has a +2 charge as ray (sometimes called photons) are electromagnetic radiation
with an energy level above a
there are no electrons involved in the decay; is a high-energy wave and unlike specified amount/wavelength
shorter than a specified
however, nuclear equations such as this are the emissions from alpha and beta amount
typically not concerned with showing the decay. You might be surprised to
charges of atoms. learn that this emission is in fact a form of
light! Light can move in the form of a wave,
Beta decay even if our eyes cannot detect it.
Beta particles are just fast-moving electrons
emitted from the nucleus. During beta decay, The full range of the forms of light is called
beta particles
a neutron is converted into a the electromagnetic spectrum. The light
a charged particle that is proton and an electron. The you see in your daily life is a form of electromagnetic spectrum
emitted from the nucleus
of a radioactive element mass number of the remaining light called visible light and is only the range of all possible forms
during radioactive decay that light can take, plotted out
(or disintegration) of an atom will not be affected a tiny sliver of the whole spectrum, in terms of lowest to highest
unstable atom. frequency of the light wave
as it has lost a neutron but therefore you cannot see the other
gained a proton. Consequently, the atomic types of waves.
number will increase by one, which changes
the identity of the element altogether. The
equation in Figure 5.40 shows what happens
during beta decay. The potassium atom has
gained a proton and lost a neutron to become
a calcium atom and a high-energy beta
particle (electron) has been emitted.

42
19K 42
20 Ca 0
1 e
beta
particle

Figure 5.40 When a potassium-42 nucleus

undergoes beta decay, it becomes a calcium-42
atom and emits a beta particle.

Gamma decay
Gamma decay is different from alpha
and beta decay in that the atom that is
undergoing gamma decay is not changed;
that is, the mass and atomic numbers are
not altered. This is because gamma decay
involves the emission of a high-energy
Figure 5.42 Depending on the frequency and
wave rather than a particle. The equation wavelength of the wave, light can take forms
in Figure 5.41 shows gamma decay of including radio waves, microwaves, infrared (IR)
radioactive iodine. radiation, ultraviolet (UV) radiation, X-rays and
gamma rays. Look at how small the visible light
section is on the spectrum. There is a lot going on in
125
53 I 125
53 I the world around us, even if you cannot see it!

gamma
ray

Figure 5.41 When radioactive iodine decays, a

gamma ray is emitted.

The discovery and manipulation of medicine. Without X-rays, doctors could

electromagnetic radiation has led to not easily spot fractures (broken bones),
enormous benefits throughout society. and gamma rays are widely used in the
The transmission of microwaves is treatment of cancer.
essential to using wireless internet, mobile
phones, radar technology and microwave Many animals, such as Explore! 5.6
ovens. In the case of wireless internet birds, fish and snakes,
and communication, microwaves are can ‘see’ beyond visible light. Research
transmitted from your modem at a set one of these animals and find out how they
frequency and your device such as a phone use greater access to the electromagnetic
or computer has a detector to pick up that spectrum to their advantage.
same frequency.

Ultraviolet (UV ) radiation is emitted Ionising versus penetrating radiation

by the Sun and UV-emitting torches How dangerous a type of radiation is
known as ‘black lights’ are used by depends on its ability to penetrate materials
forensic scientists to help solve crimes by and how much damage it can do (how
revealing material no longer visible to the ionising it is). Table 5.4 and Figure 5.43
human eye. Electromagnetic radiation is summarise the properties of the three types
also incredibly important to the field of of radiation.

Type of Penetrating power Ionisation power

radiation
Alpha Least penetrating. It can be stopped Very strongly ionising therefore cause
by a sheet of paper. the most damage, especially if they
are inside the body.
Beta It can penetrate paper but is stopped Not as ionising as alpha particles but
by a thin aluminium sheet. more than gamma rays.
Gamma The most penetrating. It can only be Not very ionising therefore cause the
stopped by thick pieces of lead. least damage, but they can penetrate
the body, and strong gamma rays are
used to kill cancer cells.
Table 5.4 Properties of the three different types of radiation

1 If an atom Quick check 5.12

emits alpha
radiation, what particle does it give
off and how is the atom changed as a
result?
2 If an atom emits beta radiation, what
particle does it give off and how is the
atom changed as a result?
3 Describe how gamma radiation differs
Figure 5.43 The penetrating power of alpha, beta and gamma radiation from alpha and beta radiation.
4 List the different types of energy in the
electromagnetic spectrum.

What are isotopes used for? to access; carbon-14 (C-14), which is used
in dating historical artefacts and nitrogen-14
There are around 90 naturally occurring
(N-14), which is used in detecting explosives.
elements with around 250 stable isotopes
and about 3200 unstable radioisotopes.
Both stable isotopes and radioisotopes have
important uses.

Perhaps the most well-known use for isotopes

is in medicine to diagnose and treat illnesses.
Cobalt-60 (Co-60) is used in radiotherapy to
treat cancer cells, strontium-90 (Sr-90) is used
in the treatment of skin cancer in pets, and
gamma rays are produced when radioisotope
decay is used to kill bacteria that may be
present on medical equipment.

Other isotopes used in daily life include:

sodium-24 (Na-24), which is used in
detecting leakages in pipes that are difficult Figure 5.44 A patient undergoing radiotherapy for cancer

Practical 5.7: Self-design & Teacher demonstration

Investigating the penetration of alpha, beta and gamma radiation

You have been provided with the following materials. Suggest an experiment that could be done using this
equipment to show the penetrating properties of alpha, beta and
Be careful
gamma radiation. You may wish to draw a diagram or write a method to
This practical should only
demonstrate that you have done this task.
be undertaken by properly
Aim trained personnel.
To investigate the penetrative strengths of ionising radiation.

Materials
• alpha radiation source • absorbing materials:
• beta radiation source – sheet of paper
• gamma radiation source – aluminium sheet
• Geiger–Müller tube (detects radiation) – lead sheet

Method
Your teacher will now demonstrate the experiment. Due to the dangerous radiation that is emitted, this
experiment can only be performed by a teacher and under strictly controlled conditions.

Results
Copy and complete the table below.

Radiation Material that stops most of the radiation Penetrating power

from passing through
Alpha
Beta
Gamma

continued…

…continued
Evaluation
1 Identify the most penetrating radiation and justify your choice.
2 Discuss how the experiment could be modified to show the effectiveness of the radiation over different
ranges and thickness of absorbers.
3 Propose which type of radiation you think could cause the most damage if it gets into our bodies.
4 Research the effects that radiation can have on the body to explain why it is so damaging.

Conclusion
1 Make a claim from this experiment regarding the penetrating power of various types of radiation.
2 Support the statement by using your observations.
3 Explain how your observations support your claim.

Section 5.5 questions

QUIZ Remembering
1 Define the term ‘isotope’.
2 Identify the name of an isotope of barium with a mass number of 130.
3 What is the name of an isotope of potassium with 22 neutrons?
4 Name three important uses of radioisotopes.
5 Define the electromagnetic spectrum.

Understanding
6 Compare and contrast these isotopes of sodium: Na-23 and Na-24.
7 Outline the relationship between the mass of an isotope and its stability.
8 Summarise what happens to the nucleus of an element during alpha decay.

Applying
9 Construct an equation to show the alpha decay of uranium-235 to thorium-231.

Analysing
10 List the main differences between stable isotopes and radioisotopes.

Evaluating
11 An element undergoes radioactive decay; its atomic number and mass number are not
affected. Deduce the type of decay.
12 During the radioactive decay of an isotope a high-energy electron is released. Deduce the
type of decay.

Review questions

Remembering
1 Give the names of the three subatomic particles within the atom.
SCORCHER
2 In the table below, match the subatomic particle to the correct charge.

Subatomic particle Charge (e)

Proton 0
Neutron –1
Electron +1

3 Define the term ‘isotope’.

4 Where are the protons and neutrons located within the atom?
5 What is the difference between an element and a compound?
6 If an atom has 18 protons, how many electrons does it have?
7 What type of particle is released during beta decay?

Understanding
8 Describe the planetary model of the atom.
9 Explain why atoms of elements have a neutral overall charge.
10 Complete the equation to show the particle released during alpha decay.

226
88 Ra 222Rn 2

11 Explain how Rutherford’s gold foil experiment led to the discovery of the nucleus.
12 Copy and complete the following table to summarise the three main isotopes of neon.

Isotope Mass number Number of Number of Number of

protons neutrons electrons
20
10 Ne
21
10Ne
22
10 Ne

Applying
13 Apply your knowledge of the overall charge of an atom to explain what would happen to an
oxygen atom if it had an extra electron (nine electrons).
14 Explain why the neutron was difficult to discover.
15 Deduce the relationship between the mass of an element and how stable it is.
16 Explain why radioactive sources in schools must be stored in lead-lined boxes.

Analysing
17 Describe the differences between isotopes of the same element.
18 Compare the properties of the subatomic particles in terms of their mass and charge.
19 Ionising radiation is used in smoke detectors. Which type of radiation would you choose for this
use and why?
20 Democritus and Aristotle were philosophers, not modern scientists. In what ways were their
thoughts ‘scientific’ and in what ways are they ‘not scientific’? Discuss how significant their
contributions were to atomic theory.

Evaluating
21 Suggest why the atomic model has changed and why it may continue to do so.
22 ‘The current atomic model is perfect and accurate.’ Appraise the accuracy of this statement.
23 Do you expect the atomic model to change significantly in the future? Justify your answer.
24 Deduce why there is usually such a long period between a scientist proposing a theory and the
theory being supported or refuted by valid scientific evidence.

STEM activity: Designing and creating a product

using bioplastics

Background information
Plastic is one of the most commonly used substances VCSSU122 VCSSU124 VCDSTC048
today. It is used for everything from food packaging
to toys, from building materials to clothing, and even
medical implants. Plastic was invented in 1907 and
has revolutionised manufacturing of a multitude of VCDSCD049 VCDSCD051 VCSIS113
different products because of its versatility. Plastic can
be hard, soft, stretchy, bendable, strong or durable.
Molecules are atoms that are bonded together.
Chemically, plastic consists of long chains of
There are two main problems with the amount
molecules called polymers. This is why the names of
of plastic that is used. Firstly, most plastic is
many plastics start with poly–. The polymers are made
made from crude oil, a limited resource that is
up of carbon and hydrogen, and sometimes oxygen,
harmful to the environment to extract. Secondly,
nitrogen, sulfur, phosphorus, fluorine or silicon.
because of their molecular structure, plastic is
H H H H H H H H very difficult to biodegrade (break down). Plastic
litter builds up in our waterways and kills wildlife,
C C C C C C C C as well as leaching harmful toxins into the
environment.
H H H H H H H H
Figure 5.45 Polyethylene is the simplest plastic,
consisting of a long chain of carbon atoms and
hydrogen atoms.

Figure 5.46 Plastic litter builds up on our beaches.

Figure 5.47 An oil refinery

Bioplastics are a type of plastic made from Suggested materials

renewable resources like plants. They can easily be
Bioplastic made at home with readily available Be careful - Safety glasses
a type of plastic made from
renewable resources like
ingredients. While they cannot Extreme care must be taken when
plants solve the plastic problem alone, they working around the hotplate and
can reduce carbon dioxide emissions, and some handling the hot mixture. Ensure
have the potential to biodegrade more easily than the hotplate is cool before moving it.
traditional plastics.
• corn starch • food dye (optional)
Design brief: Design and create a product using • vinegar • saucepan
bioplastics. • glycerine • wooden spoon
• water • hotplate
• non-stick/baking paper/aluminium foil and tray
Activity instructions • cookie cutters or moulds to shape the plastic
In groups of two or three, your task is to think of • Safety glasses
a product that is made of plastic and find a way
of making it out of bioplastic. You can start by Evaluate and modify
brainstorming everything you have used today that is
1 Describe any difficulties you encounter when
made of plastic and documenting these ideas using
creating your product out of the bioplastic.
a cognitive organiser like a mind map. You should
2 Suggest ways that the design of your product
then show your ideas to your teacher and ask them to
could be improved.
approve your idea before beginning your design.
3 List the physical properties of your bioplastic
You will need to research how to make
and comment on how appropriate these
bioplastic and decide on a method. Write down the
properties were for your product.
ingredients you will need and their quantities, and
4 Test your product by using it for its intended
the method you will follow.
purpose under different conditions.
Once your teacher has approved your method
5 Evaluate the effectiveness of your product.
and design, you may begin creating your product.

Chapter 6 Chemical reactions

Chapter introduction
This chapter is all about chemical reactions. You will learn what a chemical reaction is and the basics
of how to write a chemical equation. You will investigate the law of conservation of mass and how this
applies to chemical equations. You will also examine the role of energy in everyday chemical reactions
to classify reactions as exothermic or endothermic. Finally, you will find out what is formed when acids
react with bases, metals and carbonates.

Curriculum
Chemical reactions involve rearranging atoms to form new substances; during a chemical reaction
mass is not created or destroyed (VCSSU124)
• modelling chemical reactions in terms of rearrangement of atoms 6.1
• considering the role of energy in chemical reactions 6.3
• recognising that the conservation of mass in a chemical reaction can be demonstrated by 6.2
simple chemical equations
Chemical reactions, including combustion and the reactions of acids, are important in both non-living
and living systems and involve energy transfer (VCSSU126)
• investigating a range of different reactions to classify them as exothermic or endothermic 6.3
• comparing respiration and photosynthesis and their role in biological processes 6.4
• investigating reactions of acids with metals, bases, and carbonates 6.5

Victorian Curriculum F–10 © VCAA (2016)

Glossary terms
acid endothermic reaction conditions
activation energy exothermic rearranged
base neutralisation respiration
chemical change photosynthesis salt
combustion product spontaneous reaction
conservation of mass reactant

Concept map

Physical properties Indicated by Rearrangement of atoms

(including colour) changes in Involve
Sound Conservation of mass
Light
Temperature

Include acid
Reaction conditions
reactions Chemical Written as
Reactants → products
reactions
e.g.
Acid + metal → salt + hydrogen
Acid + base → salt + water
Acid + metal carbonate → salt + water + carbon dioxide
Spontaneously
Required
for life Start

Photosynthesis
Non-spontaneously
(require activation
Result energy)
Respiration in

6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5
More energy More energy
released absorbed
Exothermic Endothermic
Increased end Decreased end
temperature temperature

6.1 Introduction to chemical

reactions

By now in your Science lessons you will have between B and C to form compound BC;
carried out a number of chemical reactions, that is, the atoms have been rearranged.
all for different purposes. But did you know The new substances are different from the WORKSHEET
that almost everything around you has been original substances, therefore a chemical
created because of chemical reactions? The reaction has taken place. The arrow in a
bread that you eat as part of your sandwich chemical reaction separates the original
at lunchtime, the paper that these words are substances that react together with the new
written on, the very reason we all exist, is substances produced by the reaction.
because of chemical reactions. When reading a chemical equation
rearranged
the process of moving things
aloud, the arrow is often read as ‘yields’. into a different order

A B + C A + B C

Figure 6.2 Rearranging atoms in a chemical reaction

Let’s look at a real-life example. Figure 6.3

shows the chemical reaction between carbon
and oxygen. In this chemical reaction the
bond between the two oxygen atoms is
broken, the atoms are rearranged, and new
Figure 6.1 All the ingredients in your sandwich, from
bread to salt, were made by chemical reactions. bonds are formed between each oxygen atom
and the carbon atom. The new substance
What is a chemical reaction? formed has the name carbon dioxide.
The simplest way to describe a chemical
C + O O O C O
reaction is that existing substances are converted
into new substances, but of course it is not as Carbon + Oxygen Carbon dioxide
simple as that. During chemical reactions,
Figure 6.3 Formation of carbon dioxide is a chemical
the atoms in the existing substances are reaction.
rearranged to make new substances. For this
to happen, bonds holding the atoms together The rearrangement of the atoms has a
in the existing substances must be broken huge effect on these substances in this
and new bonds need to form in different chemical reaction. Carbon is a solid at
arrangements to make the new substances. room temperature and oxygen is a gas. The
compound formed in this reaction, carbon
Figure 6.2 shows an example of a chemical dioxide, is a gas at room temperature.
reaction in which compound AB is reacting The arrangement of the atoms within a
with element C to make a new compound, compound determines the properties of a
BC, and element A. In this reaction, the substance, which is why the properties of
bond between A and B in the compound the compound formed in Figure 6.3 are so
AB is broken and a new bond is formed different from the existing substances.

Practical 6.1: Teacher demonstration

Forming a compound from its elements

Be careful
Aim Ensure protective
To investigate the change in physical properties in a equipment is used as
chemical reaction. fire is involved.
Materials
• steel wool
• metal tongs
• 9 V battery
• digital balance

Method
1 Weigh an amount of steel wool on the balance and record the weight.
2 Using the metal tongs, hold the steel wool and ignite the wool with the 9 V battery.
3 Reweigh the steel wool after it is sufficiently burned and no longer sparking.

Results

Reactants Properties
Iron
Oxygen

Product Properties
Iron oxide

Evaluation
1 List the physical properties of the two existing substances and describe how they are
different from the new substance formed.
2 Outline the other indications that showed that this was a chemical reaction.
3 Complete the word equation below to show what happened in this chemical reaction.
________________ + ________________ → iron oxide
4 Is iron oxide an element, compound or mixture? How do you know? (Remember that an
element is made up of only one type of atom; a compound is a molecule made up of two or
more different atoms bonded together, and a mixture is a substance made up of different
elements and/or compounds that are not chemically bonded.)

Conclusion
1 Make a claim from this experiment regarding chemical reactions and physical properties.
2 Support the statement by using your observations (include potential faults in the
experiment).
3 Explain how your observations support your claim.

1 Explain how new substances are formed during a chemical Quick check 6.1
reaction.
2 Describe what is happening to the substances in the equation below.
A→B+C

Living concrete that can repair itself Science as a human endeavour 6.1
Concrete is the one of the world’s most popular building materials
and has been used since the Roman times. However, the problem
with concrete is that over time it weakens, causing cracks to form.
Water can enter these cracks, leading to the collapse of buildings
or walls.
Henk Jonkers, of Delft University in the Netherlands, has
discovered a solution to this problem: concrete containing bacteria
that can repair itself. The bacteria that was selected for this
process needed to be able to survive dormant for long periods
of time, without food or oxygen as well as withstand the alkaline Figure 6.4 The ageing and cracked concrete
conditions of the concrete itself. walls of Naples Island are in danger of
collapse, which could flood the homes located
Bacillus bacteria were chosen for the job, but Bacillus does
along the canals.
not naturally produce the limestone, which is needed to repair
the material. Henk first used sugar to help the bacteria create
limestone, but this made the concrete too weak. The solution was
to use calcium lactate.
In 2009, Henk manufactured capsules made of biodegradable
plastic containing calcium lactate and the bacteria. The capsules
open when in contact with water; that is, when there is a crack
in the concrete. The bacteria feed on the lactate which causes a
chemical reaction converting the lactate into limestone, and the
crack closes. He had made concrete that repairs itself! Figure 6.5 Bacillus bacteria under a microscope

Indicators of a chemical change

distinctive ways in which this can be
The difference in properties between determined. In Year 8 you learned about
the existing and new substances is one the differences between a physical and VIDEO
Indicators of
way you can tell that a a chemical change. Table 6.1 lists the a chemical
chemical change
a rearrangement of atoms chemical reaction has main indicators of a chemical reaction to reaction.
which is often irreversible
occurred, but there are other remind you.

Change Example
Colour A silver-coloured iron nail reacting with oxygen and water to form red rust.

continued…

Table 6.1 Indicators of a chemical reaction

Change Example
Physical properties Sodium (a soft metal) reacting with water (a colourless liquid) produces sodium hydroxide (a
colourless solution) and hydrogen gas.

Sound Hydrogen and oxygen reacting together to make water creates a loud bang.

Light Snapping a glow stick starts a chemical reaction that produces light.

TABLE 6.1 Continued…

Change Example
Temperature Magnesium metal reacting with an acid causes heat to be released.

TABLE 6.1 Continued…

Remember that a chemical change differs On the other hand, a physical change is
from a physical change, as chemical changes reversible. The melting and freezing of
are sometimes irreversible. In such cases, water is an example of a physical change.
this means that when a new substance has (Note that physical change is not the same
been formed in a chemical reaction, you as a physical property change: a change in
cannot simply convert the new substance physical property is an indicator of
back into the original substances. Of course chemical change.)
some chemical reactions that are irreversible
by themselves can undergo further reactions
1 Recall examples of a chemical Quick check 6.2
to retrieve some of these original substances change occurring.
(for example, the copper cycle). All the 2 Indicate if the following statement is true or false. ‘All
reactions that have already been mentioned chemical changes are irreversible.’
are all examples of chemical changes. 3 When a pan of water is heated on a cooker top, the water
turns into steam. When the steam hits a cold window, it
will condense back into liquid water. Is this an example of
a physical change, chemical change or both?

How is a chemical equation

written?
Reactants and products
In a chemical reaction there will always
be substances reacting with each other to
form new substances. Until now you have
referred to the substances reacting together
as existing substances. As these are the
substances doing the reacting, they
reactant
Figure 6.6 Ice melting and forming water is an are called reactants. Reactants are substance that is reacting in
a chemical reaction
example of a physical change. always on the left-hand side of

product a chemical equation; that is, they the right-hand side of an equation; that
substance formed in a
chemical reaction are always written first. The new is, they are always written last. Figure 6.7
substances that are formed are called shows the reaction between magnesium and
products. Products are always written on hydrochloric acid.

magnesium hydrochloric acid magnesium chloride hydrogen

� ��
reactants products

Figure 6.7 Chemical reaction between magnesium and hydrochloric acid

Magnesium and hydrochloric acid are heat or light energy to get started, some
reactants and, as you can see, they are on require a high pressure, some need a chemical
the left-hand side of the arrow. Magnesium called a catalyst to speed up the reaction, and
chloride and hydrogen are products, so they others just require a longer amount of time.
are written on the right-hand side of the These are all called reaction reaction conditions
arrow. Notice that in-between the reactants conditions. When they are conditions required for
a chemical reaction to
and products is an arrow, not an equals present, they are written proceed

sign. A chemical equation does not have an above the arrow in a chemical equation. This
equals sign. shows that they are required for the reaction
but do not get involved in the reaction.
Reaction conditions
Think about the reaction conditions required
Not all chemical reactions happen when baking a cake – you certainly cannot do
spontaneously without us having to do this without time and an oven!
anything to them. Some reactions require

Figure 6.8 The burning of petrol in car engine requires heat as a reaction condition.

1 On which side of a chemical equation are the products written? Quick check 6.3
2 On which side of a chemical equation are the reactants written?
3 Where should the reaction conditions be written in a chemical equation?

The Maillard reaction Explore! 6.1

The Maillard reaction is an important chemical reaction
in many industries. An example of the Maillard reaction
is the searing and browning of meat. Use the internet to
research the following questions.
1 What is the Maillard reaction and how does it work?
2 What reaction conditions are required for the
reaction?
3 Other than searing/browning meat, give other uses
of this reaction.

Figure 6.9 Searing or browning of steak is an example of

the Maillard reaction.

Types of chemical equations arrow separating the reactants on the left

You can represent chemical equations and the products on the right. They only
in three different ways: word equations, differ because of the way the reactants and
formula equations and molecular equations. products are represented. You will learn
All three ways have the same structure; an more about this next year.

Section 6.1 questions

Remembering QUIZ
1 State what → means in a chemical reaction.
2 Name the reactants in the following reactions.
a sodium hydroxide + iron carbonate → iron hydroxide + sodium carbonate
b propane + oxygen → carbon dioxide + water
c hydrogen + oxygen → water
d calcium carbonate → calcium oxide + carbon dioxide
3 Name the products of the reactions in question 2.
4 Match the following keywords to the definitions.

Keyword Definition
Reactants The substances formed in a chemical reaction.
Products The type of environment that the reaction needs for it to
happen, e.g. temperature or pressure.
Reaction conditions The substances that are reacting in a chemical reaction.

Understanding
5 Describe what happens to the atoms in reactants during a chemical reaction.
6 Compare and contrast the similarities and differences between physical and chemical
changes.
continued…

…continued
Applying
7 Nitrogen and oxygen gas exist in our atmosphere, but they do not react together. However, in the high
temperatures and pressures of car engines they will react with each other. Identify the reaction conditions
needed to cause nitrogen and oxygen to react with each other.

Analysing
8 Categorise the following examples as physical or chemical changes.
a Sugar dissolving in a cup of tea
b Iron nail rusting
c Ice melting to form water
d Frying an egg
e Toasting bread

Evaluating
9 The following equation shows what happens during respiration in which glucose and oxygen (reactants) react
together to make carbon dioxide and water (products). Deduce the three mistakes which have been made.

carbon dioxide and water = glucose + oxygen

6.2 Conservation of mass

WORKSHEET

conservation of mass One of the fundamental laws of The history

a law that states that
chemistry is the law of conservation
matter and energy can
In the eighteenth century, scientists
neither be created nor of mass. This law states that matter VIDEO
destroyed thought that for something to burn Law of
and energy can neither be created conservation.
it had to contain the element called
nor destroyed.

Mass and the universe Explore! 6.2

If the law of conservation of mass states that matter or energy can neither be created nor
destroyed, how did the matter that is present now get here?
Carl Sagan, an American astronomer, said that ‘we are made of
starstuff’. Use the internet to investigate how true the statement is
and answer the following questions.
1 What happened at the start of the universe? How did this cause
matter to form?
2 How were elements heavier than hydrogen formed at the start of
the universe?
3 When heavier elements are formed in this way, a large amount
of energy is released. This does not seem to support the Figure 6.10 Carl Sagan said that ‘we are made
law of conservation of mass. How does Einstein’s equation of starstuff’.
(Energy = mass × speed of light or E = mc ) explain this?
2 2

continued…

…continued
4 How were heavier elements in the universe, for example iron, made?
5 Look up the composition of the human body on the internet. What are the six elements that make up nearly all
of a human body? Among those, which one was not created by stars?

phlogiston (from the Greek phlox, which

means flame). They noticed that when
something burns, the mass decreases, which
led them to believe that phlogiston must be
released when something is burned. That was
until Antoine Lavoisier,
a French scientist,
noticed that if you burn
something in a closed
environment, meaning
that no substances can
escape, the mass of the
substances at the end
stayed the same as the
mass of the substances
at the start. In 1789 he
called this Lavoisier’s Figure 6.12 The mass of the pancake batter should
Figure 6.11 Antoine Lavoisier law, which was later equal the mass of all the pancakes made from it. This
proposed the law of is the law of conservation of mass in action.
renamed the law of
conservation of mass.
conservation of mass.

Putting the law of conservation

On the other hand, a full glass of water
of mass into practice
left outside on a hot day will become half
Earlier in this chapter you learned that the full if you leave it for long enough. The
law of conservation of mass means that glass of water will now have a smaller mass.
matter and energy can neither be created nor You may conclude that this mass has been
destroyed – but what does this mean? Take lost. But you know now that this is not the
the mass of all the ingredients used to make case. The water heats up, forming steam,
a pancake (flour, eggs and milk). When the which leaves the glass and goes into the
pancakes have been cooked, the mass of all air. Steam has mass. The steam has left the
the pancakes made from the batter should glass, which is why the mass of the glass
equal the mass of the starting ingredients. decreases, but it is still present in the air
This means that no matter is created or somewhere. This example demonstrates
destroyed. However, as this is not a closed why it is important to observe the
environment, there might be a difference conservation of mass in a closed system;
between the two as water evaporates from that is, one in which nothing can escape.
the batter during the cooking and matter In an open system, reactions that produce
appears to be lost. gases will appear to lose or gain mass.

Figure 6.13
Leave a glass of 1 Who Quick check 6.4
water outside discovered the
on a hot day and law of conservation of mass?
it will appear to
2 What is the definition of the law of
lose mass.
conservation of mass?
3 If the mass of reactants is 30 g what will
the mass of products be?
4 Discuss why it is difficult to observe the
law of conservation of mass in an open
system.
5 Explain why the mass of a glass of
water left out on a hot day decreases.

How does the law of Mg + O O Mg O

conservation of mass relate
to chemical equations? Mg + O2 MgO

As a scientist, you need to factor in the law Figure 6.15 The reaction between magnesium and
oxygen forms magnesium oxide.
of conservation of mass when you write
chemical equations. Consider the reaction in What do you notice about the number of
Figure 6.14. Here copper chloride (CuCl2) is each type of atom in the reactants compared
being broken down into its elements: copper to the products? The number of each type
(Cu) and chlorine (Cl2). of atom in the reactants and products is
different. This means that this equation is not
Cl Cu Cl Cu + Cl Cl observing the law of conservation of mass.
CuCl2 Cu + Cl2 There is one magnesium atom on each side
of the arrow; however, there are two oxygen
Figure 6.14 The molecular and symbol equations
atoms on the left-hand side and only one on
showing the breaking down of copper chloride into
its elements the right, resulting in the products having
less mass than the reactants. This simply
For this reaction to observe the law of does not happen. Therefore the chemical
conservation of mass, there must be the equation must be made to show that the law
same number of atoms of each element in of conservation of mass is observed.
the reactants and products. In the reactants,
there is one atom of copper and two atoms Mg O
of chlorine. In the products, there is one
atom of copper and two atoms of chlorine. Mg + O O Mg O
Therefore, there is the same number of
Mg + O2 2MgO
atoms on each side of the equation and
therefore the same mass. The only thing that Figure 6.16 This equation now has the correct
number of oxygen atoms. It is still not observing
is different is how the atoms are arranged.
the law of conservation of mass though.

Figure 6.15 shows the molecular and You should now be able to see that by
symbol equation for the reaction between adding another molecule of magnesium
magnesium (Mg) and oxygen (O2) to form oxide, the same number of oxygen atoms
magnesium oxide (MgO). is on each side of the equation, as shown

in Figure 6.16. Notice that the symbol

Mg Mg O
equation also shows that there are two
magnesium oxide molecules. However, at Mg + O O Mg O
the same time another magnesium atom
has also been added. The reaction therefore 2Mg + O2 2MgO
requires two atoms of magnesium to Figure 6.17 The correct balanced equation which
react with the oxygen. By adding another has the same number of each atom in the reactants
magnesium atom to complete the balanced and products and therefore observes the law of
conservation of mass.
equation, the same numbers of each atom
are now on each side of the equation (two For now, you just need to concentrate on
magnesium atoms and two oxygen atoms), identifying whether equations observe the
as shown in Figure 6.17. Again, notice law of conservation of mass. In Year 10 you
that the symbol equation also reflects the will learn how to balance chemical equations
addition of another magnesium atom. so that they follow this law.

1 Explain why it is necessary to balance equations. Quick check 6.5

2 Harry and Rebecca were doing an experiment in the laboratory. They measured the
mass of reactants as 50 g. After the reaction had completed, the mass of the products was 34 g. They noticed
that a gas was given off during the reaction so they wanted to find out the mass of this gas. Explain to Harry
and Rebecca how they could calculate this.

Practical 6.2

Observing the law of conservation of mass (1)

Aim
To observe the law of conservation of mass by reacting vinegar and baking soda.

Materials
1
• cup of vinegar (acetic acid)
2
1
• cup of baking soda
2
• balance
• 2 plastic cups
• resealable plastic bag (big enough to fit in the two cups comfortably)

Method
1 Draw the results table.
2 Pour the vinegar into one cup until it is half full.
3 Fill the second cup halfway with baking soda.
4 Put both cups into the plastic bag. DO NOT spill any of the contents of the cups.
5 Measure the mass of the two filled cups and plastic bag using the balance. Record this in your results table.
6 Seal the plastic bag again, being careful not to spill any of the contents.
7 Without opening the bag, pour the vinegar into the cup of baking soda.

continued…

…continued
8 When you think the chemical reaction has finished, record the mass of the contents without opening the bag.
Record this in your results table.
9 Calculate the change in mass using the initial mass and final mass results. Record these in your results table.

Results

Initial mass (g) Final mass (g) Change in mass (g)

Evaluation
1 Describe your observations when the vinegar and baking soda reacted in the plastic bag. How did you know
that a chemical change had occurred?
2 The gas produced in the reaction is the same as one of the ones you breathe out. What is the name and
formula of this gas?
3 When vinegar (acetic acid) reacts with baking soda (sodium bicarbonate), sodium acetate, water and carbon
dioxide are produced. Write a word equation for this reaction.
4 This experiment was carried out in a closed system. Deduce what you think this means.
5 Explain why this reaction is a difficult example for showing the law of conservation of mass.
6 Propose how you could have made it easier to demonstrate the law of conservation of mass.

Conclusion
1 Make a claim from this experiment regarding chemical reactions and the conservation of mass.
2 Support the statement by using your observations (include potential faults in the experiment).
3 Explain how your observations support your claim.

Practical 6.3: Self-design

Observing the law of conservation of mass (2)

Aim
To design and conduct an experiment to demonstrate the law of conservation of mass.

Materials
• 3 Alka-Seltzer® tablets
• water
• balloon
• conical flask
• measuring cylinder
• any other equipment available upon request to your teacher

Method
Write a step-by-step method of how you will carry out the experiment. Remember, the steps must be in
chronological order and include command words at the start of each step, for example, ‘Measure …’
continued…

…continued
Results

Initial mass (g) Final mass (g) Change in mass (g)

Evaluation
1 Propose how you could have improved the experimental design to more effectively measure the change
in mass.
2 Explain how you know that a chemical reaction has taken place.
3 When Alka-Seltzer® is added to water it does not react with the water, but it reacts with itself. Research what
happens to the chemicals within the Alka-Seltzer® tablet when it mixes with water.
4 When an Alka-Seltzer® tablet is mixed with water, the reactants – citric acid and sodium bicarbonate – react
together to produce the products – water, sodium citrate and carbon dioxide. Construct a word equation for
this reaction.

Section 6.2 questions

Remembering QUIZ
1 Recall the law of conservation of mass.

Understanding
2 Emma carried out an experiment by reacting different amounts of magnesium with oxygen.
Her results are shown in the results table. Explain how her results support the law of
conservation of mass.

Mass of magnesium (g) Mass of oxygen (g) Mass of product (g)

5.90 1.74 7.64
2.34 1.83 4.17
6.39 2.36 8.75

3 There are two reactants in a chemical equation and one product. The mass of the product is
30 g. The mass of the first reactant is 17 g. Show that the mass of the second reactant must
equal 13 g to observe the law of conservation of mass.

Applying
4 Identify the mass of the products in the following scenarios.
a 35 g of reactants
b 12 g of reactants
c 2 g of one reactant added to 24 g of another reactant
d 6 g of one reactant added to 3 g of another reactant
continued…

…continued
Analysing
5 Analyse the following chemical equations to determine which of them observe the law of conservation of mass.
A C + O2 → CO2
B CaCO3 → CaO + CO2
C H2 + O2 → H2O
D Na + Cl2 → NaCl
E Ba + O2 → BaO
6 Distinguish between an open and a closed system.

Evaluating
7 Decide whether an open or a closed system is better to observe the law of conservation of mass. Justify
your choice.
8 In a chemical reaction, the mass of the reactants was 15 g. The mass of the products was 12 g. Decide
whether this reaction followed the law of conservation of mass. Justify your choice.
9 Joy and Paul leave a glass of water on their balcony. When they realise it has been left there, the volume of
water in the glass has reduced. Joy says that the mass of water molecules has been lost. Paul says there is
less water and therefore less mass in the glass because the water has evaporated, and this mass has been
added to the mass of the air.
a Decide who you think is correct and justify your reasoning.
b Design an experiment to prove who was correct.

6.3 Energy and chemical

reactions

In many chemical reactions, the energy energy input to get started spontaneous reaction
reaction that does not
consumed or released can play a huge part are called spontaneous require any energy input to
WORKSHEET in whether the reaction is considered useful reactions; that is, they get started

or efficient. happen straight away. The activation energy

energy required for a
rusting of iron in oxygen non-spontaneous chemical
reaction to occur
Spontaneous versus and water is an example of
non-spontaneous reactions a spontaneous reaction, and although it is
If you have carried out chemical reactions slow, it requires no other energy input for the
in your Science lessons already, you may reaction occur. Non-spontaneous reactions
have observed that some of them happened are those that require an energy input. This
quickly, as soon as the reactants were mixed, energy input is called the activation energy.
and others may have required some energy, Baking bread is an example of this type of
most likely in the form of heat, to get them reaction, as you need to heat the dough in an
started. Reactions that do not require any oven for the reaction to start.

Exothermic and endothermic

reactions
Because you cannot see atoms and molecules
in a chemical equation, it can be easy to think
of them as stationary (because you cannot
see what happens in a chemical equation).
However, molecules and atoms are constantly
moving, which means they have kinetic
(movement) energy. There is also potential
energy stored within the bonds between
atoms in molecules and compounds. When
Figure 6.18 Baking bread is an example of a non-spontaneous the atoms rearrange in a chemical reaction,
reaction as it requires heat energy to start. the potential energy stored in the bonds
also changes. Sometimes energy is lost from
Any reactions in your Science lessons that the reaction into the surroundings, while
require a Bunsen burner to start them are sometimes the reaction requires energy from
all examples of non-spontaneous reactions. the surroundings. These changes in energy
correspond to a temperature change in the
On the other hand, there are substances that reaction surroundings, which can be measured
will not react at all, even if a huge amount of during an experiment.
energy is given.
exothermic
Reactions that release energy, like the heat is released from a
reaction characterised by
burning of wood on a campfire are an increase in surrounding
described as exothermic reactions. temperature

Figure 6.19 Any reactions that need a Bunsen Figure 6.20 Burning wood is an example of an
burner to get them started are non-spontaneous. exothermic reaction because heat is released.

In science, it is useful to understand where

1 State the name of the Quick check 6.6
words come from, so let us split up the word reactions that occur
exothermic. The exo part of exothermic means without needing energy input.
external. The thermic part of exothermic 2 State the name of the energy input to start a
means heat. If you put these two parts chemical reaction.
together, then exothermic just means external 3 During a chemical reaction between hydrochloric
heat; that is, heat leaving the reaction. You acid and sodium hydroxide, the temperature went
can tell if a reaction is exothermic because up by 5°C. Identify the reaction type.
you will see a rise in its temperature. Heat 4 Burning wood is an example of an exothermic
has left the reaction and gone into the reaction because the products have more
surroundings; it is the temperature of the potential energy than the reactants. Propose
surroundings that you will measure in an whether this is true or false.
experiment.

EXO THERMIC
External Heat Reactions that take in energy from the
surroundings, for example photosynthesis,
Figure 6.21 The word ‘exothermic’ when split up
means external heat. where plants use light energy endothermic
an absorption of heat
to make their own food, are characterised by a decrease
In exothermic reactions the products have described as endothermic in surrounding temperature

less energy than the reactants, which is reactions.

why this extra energy is released into the
surroundings. It is easier to see what is
happening in an exothermic reaction by
looking at an energy level diagram, such as
shown in Figure 6.22.

Exothermic reaction

Reactants
Potential Energy

Energy
released
Figure 6.23 Photosynthesis, in which plants use the Sun’s
light energy to make their own food, is an example of an
endothermic reaction.
Products

Reaction pathway Again, if you split up the word, endo

Figure 6.22 An energy level diagram for an
means internal and thermic means heat.
exothermic reaction You can tell if a reaction is endothermic
because you will see a decrease in
In this reaction, the reactants have more temperature: heat has left the surroundings
energy than the products, so there is surplus and has gone into the reaction. In an
energy released into the surroundings. This experiment, you measure the temperature
is indicative of an exothermic reaction. of the surroundings.

ENDO THERMIC Endothermic reaction

Internal Heat
Products
Figure 6.24 The word ‘endothermic’ means
internal heat.

Potential energy
In endothermic reactions the products have Energy
more energy than the reactants, which is absorbed
why this extra energy is absorbed from the
surroundings. It is easier to see what is
happening in an endothermic reaction by Reactants
looking at an energy level diagram, such
as shown in Figure 6.25. In this reaction, Reaction pathway
the products have more energy than the
Figure 6.25 An energy level diagram for an
reactants, so energy is absorbed into the endothermic reaction
reaction from the surroundings.

1 During a chemical reaction the temperature of the solution decreases. What type of Quick check 6.7
reaction is this?
2 Respiration is an example of an endothermic reaction because it releases energy into the surroundings. Is
this statement true or false?

Practical 6.4: Teacher demonstration

Endothermic and exothermic reactions

Aim Be careful
To determine whether a reaction is endothermic or exothermic. Ensure correct protective equipment
is used. Do not touch, inhale or ingest
Materials hydrogen peroxide.
Experiment 1
• 1.4 g of potassium iodide • 100 mL plastic measuring cylinder
• 30% hydrogen peroxide • plastic tray
• food colouring • spatula
• washing-up liquid •

Experiment 2
• 10 g of ammonium chloride • wooden block
• 32 g of barium hydroxide • glass stirring rod
• 250 mL measuring cylinder • thermometer

Method
Draw the results table.

Experiment 1
1 Place the 100 mL measuring cylinder in the middle of the plastic tray.
2 Add a squirt of washing-up liquid and a few drops of food colouring to the measuring cylinder.
3 Pour about 65 mL of 30% hydrogen peroxide into the measuring cylinder.
4 Add the potassium iodide to the flask, stand back and watch.
continued…

…continued
Experiment 2
1 Put a drop of water on the wooden block and place the 250 mL beaker on top of the water.
2 Mix the two solids together in the beaker, stirring with the thermometer and observe the change in
temperature.
3 Now try to remove the beaker from the block.
4 Pass the wooden block around the class and feel the change in temperature.

Results

Experiment Observations Exothermic or endothermic

1
2

Evaluation
1 How did you know that a chemical reaction had taken place in both experiments?
2 Draw a potential energy level diagram for each of the experiments.
3 Explain why the two solids in Experiment 2 melted without any heat being applied to the beaker.
4 Determine why the reaction mixture shot out of the measuring cylinder in Experiment 1.

Conclusion
1 Make a claim from this experiment regarding determining endothermic and exothermic reactions.
2 Support the statement by using your observations (include potential faults in the experiment).
3 Explain how your observations support your claim.

Practical 6.5

Classifying reactions as endothermic or exothermic

Aim Be careful
To determine whether reactions are endothermic or exothermic. Ensure that appropriate gloves and
protective equipment are worn during
Materials this experiment. Hydrochloric acid is
• 0.5 M hydrochloric acid a strong acid and sodium hydroxide is
• 0.5 M sodium hydroxide a strong base. Flammable gases may
• 1 M copper sulfate solution be produced by reactions. Exothermic
• 1 M sodium bicarbonate reactions produce heat.
• 3 cm piece magnesium ribbon
• 1 spatula of zinc powder
• 1 spatula of citric acid
• 10 mL measuring cylinder
• thermometer
• polystyrene cup with lid

Method
1 Draw the results table on the next page.
2 Pour 10 mL of the first substance in Experiment 1 into the cup and measure the starting temperature. Record
the temperature in your results table.
3 Add the required amount of the other chemical listed in the first experiment to the cup, poke the thermometer
through the lid and attach the lid to the cup.
4 When the temperature on the thermometer remains stable, record the final temperature in the results table.
continued…

…continued
5 Work out the temperature change and decide whether the reaction is endothermic or exothermic.
6 Repeat for the other experiments.

Results

Experiment Start Final Temperature Endothermic

temperature temperature change (°C) or
(°C) (°C) exothermic
1 10 mL hydrochloric acid + 3 cm
piece of magnesium ribbon
2 10 mL hydrochloric acid + 10 mL
sodium hydroxide
3 10 mL copper sulfate solution +
1 spatula zinc powder
4 10 mL sodium hydrogen
carbonate + 1 spatula citric acid

Evaluation
1 Experiment 2 was a reaction between an acid and a base. Research what type of reaction this is.
2 Describe what happened to the energy in the reaction between sodium hydrogen carbonate and citric acid
in Experiment 4.

Combustion reactions methane oxygen carbon dioxide water

Combustion reactions are specific examples CH4 2O2 CO2 2H2O
of reactions that are exothermic in nature. Figure 6.27 Complete combustion of methane

combustion It is just the scientific term

the reaction of a fuel with
for burning and you know This is an example of complete combustion
oxygen usually producing
heat and light already that when fuels burn because enough oxygen is present to combine
they release heat. For a fuel to burn, oxygen with both the hydrogen and carbon in the
is required. Combustion reactions often take fuel. If only a limited supply of oxygen is
the format shown in Figure 6.26. available, methane will undergo incomplete
combustion in which there can be two
possible outcomes: carbon monoxide and
fuel oxygen carbon dioxide water
carbon, as shown in Figure 6.28.
Figure 6.26 A typical combustion reaction
methane oxygen carbon monoxide water
Fuels that contain hydrogen and carbon 2CH4 3O2 2CO 4H2O
are called hydrocarbons. The equation in
Figure 6.27 shows what happens when the methane oxygen carbon water
simplest hydrocarbon, methane, is burned in CH4 O2 C 2H2O
oxygen. Figure 6.28 Incomplete combustion of methane

Carbon monoxide is produced instead of carbon

Internal combustion Explore! 6.3
dioxide when the oxygen supply is reduced
engine
slightly. If there is very little oxygen available, Figure 6.29 shows an internal combustion
only the hydrogen will combine with it, making engine. Use the internet to research the
water, and leaving carbon on its own. Other following questions.
outcomes are possible during an incomplete 1 How does the internal combustion
combustion of a hydrocarbon. Propane for engine work?
instance produces both carbon monoxide and 2 Identify the products of the reaction in
carbon dioxide in addition to water. the car engine.
3 Discuss the effects of these products
1 Explain why Quick check 6.8 on the environment.
combustion 4 Compare the external combustion
reactions are described as exothermic engine in a steam train to the internal
reactions. combustion engine in a car.
2 Identify the gas required for all types of
combustion reactions.
3 During the combustion of octane,
carbon dioxide and water are released.
Write a word equation to demonstrate
this reaction.
Figure 6.29 An internal combustion engine in a car

Section 6.3 questions

Remembering
QUIZ
1 Identify the gases that are a product of complete combustion reactions involving carbon.
2 Recall one example of an endothermic reaction and one example of an exothermic reaction.
Understanding
3 Explain why fire blankets, when put over a fire, cause the fire to be put out.
4 During photosynthesis, plants use the Sun’s energy to make their own food. Explain why
this is an example of an endothermic reaction.
Applying
5 Compare and contrast explosions with burning. Some people think they are different, some
people think they are the same thing.
6 Construct a word equation for the complete combustion of butane (BBQ gas) to form
carbon dioxide and water.
Analysing
7 Distinguish between complete and incomplete combustion.
8 Contrast exothermic and endothermic reactions.
9 Nitrogen and oxygen in the atmosphere react together during lightning strikes. Classify this
as a spontaneous or a non-spontaneous reaction and explain your decision.
10 Classify the following as exothermic or endothermic reactions.
a A reaction in which the temperature decreases
b Releasing energy from food in respiration
c Baking a cake
d Combustion
Evaluating
11 Is this statement true or false? ‘Combustion is a chemical reaction.’ Justify your choice.

6.4 Reactions of life

photosynthesis Life on Earth is dependent For photosynthesis to occur, plants need

the chemical reaction by
which organisms make their
on two chemical reactions: to take carbon dioxide and water into
own food photosynthesis and chloroplasts. Carbon dioxide comes from WORKSHEET
respiration respiration. These are perhaps the air and is absorbed into the leaf through
a chemical reaction which
converts glucose and oxygen the two most important tiny holes called stomata on the underside of
into carbon dioxide and
water as well as energy chemical reactions you will the leaf (see Figure 6.31). Water in the soil
ever study. Photosynthesis is is taken up into the plant by its roots (see
carried out by plants; respiration is carried Figure 6.32).
out by animals and plants.

Photosynthesis Light energy

Photosynthesis is the process by which

plants make their own food in the form
Carbon dioxide Oxygen
of glucose. It takes place in any part of CO2 O2 WIDGET
the plant that is green and exposed to (from air) (into air) Photosynthesis.
sunlight. As leaves are exposed to the most
sunlight, this is where most photosynthesis Chlorophyll
Glucose (within leaf)
takes place. Leaves are green because they
C6H12O6
contain a green chemical called chlorophyll (stays in plant) Water
in tiny structures called chloroplasts. H2O
Photosynthesis can be summarised by (from soil)
the word equation and balanced formula Figure 6.32 Photosynthesis: where the raw materials
equation shown in Figure 6.30. come from and what happens to the products

carbon dioxide water light

energy
chlorophyll
glucose oxygen Once carbon dioxide and
6CO2 light energy
6H2O C6H12O6 6O2 water are inside the plant
chlorophyll
they will not react on their
Figure 6.30 The word and formula equations for photosynthesis
own. For this reaction
to take place, energy from sunlight is
required. The green chemical, chlorophyll,
within the chloroplasts in leaves is also
required to convert the light energy
into chemical energy. When carbon
dioxide and water react in the presence
of sunlight and chlorophyll, glucose and
oxygen are formed.

Figure 6.31 A scanning electron microscope image

of leaf stomata (tiny holes on the underside of the
leaf). Carbon dioxide moves into the leaf through
the stomata.

Table 6.2 summarises the chemicals and energy involved in photosynthesis.

Reactants Reaction conditions Products

Carbon dioxide Light energy Glucose
Water Chlorophyll Oxygen

Table 6.2 Chemicals and energy involved in photosynthesis

Practical 6.6

Investigating factors that affect the rate of photosynthesis

Be careful
Aim Lamp may be hot
To investigate how the amount of light affects the rate of photosynthesis. (if incandescent)
Hypothesis
Write a hypothesis for your investigation. Remember, it needs to include the independent
variables and dependent variables, and it must be testable.

Materials
• water plant
• 250 mL conical flask
• 100 mL measuring cylinder
• electric lamp
• scissors
• metre ruler
• stop clock

Method
1 Draw the results table below.
2 Set up the lamp. Using the metre ruler, measure five distances away from the base of
the lamp. These are the distances you will investigate. Record these distances in your
results table.
3 Measure 100 mL of water using the 100 mL measuring cylinder and add it to the conical flask.
4 Place the conical flask at the correct distance away from the lamp.
5 Cut a 10 cm length strip of the water plant and add it to the conical flask and at the same
time start the stop clock.
6 Count the number of bubbles that are produced in 1 minute. Record this in your results table.
7 Repeat the investigation using the same procedure, but now choosing a different distance
away from the lamp.
8 If you have time you can repeat each distance again. Alternatively, you could share your
results with the rest of your class so you can calculate the mean number of bubbles.

Results

Distance away from the lamp (cm) Number of bubbles produced

continued…

…continued
Evaluation
1 Name the independent variable in this investigation.
2 Name the dependent variable in this investigation.
3 List some of the control variables in this investigation. Why it is important that they need to be controlled?
4 Plot a scatter graph (with a trend line or a line of best fit) of your results.
5 Describe the trend in your graph.
6 Explain the trend in your graph.
7 Identify the gas you assume is present in the bubbles.
8 Propose how you could improve the experiment to make the results more:
a accurate
b reliable.
9 Design a similar experiment to investigate another factor that may affect the rate of photosynthesis.

Conclusion
1 Make a claim from this experiment regarding the amount of light and the rate of photosynthesis.
2 Support the statement by using your observations (include potential faults in the experiment).
3 Explain how your observations support your claim.

1 Name the two reactants required for photosynthesis. Quick check 6.9
2 Name the two products produced during photosynthesis.
3 Explain why sunlight is needed for photosynthesis.
4 Write a word equation for photosynthesis.

Respiration why animals breathe. When you exercise,

you need more energy from respiration and
Respiration is the process by which plants
therefore more oxygen, which is why your
and animals produce energy from glucose.
breathing rate increases.
Both plants and animals carry out a process
called aerobic respiration, which means
You know already that the glucose that
respiration requiring oxygen. Oxygen comes
plants use in respiration is formed during
from the air for both organisms, which is
photosynthesis, whereas animals get their
glucose from the food they eat. Aerobic
respiration takes place in the mitochondria
(tiny structures inside cells). Alongside the
useful product of respiration, energy, other
less useful products, carbon dioxide and
water are also produced.

Get a test tube, a straw Try this 6.1

and some limewater. Blow
into the limewater. What do you think will
happen? How does this give us evidence
for one product of aerobic respiration?
Figure 6.33 When you exercise, more energy is required, so you
breathe more.

Aerobic respiration can be summarised by the word equation and balanced formula
equation below.
glucose + oxygen → carbon dioxide + water
C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O
Figure 6.34 The word and formula equations for aerobic
respiration

Aerobic and anaerobic respiration Explore! 6.4

Figure 6.35 Haile Gebrselassie won the Figure 6.36 Usain Bolt crossing the
Berlin marathon in 2009 finish line. He is perhaps the greatest
sprinter of all time.

Haile Gebrselassie and Usain Bolt are perhaps the most famous names in their sports. Usain
Bolt ran the 100 m and 200 m, whereas Haile Gebrselassie ran long-distances races, including
marathons. The energy requirements for these races differ dramatically and therefore so does
the rate and type of respiration.
1 During a race, how would the breathing rates of each runner differ?
2 During a 100 m race, Usain Bolt only carried out a type of respiration known as anaerobic
respiration. Research the differences between aerobic and anaerobic to explain why the
types of respiration used in each race differ.
3 In a marathon, runners pick up glucose drinks at various points during a race. Propose a
reason for this.

1 Name the two reactants required for aerobic respiration. Quick check 6.10
2 Name the three products produced during aerobic respiration.
3 Identify where aerobic respiration take place.

Comparing photosynthesis and respiration

Table 6.3 summarises the key similarities and differences between respiration and photosynthesis.

Respiration Photosynthesis
Produces energy Uses energy
Produces carbon dioxide Uses carbon dioxide
Uses glucose Makes glucose
Takes place in mitochondria Takes place in chloroplasts
Happens at all times of the day Happens during the day only when light is
present

Table 6.3 Comparison between photosynthesis and respiration

Section 6.4 questions

Remembering QUIZ
1 Name the molecule that is broken down in respiration.
2 Name the green pigment found in chloroplasts of plant cells that converts the Sun’s light
energy into chemical energy for photosynthesis.
3 Recall the word equation for aerobic respiration.
4 Complete the word equation for photosynthesis.
carbon dioxide + _________________ → glucose + _________________

Understanding
5 Compare and contrast photosynthesis and respiration.
6 Explain why light energy is written above the arrow and chlorophyll is written below in the
word equation for photosynthesis.
7 Outline the reason why leaves are often flattened and do not overlap.

Applying
8 During anaerobic respiration in yeast, glucose is broken down into carbon dioxide and
ethanol. Construct a word equation for this reaction.

Analysing
9 Contrast the ways that plants and animals get the raw materials required for aerobic
respiration.
10 Classify respiration and photosynthesis as endothermic or exothermic reactions. Explain
your decisions.
11 List some factors that can affect the rate of photosynthesis and explain why they affect the
rate of the reaction.

Evaluating
12 Discuss the reasons why plants can respire at any time of the day but only photosynthesise
during daylight hours.

6.5 Acid reactions

Can acids and carbonates create Try this 6.2

an explosion?
WORKSHEET
Be careful
Wear appropriate
protective equipment.

Get an empty 3-litre soft-drink

bottle and a cork that will fit in the
mouth of the bottle. Fill the bottle
a quarter full with vinegar. Place
some baking powder in a small
piece of paper towel (small enough
to fit in the bottle). Now find a large
space outside. Add the paper
towel to the bottle, put the cork in
the end and stand back!
You could make this into a
science experiment to observe
Figure 6.37 The reaction
the force of the reaction with
between vinegar and
different amounts of vinegar and baking soda is quite
baking soda. impressive!

Figure 6.38 Lemon juice is a common household acid.

In this section, you will learn about three In all the reactions that will be discussed,
types of reactions involving acids: acid– a salt will always be one of the products
metal, acid–base and acid–carbonate formed. You probably salt
a product formed when an
reactions. Before these reactions are know salt as the stuff that acid reacts with a metal,
acid
a substance that has a pH discussed, you need to know what an you put on chips; however, base or carbonate and
comprises of a metal and
of less than 7
acid is. A substance is classified as an in chemistry a salt is a a non-metal
base
a substance that has a pH acid when it has a pH of less than 7. substance that is formed when acids react
greater than 7
pH is a measure of the concentration with bases, metals or metal carbonates and
of hydrogen ions in a solution. The more are made up of a metal and a non-metal.
hydrogen ions, the lower the pH. Acids are You need to be able to predict the name
sour and can sting or burn the skin. You can of the salt formed when acids react with
find some common acids in your kitchen, for metals, metal carbonates and bases. The
example, lemon juice and vinegar. The most type of acid used affects the name of the
common acids that you will come across in salt. If hydrochloric acid is reacted, the salt
the science laboratory are nitric, hydrochloric will be a chloride; if nitric acid is used, the
and sulfuric acid. salt will be a nitrate, and if sulfuric acid is

used, the salt will be a sulfate. Table 6.4 The other reactant in these acid reactions will
summarises the type of salt formed when be or contain a metal. For example, the base
different acids react. called sodium hydroxide contains the metal
sodium, and the carbonate called calcium
Type of acid Type of salt carbonate contains the metal calcium. The
Hydrochloric acid Chloride reactant other than the acid provides us
Nitric acid Nitrate with the first name of the salt. The type of
Sulfuric acid Sulfate acid provides the second name of the salt.
Table 6.4 A summary of the type of salt formed when Table 6.5 summarises how to predict the
different acids react name of a salt in reactions that involve acids.

Type of acid Other reactant Metal present Type of salt Name of salt
Hydrochloric acid Magnesium Magnesium Chloride Magnesium
chloride
Nitric acid Calcium Calcium Nitrate Calcium nitrate
hydroxide
Sulfuric acid Sodium Sodium Sulfate Sodium sulfate
carbonate
Table 6.5 A summary on how to name the salt produced in acid reactions

1 What is the pH of an acid? Quick check 6.11

2 Name a household acid and an acid used in your science laboratory.
3 Recall what a salt is.
4 Name the salt produced when calcium carbonate reacts with sulfuric acid.
5 Describe the two rules when naming a salt.

Acid–metal reactions
Acid–metal reactions occur when an acid reacts with a metal to produce a salt and hydrogen.
The hydrogen produced in the reaction can be identified using a simple pop test. The general
word equation for any acid reacting with any metal can be seen in Figure 6.39.

acid metal salt hydrogen

Figure 6.39 The word equation for any acid reacting with any metal

When hydrochloric acid reacts with magnesium, the salt magnesium chloride is formed, with
the other product in the reaction being hydrogen. Remember, the first part of the salt name
comes from the metal and the second part comes from the type of acid used. Hydrogen is
produced no matter what the acid or metal is.

hydrochloric acid magnesium magnesium chloride hydrogen

Figure 6.40 The word equation for a specific acid–metal reaction

The reaction between acids and metals is a problem in everyday life. There is acid in rain and
as many buildings are made of metals, a large amount of damage can be done.

Figure 6.41 The orange toxic water produced here is due to the reaction of acid rain with the metal in this
abandoned mine.

1 What is the general word equation for when any metal reacts with Quick check 6.12
any acid?
2 What is the test to show that hydrogen is formed in a reaction between a metal and an acid?
3 Complete the word equation below.
nitric acid + ______________ → copper ______________ + hydrogen

Practical 6.7

Reaction of acids with metals

Be careful
Aim
Ensure appropriate protective
To observe what happens when metals react with acids.
equipment is worn.
Materials
• 1 M dilute hydrochloric acid
• 0.5 M dilute sulfuric acid
• small granules of copper, zinc, magnesium and iron
• 8 test tubes
• test-tube rack
• 4 rubber stoppers to fit the test tubes
• wooden splints
• Bunsen burner

Method
1 Draw the results tables on the next page.
2 Place the six test tubes in the test-tube rack.
3 In four of the test tubes, add 2–3 cm depth of hydrochloric acid.
4 In the other four test tubes, add 2–3 cm depth of sulfuric acid.
continued…

…continued
5 To each of the hydrochloric acid test tubes, add a different type of metal, place a rubber
stopper loosely in the top of the test tube and note your observations.
6 After about 30 seconds, light a wooden splint, remove the stopper and hold the flame to the
mouth of the test tube. Again, record your observations.
7 Add the same types of metal to the test tubes containing sulfuric acid, place a rubber
stopper in the top of the test tubes and note your observations.
8 After about 30 seconds, light a wooden splint, remove the stopper and hold the flame to the
mouth of the test tube. Again, record your observations.

Results
Reactions with hydrochloric acid

Metal Observations Hydrogen produced?

Reactions with sulfuric acid

Metal Observations Hydrogen produced?

Evaluation
1 Discuss which of the metals reacted with hydrochloric acid. How did you know?
2 Discuss which of the metals reacted with sulfuric acid. How did you know?
3 What happened to some of the reactions when the lit splint was put at the mouth of
the test tube?
4 What does this experiment tell you about the reactivity of metals?
5 Write three-word equations for some of the reactions you carried out in this practical.
6 During this reaction, you may have felt the temperature of the reaction increase. Recall the
name of this type of reaction.

Conclusion
1 Make a claim from this experiment regarding metal-acid reactions and the production of
hydrogen gas.
2 Support the statement by using your observations (include potential faults in this experiment).
3 Explain how your observations support your claim.

Acid–base reactions
pH greater than 7, they tend to be bitter and
Acid–base reactions occur when any acid feel soapy on the skin. Common bases that
reacts with any base to produce a salt and you may have in your house are hand soap
water. Notice that a salt is produced, just and oven cleaner. Bases that you will come
like in acid–metal reactions but instead of across in your science laboratory include
hydrogen being the other product it is water sodium hydroxide, calcium hydroxide and
that is made. A base is a substance that has a magnesium hydroxide.

Figure 6.42 Washing-up liquid is an example of a household base.

The general word equation for any acid

reacting with any base can be seen in
Figure 6.43.

acid base salt water

Figure 6.43 The word equation for any acid reacting
with any base

When nitric acid reacts with sodium

hydroxide, the salt sodium nitrate is formed.
If you are unsure why this is the name of the
salt, go back to the start of this section and Figure 6.45 A wasp sting is soothed because of a
remind yourself of the rules for naming salts. neutralisation reaction.

nitric acid sodium hydroxide sodium nitrate water 1 What is the Quick check 6.13
Figure 6.44 The word equation for a specific acid–base reaction general word
equation for when any base reacts with
Acid–base reactions are also known as
any acid?
neutralisation reactions. This is because when 2 Identify the name for a reaction
neutralisation acids and bases with the same volume between an acid and a base.
a reaction between an
acid and a base, forming a and concentration react they make a 3 Complete the word equation below.
solution that has a neutral pH
solution that is neutral (pH 7). Curing sulfuric acid + ___________ → iron
indigestion and soothing a wasp sting are ___________ + water
examples of common neutralisation reactions.

Practical 6.8

Reaction of acids with bases

Aim
Be careful
Ensure that appropriate gloves and protective equipment
To observe what happens when acids react
is worn during this experiment. Hydrochloric acid is a
with bases.
strong acid, and sodium hydroxide is a strong base.
Materials
• 0.5 M hydrochloric acid • stirring rod
• 0.5 M sodium hydroxide • universal indicator paper and colour chart
• 250 mL beaker (full range)
• 25 mL measuring cylinder • spotting tile
• dropping pipette • pH meter

Method
1 Draw the results table below.
2 Using a 25 mL measuring cylinder measure 25 mL of hydrochloric acid and add to the 250 mL beaker.
3 Add a small piece of universal indicator paper to six hollows on the spotting tile.
4 Using the stirring rod, add a drop of the acid onto one of the pieces of universal indicator paper on the
spotting tile and record the pH in your table.
5 Measure the pH of the acid in the beaker using the pH meter and record it in your table.
6 Using the 25 mL measuring cylinder, measure 5 mL of sodium hydroxide and add this to the beaker
containing the acid.
7 Complete steps 4 and 5, recording your results in the results table.
8 Now add the other volumes of sodium hydroxide one by one, each time measuring the pH of the solution
using the universal indicator paper and the pH meter.

Results

Volume of sodium pH using universal indicator pH using digital meter

hydroxide (mL) paper
0
5
10
15
20
25

Evaluation
1 Discuss what you expected the final pH of the solution to be. Is this reflected in your results?
2 Explain what happened to the pH as you gradually added more and more base.
3 Describe the differences in the readings with the universal indicator and the pH meter. Which one is more
accurate and why?
4 Identify the type of reaction that you carried out in this experiment.
5 Write a word equation for the reaction that you investigated.
6 To demonstrate this type of reaction, explain why it is important that the same concentration and volume of
the acid and base are used.

Conclusion
1 Make a claim from this experiment regarding determining acid-base reactions.
2 Support the statement by using your observations (include potential sources of error).
3 Explain how your observations support your claim.

Acid–carbonate reactions
Acid–carbonate reactions occur when any acid reacts with any metal carbonate to produce
a salt, water and carbon dioxide. Again, a salt is produced; however, the other products are
different. You can test for the presence of carbon dioxide produced in an acid–carbonate
reaction by bubbling the gas through limewater. Limewater goes from colourless to milky in
the presence of carbon dioxide.

The general word equation for any acid reacting with any carbonate can be seen in Figure 6.46.

acid metal carbonate salt water carbon dioxide

Figure 6.46 The word equation for any acid reacting with any
carbonate

When sulfuric acid reacts with calcium carbonate the salt calcium sulfate is formed. If you
are unsure why this is the name of the salt, go back to the start of this section and remind
yourself of the rules for naming salts.

sulfuric acid calcium carbonate calcium sulfate water carbon dioxide

Figure 6.47 The word equation for a specific acid–carbonate reaction

Baking powder Did you know? 6.1

A common type of carbonate that you may find in your home is
baking powder. Baking powder is a mixture of an acid and a carbonate. Along with water/
liquid they react slowly in a cooking mixture, producing carbon dioxide and making your cakes
light and fluffy.

Figure 6.48 An acid–carbonate reaction causes cakes to rise in the oven.

1 What is the general word equation for when any metal carbonate Quick check 6.14
reacts with any acid?
2 Describe the test that shows the presence of carbon dioxide.
3 Complete the word equation below.
hydrochloric acid + _____________ → potassium _____________ + water + carbon dioxide

Practical 6.9

Reactions of acids with metal carbonates

Be careful
Aim Ensure appropriate protective
To observe what happens when acids react with metal carbonates. equipment is worn. Nitric acid
Materials is a corrosive acid and can
• 1 M nitric acid cause chemical burns.
• calcium carbonate powder
• limewater
• 2 test tubes
• delivery tube
• test-tube rack
• spatula
• rubber stopper with hole
• Alternatively, this can be done with a side-arm test tube.

Method
1 Add about 2–3 cm depth of nitric acid into one of the test tubes.
2 Add about 2–3 cm depth of limewater into the other test tube and place both test tubes into the test-tube rack.
3 Add a heaped spatula full of calcium carbonate into the test tube containing the nitric acid and at the same
time place the rubber stopper on top of this test tube and the delivery tube into the limewater (Figure 6.49).

Delivery tube

Rubber
bung Test tube

Acid + Limewater
Metal
carbonate

Figure 6.49 Testing for the presence of carbon dioxide

using a delivery tube

Results
Record your observations.
continued…

…continued
Evaluation
1 Write a word equation for the reaction you investigated.
2 Describe how your observations prove that carbon dioxide was present.
3 Research the reaction between carbon dioxide and limewater to explain your observations.

Conclusion
1 Make a claim from this experiment regarding determining acid carbonate reactions.
2 Support the statement by using your observations.
3 Explain how your observations support your claim.

Weathering Explore! 6.5

Headstones are an important insight into what life used to be like and often hold huge
sentimental value. The two pictures below show headstones of a similar age. The headstone in Figure 6.50 is
made of limestone (calcium carbonate) and the one in Figure 6.51 is made of granite.
1 Describe the observations you can make about the quality of the headstones in each picture.
2 Explain in your own words why it is more difficult to read the inscriptions on the limestone (calcium
carbonate) headstone.
3 Write a word equation to explain your ideas in question 2.
4 Despite the obvious difference in quality, most of the headstones found in graveyards are made of limestone.
Why do you think this is?
5 How could you reduce the degradation of limestone headstones?

Figure 6.50 Limestone headstone Figure 6.51 Granite headstone

Section 6.5 questions

Remembering QUIZ
1 Recall the products of the following reactions.
a acid + metal →
b acid + base →
c acid + carbonate →
2 State the pH range of an acid and a base.
3 Recall the two rules when naming a salt.
4 What is the pH of a neutral solution?

Understanding
5 Compare and contrast acid–base reactions with acid–metal reactions.
6 During an experiment to show that when acids and bases react a neutral solution is formed,
Martin used equal volumes of sodium hydroxide (base) with equal volumes of hydrochloric
acid. However, the solution after mixing was not neutral. Explain how this could have
happened.

Applying
7 Identify the salts in the following list.
a Calcium oxide
b Sodium chloride
c Sodium carbonate
d Copper chloride
e Barium nitrate
8 Construct word equations for the following scenarios.
a Magnesium hydroxide is added to nitric acid in a neutralisation reaction to form
magnesium nitrate and water.
b Hydrochloric acid and calcium carbonate are mixed together.
c The products formed in this reaction are copper chloride and hydrogen.

Analysing
9 Categorise the following equations as acid–base, acid–carbonate or acid–metal reactions.
a Produces a salt and water as products
b Produces a gas that can be identified by the squeaky pop test
c Nitric acid + sodium → sodium nitrate + hydrogen
d Produces a gas that turns limewater milky
e Is an example of a neutralisation reaction
f Forms a salt

Evaluating
10 Heartburn is caused by acid from the stomach entering the oesophagus. Justify the use of
antacids to alleviate the pain caused by heartburn.

Review questions

Remembering
1 Name the gases produced when:
SCORCHER
a a hydrocarbon is completely combusted
b carbon dioxide and water react during photosynthesis
c nitric acid reacts with nickel carbonate.
2 Name the tiny holes that open to allow carbon dioxide to enter a plant during photosynthesis.
3 With reference to the equation for aerobic respiration, explain why you breathe out carbon
dioxide.
4 Name an example of a spontaneous chemical reaction.
5 Describe ways in which a pot plant can increase its rate of photosynthesis.
6 Complete the table:

Acid Type of salt

Hydrochloric acid
Sulfate
Nitrate

Understanding
7 Explain why condensation forms when you breathe out onto a cold window.
8 Recall what you learned in this chapter about what a chemical reaction is and about the
activation energy. Use this information to explain why heat is often needed in a chemical
reaction.
9 Explain how the law of conservation of mass is shown in chemical equations.
10 Compare aerobic respiration to a combustion reaction.
11 Explain why plants compete with each other to be the tallest.
12 Predict the products of the following reactions.
a Hydrochloric acid + copper carbonate
b Nitric acid + potassium hydroxide
c Sulfuric acid + iron

Applying
13 Construct an energy level diagram for the reaction between copper sulfate and zinc in which
the temperature of the reaction rose by 40°C.
14 Construct a paragraph to explain what is happening in this reaction. Use the keywords:
reactants, products, spontaneous, reaction condition.

hydrogen oxygen heat

water energy

Analysing
15 Analyse the following word equation and formula equation to identify the following:

hydrochloric acid + magnesium → magnesium chloride + hydrogen

HCl + Mg → MgCl2 + H2

a The reactants
b The products
c Whether it observes the law of conservation of mass
d The chemical formula of magnesium chloride

e The chemical formula of the product which can be identified in a pop test
f The type of reaction
16 Make an inference for why autumn leaves are orange or brown. Research via the internet to
assess if you were on the right track.

Evaluating
17 A 20 g sample of reactants were reacted together. Only 18 g of product was made. Assess what
may have happened to the remaining 2 g of mass.
18 In a darkened room with a plentiful supply of carbon dioxide and water, light is described as a
limiting factor. Deduce what is meant by the term ‘limiting factor’.

19 The following reaction shows the thermal decomposition (breaking down) of calcium
carbonate. Determine whether you think this is an exothermic or an endothermic reaction.
Justify your choice.

calcium carbonate → calcium oxide + carbon dioxide

20 ‘Photosynthesis and respiration are the reverse reactions of one another.’ Decide whether you
agree or disagree with the statement and justify your response.
21 Julia is observing a reaction and notices steam rising out of the test tube.
a Evaluate whether the reaction is exothermic or endothermic.
b Justify your choice.

STEM activity: Baristas and the curdling

milk problem

Background information
VCSSU126 VCSSU124 VCMNA277 VCDSCD062
Science has applications in all industries: medicine,
technology, business. Did you know it is also key to
the Food and Beverage industry?
Baristas in Australian coffee shops have felt VCSIS134 VCSIS135 VCSIS136 VCSIS111 VCSIS140
the frustration of milk curdling. They want to be
able to offer their customers rice milk, almond
milk, coconut milk, lactose-free milk, soy milk,
the milk will curdle almost immediately due to the
cow’s milk etc. but all of these milk-like products
acidity (low pH) but adding it to cold milk will not
respond differently to tea and coffee, and also to
produce a reaction for quite some time. Sometimes
temperature.
curdling is something you want to happen, but
What is curdling and why would milk curdle?
only if you are making yoghurt or cheese. If you
Curdling is the process of coagulation that occurs
are trying to make a soy latte, curdling is very
when the protein components in the milk clump
undesirable.
together. Certain blends of coffee can be quite
Chemical engineers apply the principles of
acidic, and acid causes the proteins in milk to
chemistry, biology, physics and maths to implement
unravel and clump together, similar to what
best-practice strategies involving chemicals,
happens when an egg is boiled and the yolk
drugs and food. In 2015, an Australian milk brand,
solidifies. Soy milk is particularly susceptible
MILKLAB, worked together with baristas to create
to curdling.
a range of soy milk that would not curdle to acidic
As with many chemical reactions, temperature
coffee blends. However, not all coffee shops can
can affect the rate at which the reaction occurs.
afford speciality products.
When adding lemon juice or vinegar to hot milk,

Figure 6.52 Australians drink nearly 4 billion cups of coffee each year, therefore it is important that baristas in
Melbourne know how to make a coffee in which the milk does not curdle into an unpalatable mess.

Design brief: Create an infographic for baristas, Be careful

based on your experimentation results for best No food is to be consumed. Care is to
practice with milk. be taken when handling boiling water.

Activity instructions Suggested materials

As the chemical engineer representing the Hipsters • white vinegar or fresh lemon juice (both have a
Coffee Union of Australia, you are responsible for pH of approximately 2)
ensuring that baristas in Melbourne know how to • instant coffee
make a coffee where the milk does not curdle, so • a range of different milks, including normal milk
no barista loses their job over split milk. You will and soy milk
propose the best pH, temperature and coffee to milk • water
volume ratio for a range of milk types in order to • beakers for making coffee and warm coffee
prevent curdling. To do this you will need to design • measuring cylinder
several tests or trials. Be sure your milk samples • transfer bulb pipettes
are fresh, use the same amount of milk for each • spoons or stirring rods
test, determine a way of measuring the acidity of • clear plastic cups for cold coffee
the milk and record the weight of any curdled milk • kettle
produced. Be sure to record all your data, amounts • paper towels
and settings for your trials, so that you can create • several pieces of cheesecloth or cotton fabric
your infographic for the Union with confidence. • thermometer
Note: an infographic is a visual representation • data-logging pH meter or alternative method for
of information, designed to make the data and measuring pH
information easy to understand at a glance. • a digital balance
These are different from graphs, which are • permanent marker
meant to be analysed. An infographic is simple, • gloves
understandable and meant to communicate
messages quickly. Evaluate and modify
1 Discuss your findings with your colleagues.
2 Propose the best ratio of coffee to milk for
preventing the curdling of coffee for acidic
coffee blends with different milk products.
Cappuccino Americano 3 Identify possible sources of error in your testing
procedure and suggest some ways to improve
and modify your experiments in the future.
4 Predict how the temperature of the milk may
affect your findings.
5 Create an A5 ‘cheat sheet’ for baristas using
infographics so they can easily identify the ratios
Affogato Latte possible for normal milk and soy milk at the most
Figure 6.53 An infographic showing the various coffee, acidic coffee blends. You may do this by hand or
milk and froth ratios for different types of coffee drinks search for free infographic design tools on the
internet.

Chapter 7 Our changing Earth

Chapter introduction
Our knowledge of how the world works continuously improves and deepens with the addition of new
information from discoveries and experiments. It was not so long ago that it was thought that Earth was
like the skin of an apple (unbroken)! In this chapter, you will learn about the changing ideas surrounding
the structure of Earth and how this has led to understanding more about why natural disasters occur.
You will look at the impact of natural disasters and how early detection methods by modern-day
technology has reduced these impacts.

Curriculum
The theory of plate tectonics explains global patterns of geological activity and continental movement
(VCSSU127)
• recognising the major plates on a world map 7.2
• considering the role of heat energy and convection currents in the movement of 7.2
tectonic plates
• modelling seafloor spreading 7.1
• relating the occurrence of earthquakes and volcanic activity to constructive and 7.2, 7.3
destructive plate boundaries
• relating the extreme age and stability of a large part of the Australian continent to its 7.2, 7.3
plate tectonic history

Victorian Curriculum F–10 © VCAA (2016)

Glossary terms
constructive (divergent) hotspot Richter scale
continental drift lag time seafloor spreading
convection currents lava seismic wave
core lithosphere seismogram
crust magma seismometer
destructive (convergent) mantle subduction
epicentre Pangaea tectonic plates
focus plate boundaries transform
geoid plate tectonics tsunami
GPS pyroclastic

Concept map

May result in mountain

formation
Constructive (divergent)
Destructive (convergent)
7.1
Transform
7.2
7.3
7.4

May result in volcanoes May result in earthquakes

Earth’s Tectonic plate

Theories surface is Through movement at
constantly plate boundaries
changing

Measured by Mapped by Aided by

Continental drift

Global positioning Gravity mapping Volcanobots

satellites (GPS) Computer mapping Drones
Supported by

Matching continent outlines

Fossils
Rock types at different
locations
Coal and glacier locations

Seafloor spreading

Supported by

Expeditions
Magnetic striping
Cambridge Science ISBN 978-1-108-62918-8 © Ardley et al. 2019 Cambridge University Press
Victorian Curriculum Year 9 Photocopying is restricted under law and this material must not be transferred to another party. Updated September 2023
Section 7.1 CONTINENT MOVEMENT THEORIES 247

7.1 Continent movement

theories
WORKSHEET
Since the late sixteenth century, scientists have Wegener hypothesised that Earth’s
speculated that continents may have drifted continents were once part of a giant
away from each other. In this section, you will landmass called Pangaea.
Pangaea
learn about the contribution
VIDEO
the supercontinent which that various scientists have
has since broken into pieces Alfred
and drifted apart made to the understanding of Wegener.

the theory of continental drift.

Alfred Wegener – continental

drift
In 1912 Alfred Wegener, a
continental drift
the theory of how the German geophysicist and
continents on Earth have
moved over millions of years meteorologist, proposed his
theory of continental drift.

Figure 7.2 Wegener proposed that all the continents were once together
in a giant landmass called Pangaea.

Over time, this giant landmass broke up

and drifted apart to form the continents
that you know today. Figure 7.3 shows how
the continents have moved over millions of
years. Follow the movement of Australia to
see how far we have moved in that time.

Figure 7.1 Alfred Wegener

Figure 7.3 The movement of the continents from a single landmass (Pangaea) formed the continents that
exist today.

A scientific theory though, cannot arise pieces of a broken jigsaw puzzle. You
without evidence. So how did Wegener could argue, however, that this is just a
justify his theory to the scientific community? coincidence. Wegener therefore needed
Wegener put forward four different pieces of more evidence to back up his theory.
evidence to support his theory.
2 Fossils of prehistoric creatures
1 Continental outlines matched were found on different continents
You can see from Figure 7.4 that when put When observing the types of fossils on
together, some of the existing continents different continents Wegener found
look like they fit into each other, just like examples of the same prehistoric land-
based creatures on continents that were
separated by oceans, as shown in Figure 7.5.
He stated that the landmasses must have
been together at some stage because these
animals could not swim from one continent
Africa
to another. Opposing geologists argued that
land bridges could have existed due to lower
ocean levels, which would have allowed the
South America fauna and flora to cross between continents.

3 Rock types on different continents

matched each other
When Wegener put the continents together
Figure 7.4 The outlines of Africa and
he also found that bands of different rock types
South America fit together like pieces in matched up, giving further weight to his theory.
a jigsaw puzzle.

Fossil evidence
of the Triassic
land reptile
Lystrosaurus
Africa

India

South America Australia

Antarctica

Fossil remains of
Fossil remains of the fern Glossopteris
Cynognathus, a Triassic found in all the southern
land reptile approximately Fossil remains of the continents show that
3 metres long freshwater reptile they were once joined
Mesosaurus

Figure 7.5 Fossils on different continents also matched up, supporting Wegener’s theory further.

4 Coal found in cold areas and Despite all the evidence proposed by
evidence of glaciers found in the Wegener, he was unable to convince the
tropics scientific community at the time of the
Coal only forms in hot and humid validity of his hypothesis. Wegener’s ideas
areas, glaciers only form in cold areas, could certainly explain why the same
so how could there be coal in cold areas fossils matched up on different continents;
and glaciers in tropical areas? Wegener however, other scientists proposed that
concluded that this land could have once land bridges allowed animals to cross
been part of the same landmass. between continents. Geologists questioned

Figure 7.6 Coal only forms in hot, swampy areas; glaciers only form in cold areas.

the credibility of Wegener as he was a did not survive and was buried there with a
meteorologist and geophysicist known for pair of skis marking the grave. At the time,
polar climate research, and not a geologist. his hypothesis was still yet to be accepted by
However, the main flaw of Wegener’s the scientific community.
hypothesis was that he simply had no
explanation for the mechanism behind the Harry Hess – seafloor spreading
movement of the continents. Around 30 years after the death of Alfred
Wegener, new evidence came to light
1 What is the Quick check 7.1 that appeared to support the theory of
name of continental drift. Harry Hess, a professor
the scientist who is best known for of geology at Princeton University in the
proposing the theory of continental drift? United States, first became interested in the
2 List the four different pieces of evidence ocean floor while serving in the US navy
he used to support his theory.
during World War II. During this time, he
3 Outline why his theory was not
had access to sonar which allowed him to
accepted at the time.
create a map of the ocean floor. Sonar works
by sending sound waves into the ocean, and
The story of Alfred Wegener is a tragic when they bounce back they are picked up as
one. In the year of 1930 on an expedition to an echo. The time they take to bounce back
Greenland he got caught in a blizzard. He indicates the depth of that part of the ocean.

Figure 7.7 Harry Hess, a professor of geology who mapped the ocean floor

Figure 7.8 A map of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge and its volcanoes, running down the middle of the Atlantic Ocean

Most people at that time thought that This was a crucial piece of evidence to
the ocean floor was flat. However, when support Wegener’s theory. If oceans are
Hess mapped the ocean floor he found it moving away from one another, then
contained deep trenches as well as under continents at either side of the ocean must
water mountain ranges and volcanoes. be doing the same. He also proposed
What surprised Hess the most was that that the old ocean floor was sinking in a
his findings appeared to show that the process called subduction, forming ocean
ocean floor was changing. He identified trenches, as shown in Figure 7.9. You will
the presence of mid-ocean ridges that were look at subduction in more detail in the
raised about 1.5 km above the flat sea floor. next section.

In his book The History of Ocean Basins, Hess

Ocean Ocean
said that volcanoes lining up along these
ocean ridges bring up molten rock from
under Earth’s crust. This molten rock cools Bedrock Bedrock
and forms new oceanic rock. As more and
What people expected Harry Hess’s map of
more oceanic rock is produced, the ocean floor the ocean floor
seafloor spreading
a process by which new the sea floor moves away from to look like
oceanic crust is produced as
sea fl oor moves away from the ridges. Hess called this Figure 7.9 The sea floor is more interesting than was
ocean ridges process seafloor spreading. previously thought!

Journey to the bottom of the sea! Science as a human endeavour 7.1

The Challenger Deep, located in the Marina Trench
in the western Pacific Ocean, is the deepest known
point in the Earth’s ocean, measuring a depth of 10
994 metres. It is named after the Challenger expedition
that made discoveries important to the foundation of
oceanography during 1872–1876. Richard Branson and
the Virgin Oceanic adventurers are aiming to reach
the bottom.
They will not be the first humans to reach the bottom
though, as this was achieved in 1960 by Don Walsh and
Jacques Piccard. They did so in a bathyscaphe, a free
diving and self-propelled submersible vehicle that was
used for deep-sea dives. Having found the deepest part
of the trench by blowing up TNT and timing how long
it took them to hear the sound, they climbed into a steel
cabin, very cramped for two adults. About 9400 metres
down they heard a loud bang, but there appeared to be
nothing wrong, so they carried on. Later they found out
that a window had cracked.
They fell for nearly five hours, passing glowing
creatures as they went. Finally, the cabin touched the
Figure 7.10 Richard Branson and his team of Virgin Oceanic
ground, stirring the ocean floor beneath it. They waited adventurers are aiming to reach the bottom of the Mariana
for 20 minutes and then started the long ascent back to Trench.
the surface.

Figure 7.11 Don Walsh reached the bottom of the Mariana Trench Figure 7.12 The only light that can be observed at these
in 1960. depths is light created by the animals that live there.
This is called bioluminescence.

Secrets in Australia Did you know? 7.1

In 2012, James Cameron, the Hollywood film director, also successfully reached the
bottom of Challenger Deep. Cameron’s submersible, Deepsea Challenger, had been secretly built in Australia.

were British geologists who first worked

1 Name the ridge located Quick check 7.2
in the Atlantic Ocean.
together when Vine was a PhD student
2 Recall the name of the technique Harry Hess
under Matthews at Cambridge University.
used to map the ocean floor. Earlier work using magnetometers
3 Describe the results and major discovery of Harry (devices which can measure the direction
Hess’s ocean floor mapping. of magnetic fields) showed that on the
sea floor there were bands of alternating
normal and reverse magnetism, running
Fredrick Vine, Drummond parallel to the mid-ocean ridges. At about
Matthews and Lawrence Morley the same time, but quite independently,
– magnetic striping Canadian geologist Lawrence Morley
A few years later, further evidence developed the same idea. However, Vine
was discovered to support this theory. and Matthews were the first to publish
Frederick Vine and Drummond Matthews their hypothesis.

Figure 7.13 The pattern of magnetic stripes on the ocean floor

Vine and Matthews knew that the new pattern of magnetic stripes is symmetrical,
molten rock produced by the ocean ridges this led to scientists to conclude that new sea
contained magnetite, a magnetic mineral. floor was being added equally to each side of
While the molten rock cooled and solidified, the ridge.
the magnetite aligned with Earth’s own
magnetic field by facing north. Earth’s
magnetic field swaps around every 200 000 S N
to 300 000 years, and the cooling of the rock
preserves the record of Earth’s polarity at N S

that time. For rocks to have their magnetic

minerals aligned in different directions, they Figure 7.14 Earth’s magnetic field has switched
must have formed at different times. As the direction 170 times in the past 76 million years.

Earth’s magnetic field Explore! 7.1

Figure 7.15 The next switching of Earth’s magnetic field is overdue.

On average, Earth’s polarity switches in a full reversal every 200 000 to 300 000 years. The last time Earth’s poles
switched was 780 000 years ago. This means that at any time there could be a reversal in Earth’s magnetic field.
1 On average, how long does it take for Earth to complete a full reversal?
2 If you were using a compass to navigate at the time when the Earth’s poles were reversing, how would this
affect the direction you were taking?
3 Research and describe how nature uses Earth’s magnetic field.
4 Discuss the consequences of Earth’s magnetic field weakening for a significant period.

Further evidence to support the notion directions, you would expect that as you
of seafloor spreading was the age of the move further away from the ridge, the rock
rock. If new rock is forming at the ridge would increase in age. This is exactly what
and spreading out equally in opposite they found.

1 Identify the name of the mineral in molten rock that is magnetic. Quick check 7.3
2 Discuss what happens to this magnetic mineral when the molten rock cools.
3 How did the presence of magnetic stripes in rocks parallel to ocean ridges prove that the sea floor was
spreading?
4 What other piece of evidence supports Hess’s theory of seafloor spreading?

Practical 7.1

Making a compass
Aim
To make a simple compass.

Materials
• 250 mL beaker half full of water • small square of paper
• needle • bar magnet

Method
1 Draw the results table.
2 Thread the needle through the small square piece of paper as shown on the right.
continued…

…continued
3 Stroke the needle 20 times with the bar magnet. You must stroke in
one direction only and with one end only.
4 Put the piece of paper with the needle into the water, making sure
that it floats. N
5 Record in the results table the direction that the needle points.
6 Turn the beaker 90° and record the direction that the needle points
in the results table.
7 Turn the beaker a further 90° and again record the direction in the
results table.

Results
First position Rotated 90° Rotated a further 90°

Evaluation
1 Describe what happened to the magnetised needle when the beaker of water was rotated.
2 Explain the role of the paper in this experiment.
3 The needle in this experiment is acting as a temporary magnet. What is a temporary magnet and how does it
differ from a permanent magnet?
4 Discuss the importance of having the needle magnetised only in one direction.

Conclusion
1 Make a claim from this experiment regarding what is required to make a compass.
2 Support the statement by using your observations.
3 Explain how your observations support your claim.

1 Get a piece of paper and re-create the diagram below. Try this 7.1
700 600 500 400 300 200 100 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
P
R
E
S
E
N
T

2 Toss a coin to decide whether each of the 100 years should be magnetised north or south and draw arrows on
your piece of paper to show this. Each period appears twice, so you will need to toss the coin seven times.
3 Cut the paper in half down the present line.
4 Put the paper into a gap between two tables.
5 Pull apart the paper to show the movement of the sea floor away from an ocean ridge.
You have just modelled seafloor spreading!

Section 7.1 questions

QUIZ Remembering
1 Name the theory proposed by each of the following scientists:
a Alfred Wegener
b Harry Hess.
2 Describe one piece of evidence that Wegener used to back up his theory.
3 What piece of evidence proved that Harry Hess was correct?

Understanding
4 Explain why Wegener’s theory was not accepted during his lifetime.
5 Show using labelled diagrams the results of Harry Hess’s mapping of the ocean floor.
6 Describe how sonar works.
7 Outline the evidence that supports Harry Hess’s theory of seafloor spreading.

Applying
8 Organise these major discoveries (A–E) on the movement of continents into chronological
order (the earliest first).

A Harry Hess states that the sea floor is spreading outwards from mid-ocean
ridges.
B Alfred Wegener outlines his theory of continental drift, stating that all the
continents were once part of a large landmass, which has split up and
drifted apart.
C The age of rock confirms that new rock is forming at mid-ocean ridges.
D Magnetic striping patterns in the ocean rock confirm that new rock is
constantly forming.
E Harry Hess maps the ocean floor and confirms that it contains deep trenches,
mountains and even volcanoes.

Analysing
9 Distinguish between magnetic striping and magnetic field reversal.
10 Compare and contrast the properties of oceanic rock as you move away from a
mid-ocean ridge.
11 Classify the following as theory or evidence.
a The sea floor spreads away from a mid-ocean ridge.
b The rock is older the further away from a ridge.
c The continents drifted away from one another.
d Rock types on different continents match up with one another.

Evaluating
12 Deduce what would happen to a compass if Earth’s magnetic field was to change direction
now.
13 Prove by use of a diagram that Earth’s magnetic field has switched over time.
14 With the example of Alfred Wegener and Harry Hess, assess the impact of current scientific
ideas with the willingness to adopt new theories.

7.2 Plate tectonics and plate

movement
WORKSHEET

With the help of Harry Hess, Fredrick Vine

and Drummond Matthews the evidence for VIDEO
Plate
Wegener’s theory of continental drift was tectonics.
mounting, but in order to
crust explain how the continents
the top layer of the Earth
which supports all of life on moved scientists needed to Crust
Earth and is split into giant
slabs called tectonic plates
understand more about the Lithosphere

mantle
structure of Earth. Mantle
the layer of the Earth
underneath the crust which
Outer core
is made up of solid rock and Earth is made up of four layers: Inner core
is where convection currents
take place the crust, mantle, outer core
core and inner core. The mantle
the inner part of Earth’s
structure is divided into a lower and
lithosphere upper mantle. The lithosphere
the solid outer layer of Earth
consisting of the crust and consists of the upper solid
upper mantle
mantle and the crust. Figure 7.16 Earth’s layers

The inner core is made up of heavy metals late 1950s and early 1960s. They tectonic plates
Earth’s crust is split into gigantic
like iron and nickel. Even though the said that Earth’s crust is split slabs of rigid rock which float on

temperatures in the inner core are hotter into tectonic plates, gigantic top of Earth’s mantle

than the surface of the sun, these metals are slabs of rigid rock, which float on top of
in solid form due to the intense pressure Earth’s lower mantle.
from all the layers above. The outer core
is completely liquid and, like the inner 1 List the layers of the Earth Quick check 7.4
core, contains heavy metals. The mantle is from the surface to the centre
mostly made of solid rock which is quite of Earth.
2 State the name given to the giant slabs of rock that make
dense. The crust is the thinnest layer and
up Earth’s crust.
supports all the life on Earth. It is made of
3 Describe the differences between oceanic and
two different types, oceanic and continental
continental crusts.
crust. Oceanic crust is much thinner and
denser than continental crust, and supports
the world’s oceans. The continental crust
Tectonic plates
lies beneath the world’s continents.
As you can see from Figure 7.17, the
Scientists need to focus major tectonic plates are named after the
plate tectonics
the theory that the Earth’s on Earth’s lithosphere to continents that lie on them. Australia is
crust is broken up into many
pieces called tectonic plates explain how continents move. situated in the middle of the Australian
and that they are moved by
convection currents in the Scientists first proposed the plate, which is largely the reason why
mantle
theory of plate tectonics in the Australia does not experience significant

Figure 7.17 The major tectonic plates on Earth’s surface

geological activity. You will find out more

about this in the next section. There are a
few major plates and dozens of smaller or
minor plates. No matter how small, any size
tectonic plate still plays a role in shaping the
Earth. One of the smallest plates, the Juan
de Fuca plate, located off the eastern coast of
North America, is largely responsible for the
volcanic activity there.

How do the plates move?

Tectonic plates float on top of the mantle.
The mantle is made up of semi-molten rock
called magma. In the upper parts of Figure 7.18 Rocks in the mantle behave a bit like toffee. They
magma
molten rock below the the mantle, the lithosphere, the rock is have a solid, rigid structure in the top of the mantle where it is
surface of Earth
hard, but lower down the rock is soft cooler, and a softer, more flexible structure further down the
mantle where it is hotter.
and beginning to melt, a bit like toffee when
it is heated.
mantle causing them to become less dense
The temperature increases as you move down and rise towards the crust. As they rise
through the mantle and get closer to the core. towards the cooler surface they themselves
The core is thousands of degrees hotter than start to cool down and become denser.
the surface of the Earth. The heat created They are pushed aside by hot rocks that are
by the core heats the solid rocks in the lower still rising and fall back towards the core,

Lithosphere

Cool
rock
Lower
mantle

Hot rock

Core

Figure 7.19 Convection currents in Earth’s mantle drive the movement of the tectonic plates.

as shown in Figure 7.19. This cycle of hot

t Lithosphere
rock rising and cooler rock sinking is called en
m
o ve
convection currents a convection cycle caused by m
e
a form of heat transfer
which works due to different convection currents in Earth’s P lat
densities of materials
lower mantle.
Lower
mantle
At the top of each cycle the sideways
movement of the cooling rock in the mantle
Core
causes the movement of the tectonic plates
above it. Figure 7.20 shows what can happen
Figure 7.20 The sideways movements of rocks in
when the sideways movements of rocks in this example cause the tectonic plates to move in
the mantle are in opposite directions. opposite directions, away from each other.

1 What are the major tectonic plates named after? Quick check 7.5
2 Describe the differences in structure between the rocks in the upper and lower mantle.
3 Explain why hot rock rises.
4 Describe how this movement of rocks in the lower mantle drives the movement of tectonic plates.

Practical 7.2: Teacher demonstration

Modelling plate movement using convection currents

Aim
Be careful
To model plate movements using biscuits and golden syrup
Ensure no food is consumed in the
Materials laboratory. Do not heat golden syrup
• packet of plain biscuits for prolonged periods as it may
• 250 mL of golden syrup decompose and produce carbon
• 500 mL beaker monoxide. Wear safety glasses.
• Bunsen burner
• gauze mat
• tripod
• heatproof mat
continued…

…continued
Method
1 Half fill a 500 mL beaker with golden syrup.
2 Set up the equipment as shown in the diagram.

Beaker

Golden syrup

Gauze mat

Heatproof Tripod
mat

Heat

3 Break up a biscuit into different sized pieces and place them back together in their original shape on top of
the golden syrup in the beaker.
4 Using the Bunsen burner, heat one corner of the golden syrup.
5 Observe what happens to the biscuits and record your observations.

Results
Record your observations.

Evaluation
1 Outline what the biscuits, golden syrup and Bunsen burner are representing in this model.
2 Explain why the biscuits moved apart in the demonstration. Use the following keywords: convection currents,
dense, rise, sink, more, less.

Conclusion
Evaluate how successful you think this model is in modelling the movement of tectonic plates by convection
currents in Earth’s mantle.

Practical 7.3

Observing convection currents

Aim
To observe convection currents.

Materials
• dark food colouring • Bunsen burner
• cold water • gauze mat
• 250 mL beaker • tripod
• ice cube tray • heatproof mat
continued…

…continued
Method
1 Mix 100 mL of water with some food colouring in a beaker (the darker the water the better).
2 Pour this mixture into the ice cube trays and place the trays in a freezer until the water has frozen.
3 Half fill a 250 mL beaker with cold water.
4 Set up your equipment as shown in the diagram.

Beaker

Cold water

Gauze mat

Heatproof Tripod
mat

Heat

5 Set the Bunsen burner to a blue flame and concentrate the heat on one corner of the beaker.
6 Drop an ice cube into the beaker and record your observations.

Results
Record your observations.

Evaluation
1 Describe what happened to the ice cube when it hit the warm water.
2 Describe the distribution of the coloured water from the ice cube just after it had melted.
3 Explain what you observed.
4 Discuss what happened to the distribution of the coloured water from the ice cube as the Bunsen burner
heated up the water.
5 Explain what you observed.
6 Describe and explain the appearance of the water at the end of the experiment.
7 Draw a labelled diagram to show what was happening to the water in the beaker.

Conclusion
1 Make a claim from this experiment regarding how convection currents occur.
2 Support the statement by using your observations.
3 Explain how your observations support your claim.

How fast is Australia moving? only important to the mapping systems, such
Australia is situated in the middle of the as the GPS used worldwide for navigation,
and other applications, such as traffic signal
Australian plate. Since the last adjustment
was made to Global Positioning timing and synchronisation of mobile phone
base stations, which rely on such accurate
GPS System (GPS) coordinates in 1994
a radio navigation system
the continent has moved 1.5 m. mapping.
that allows land, sea and
airborne users to determine
their exact location, velocity That’s about 7 cm a year. In contrast
What happens at plate
and time
the North American plate has been
boundaries?
moving roughly 2.5 cm a year. This means
that maps drawn after 1994, but still using You have learnt that convection currents
the 1994 data, do not show Australia in its in Earth’s mantle cause the tectonic
correct position for the time the map was plates floating on top to move in different
drawn, let alone today. Older maps are even directions. The direction of plate movement
more out in their placement of Australia. causes different types of plate boundaries to
Corrections to its geographical location form. Figure 7.22 shows the
plate boundaries
have been made four times over the past major tectonic plates and the three types: divergent,
convergent and transform.
50 years. However, because continents direction they are travelling.
move so slowly, most maps do not need There are three types of plate boundaries:
to be updated for continental drift. Look destructive (convergent), constructive
at the map in Figure 7.21 and you will see (divergent) and transform, relating to the
that 1.5 m would make little observable movement of plates towards, away and
difference to its location on the map. It is alongside each other.

Figure 7.21 Maps drawn using 1994 (and older) GPS data do not show Australia in its correct geographical
location, due to the relatively fast movement of the Australian plate.

North American Eurasian plate

plate

African
Pacific plate
plate
Nazca South Australian plate
plate American
plate

Antarctic plate

Figure 7.22 The major tectonic plates and their direction of travel. The small triangles on the lines indicate that
it is a convergent plate boundary.

The Chile Triple Junction Explore! 7.2

The Chile Triple Junction is
located on the sea floor of the
Pacific Ocean off the southern
coast of Chile. It is the only
geologically active place on
Earth where three tectonic
plates meet. Use your preferred
search engine to answer the
following questions.
1 List which three tectonic
plates meet at the Chile
Triple Junction.
2 Discuss why the triple
junction is unusual.

Figure 7.23 The Chile Triple Junction

Destructive boundaries and deeper into the mantle it begins to

When plates are moving towards one another, melt, forming magma. This magma can rise
this is called a destructive plate boundary. up through the continental plate to form
The plates are colliding, hence they are also volcanoes.
called convergent plate boundaries. The effects
destructive (convergent) and the features that form at these The Hikurangi subduction zone located
a type of plate boundary that boundaries depend on what the two off the east coast of the North Island of
occurs when plates move
towards one another plates are made from. You have already New Zealand has formed because of the
learned that there are two types of crust – subduction of the Pacific plate underneath
oceanic and continental. Oceanic crust is thin the Australian plate. It poses the largest
and dense whereas, in comparison, continental threat of earthquakes and tsunamis to the
crust is thicker and less dense. So, what residents of New Zealand.
happens when plates with two different types
of crust on top of the upper mantle collide?
Auckland

n zone
Australian
plate

c tio
du
Wellington

ub
Figure 7.24 A destructive, or convergent, plate boundary

is
Kaikoura ng Pacific
ra
H ik u plate
1 Describe the movement of plates Quick check 7.6
at a destructive plate boundary.
2 What affects the features that form at this type of plate
boundary? Figure 7.26 The Hikurangi subduction zone is located
off the coast of New Zealand’s North Island.

When an oceanic plate meets a

Mountains and deep ocean trenches also
continental plate form at this type of destructive boundary.
The Andes mountains on the west coast
As the plate with the oceanic crust is denser
of South America continue to grow in
than the plate with the continental crust,
size because the Nazca oceanic plate is
when they collide, the denser oceanic plate
subducting underneath the South American
subduction will sink underneath the continental
when the denser oceanic continental plate.
crust sinks underneath less plate in a process called subduction.
dense continental crust
As the oceanic plate sinks deeper

Continental
Oceanic plate plate

Subduction
zone Magma
Figure 7.27 The Andes mountains in South America
Figure 7.25 A subduction zone forms when the denser oceanic formed due to the subduction of the Nazca plate
plate subducts underneath the less dense continental plate. underneath the South American plate.

When two continental plates meet

In this case, both of the plates have the
same density, therefore when they collide,
subduction does not take place. Instead,
when the two plates collide, the crust
buckles and breaks down. This forces
the damaged crust upwards eventually
forming mountains. Figure 7.29 The Himalayas mountain range, the highest
in the world was formed and is continuing to form at a
destructive plate boundary.

Mountain
Mou When two oceanic plates meet
form
formation
Several things may happen when two oceanic
plates meet. If one plate is less dense than the
Continental Continental other, a subduction zone will be created. If
plate plate
they are equal in density, then may create a
Figure 7.28 The formation of mountains when two ridge instead, potentially forming islands.
continental plates collide

1 State the term which describes Quick check 7.7

The Indian plate and the Eurasian plate the action of one plate sinking
are colliding in this type of boundary. underneath another.
Over 50 million years ago these plates 2 List some of the features that can form at destructive
collided causing a huge uplift of the land plate boundaries.
and the formation of the Himalayas 3 Discuss why subduction does not take place when two
mountain range, the highest mountain continental plates collide.
range in the world.

Practical 7.4

How dense are different rocks?

Aim
To compare the densities of different rock types.

Materials
• 4 different types of rock (basalt, granite, sandstone and chalk)
• 10 mL measuring cylinder
• displacement can
• balance

Method
1 Draw the results table.
2 Measure the mass of each rock type and record in your results table.
3 Fill the displacement can with water.
4 Holding the 10 mL measuring cylinder at the spout of the displacement can gently drop in one of the rocks.
5 Record the volume of water expelled in cm3 in the results table (Note: 1 mL = 1 cm3)
6 Repeat twice more.
continued…

continued…
7 Following the same procedure repeat for the other rock types.
8 Calculate the average volume of water expelled from the displacement can.
9 Using the formula below calculate the density of each rock type.

mass (g)
density (g/cm3 ) =
volume (cm3 )

Results
Volume of water expelled (cm3) Average
Type of Density
Mass (g) volume
rock 1 2 3 (g/cm3)
(cm3)
Basalt

Granite

Sandstone

Chalk

Evaluation
1 Which rock was the densest? Which was the least dense?
2 Explain why the experiment was conducted three times for each rock type.
3 Explain why you should always measure at the bottom of the meniscus when measuring water levels.
4 Compare the density of each rock that you calculated to secondary sources on the internet. How close were
you to those values?

Conclusion
Using your results, explain why oceanic crust made of basalt subducts underneath continental crust made of
predominantly granite at destructive plate boundaries.

As the Eurasian and Indian plates are constantly moving towards each other, Mount Did you know? 7.2
Everest – the highest mountain in the world at 8850 metres tall – is actually getting
taller each year, by 4 mm in fact. If your ambition is to climb Mount Everest, then you had better do it sooner,
rather than later, if you do not want to have to climb even further!!

Constructive boundaries
Plates moving away from one another
are called constructive plate boundaries.
constructive (divergent) They are also more widely known as
a type of plate boundary that
occurs when plates move divergent plate boundaries and can Figure 7.30 At constructive plate boundaries, plates
away from one another
occur beneath the ocean or on land. move apart.

In the ocean a new island version of East Africa. It is

When plates move apart in the ocean, the already having damaging effects with major
hot mantle is exposed. The magma (molten roads in cities cracking and caving under
rock) rises to fill the gap. As it reaches the the strain. Scientists think it is moving so
colder surface, it cools forming igneous rock fast due to a superplume. A superplume
gradually building more oceanic crust. The occurs when heat from Earth’s core rises
Mid-Atlantic Ridge, a series of under the sea up through the mantle, intensifying the
volcanoes running down the Atlantic Ocean convection currents and causing the plates to
between Africa and America, is an example separate much faster.
of this type of plate boundary. Here the
North American and South American plates 1 Describe the movement of plates Quick check 7.8
are moving away from the Eurasian and at a constructive plate boundary.
African plates. 2 List some of the features which can form at this type of
boundary.
3 Why are constructive plate boundaries also known as
diverging boundaries?

Transform boundaries

VIDEO
Describe what
Figure 7.31 A volcanic crater of basalt rocks near Portugal. causes an
earthquake.
Figure 7.33 At transform plate boundaries, plates
On land slide past one another.

Constructive plate boundaries that occur

on land form rift zones. An active rift zone At transform plate boundaries, transform
a type of plate boundary that
is currently threatening to separate Eastern plates are moving parallel to one occurs when plates move
Africa from the rest of Africa. This rift will another, but in opposite directions. parallel to one another

eventually be filled with ocean, creating Crust is neither created nor destroyed so
they are sometimes called conservative
plate boundaries. When plates move in
this way a tremendous amount of force
can build up in the form of friction, which
stops the plates from moving. When the
force of the plate movement overcomes
the friction stopping them from moving,
the pressure is released in the form of
earthquakes. An example of a transform
plate boundary is the San Andreas Fault
running down the east coast of North
America through California. Here, the
Figure 7.32 Thingvellir in Iceland is part of another fissure
zone running through the country, which is situated on North American plate and the Pacific
the tectonic plate boundaries of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. plate are sliding past each other.

Figure 7.34 The San Andreas Fault is the boundary between the Figure 7.35 Earthquakes occur at transform boundaries. The
North American and Pacific plates. earthquake that occurred at the San Andreas Fault in 1906 caused this
fence to separate by a huge distance!

1 Describe the movement of plates at a transform plate boundary. Quick check 7.9
WIDGET 2 List one of the characteristics of this type of boundary.
Plate 3 Why are transform plate boundaries also known as conservative boundaries?
movement at
boundaries.

Table 7.1 summarises each type of plate boundary.

Type of Diagram Type of What happens Key features

boundary movement to the crust?
Destructive Plates move towards Destroyed Mountains
(convergent) each other Trenches
Subduction zones
Volcanoes
Constructive Plates move away Created Volcanoes
(divergent) from each other Rifts
Ocean ridges

Transform Plates move parallel Conserved Earthquakes

(conservative) to each other in
opposite directions

Table 7.1 A summary of each type of plate boundary

Section 7.2 questions

Remembering QUIZ
1 Identify the names of the three types of plate boundaries.
2 State the name of the mechanism which causes tectonic plates to move.
3 Label the following diagram showing the structure of the Earth.

4 Name a real-life example of each of the three types of plate boundaries.

5 Name two types of crust.

Understanding
6 Describe how temperature affects the structure of rocks in the mantle.
7 Explain why the physical states of the inner and outer core differ.
8 At destructive plate boundaries crust is destroyed. Explain why the overall amount of crust
on the Earth has stayed the same despite this destruction.
9 Outline how magma forms at a subduction zone.

Applying
10 Construct a labelled diagram to show an oceanic plate subducting underneath a
continental plate.
11 Identify the type of plate boundary where the following features would occur.
a Trenches
b Mountains
c Earthquakes
d Volcanoes
e Ridges
f Rifts
g Subduction zones

Analysing
12 Compare and contrast oceanic and continental crusts.
13 Analyse why mountains and trenches continue to increase in size.

Evaluating
14 Propose reasons why countries like Australia do not experience significant amounts of
geological activity.
15 Explain why tectonic plates move across the surface of the Earth.
16 Propose your own reasons why some tectonic plates move faster than others.

7.3 The effects of plate

movement

If you reside near a plate boundary, you are

at risk of experiencing some of the geological
WORKSHEET activity discussed. In this section, you will
examine the reasons for and effects of, three
types of disasters that can occur at plate
boundaries.

Volcanoes
Where do volcanoes form?
Volcanoes can form at two types of plate
Figure 7.36 A constructive plate boundary
boundaries. When two plates move apart at forms where magma rises to fill the gap
a constructive plate boundary, magma rises when the plates move apart.
and seeps into the gap.
At a destructive boundary, in particular, at
When this magma erupts at the bottom subduction zones, friction caused by one
of the sea it can make a chain of volcanoes plate subducting underneath another causes
called island arcs. Figure 7.37 shows the the production of intense heat. This heat is
island arc of the Aleutian Islands. They enough to melt the rock of the subducting
are made up of a long chain of volcanoes plate, forming magma. As the magma rises
associated with the Aleutian Trench. to the surface, it will form volcanoes.

Figure 7.37 Volcanoes can form at destructive and constructive plate boundaries.

Over three-quarters of the world’s active Pacific Ring of Fire, the shape of which can
volcanoes can be found in an area called the be seen in Figure 7.38.

Figure 7.38 The Ring of Fire is an active area of many subduction zones around the Pacific Ocean.

Volcanoes are unique geological events in that volcanoes. As the tectonic plate around the
they do not always occur where two plates hotspot moves, the volcano created by the
meet. They can form anywhere that a hotspot hotspot also moves, allowing for another
exists. A hotspot is a pocket of magma hotspot volcano to form. Chains of
hotspot
that sits just underneath the crust. It has volcanic islands like the Hawaiian a pocket of magma that sits
just underneath the crust
the potential to erupt at any time, forming Islands have been made in this way.

Figure 7.39 The Hawaiian Islands were created by a number of hotspot volcanoes.

1 At what type of plate boundaries do volcanoes occur? Quick check 7.10

2 What is the name of the area of the world that contains the greatest number of active
volcanoes?
3 Discuss what hotspot volcanoes are and how they differ from volcanoes formed in other ways.

What happens during a volcanic eruption. Lava with large amounts of silica is
eruption? viscous (thick and sticky) like golden syrup.
When the pressure of the magma rising Air pockets can build up in viscous lava
to the surface increases too quickly, a leading to a very explosive eruption. Lava
volcano can erupt. When magma reaches which contains a small amount of silica is
the surface, it is called lava. The type of less viscous, but it will travel
lava
lava that is produced by a volcano makes a further from an eruption, molten rock that has
huge difference to the effects of a volcanic putting larger areas at risk. reached the surface

Figure 7.40 The

viscosity of the lava
has a huge effect
on the damage
caused by a volcanic
eruption.

Practical 7.5

Comparing the viscosity of liquids

Aim
To compare the viscosity of different liquids.

Materials
• 4 different household liquids (such as corn syrup, shampoo, liquid soap, vegetable oil, golden syrup)
• 4 × 100 mL measuring cylinders
• 4 marbles
• stopwatch

Method
1 Write a hypothesis for this investigation.
2 Draw the results table.
3 Measure 75 mL of one of the liquids into a 100 mL measuring cylinder.
4 Drop the marble into the liquid and at the same time start the stopwatch.
5 Stop the stopwatch when the marble hits the bottom of the measuring cylinder and record this time in the
results table. continued…

…continued
6 Collect the marble from the bottom of the measuring cylinder and repeat twice more for the same liquid.
7 Repeat the procedure for the other liquids.
8 Calculate the average time for the marble to drop for each liquid.

Results

Time taken for the marble to reach the bottom of the

Average time (s)
Type of liquid measuring cylinder (s)
1 2 3

Evaluation
1 Identify which liquid was the most viscous. Explain how you know.
2 Identify which liquid was the least viscous. Explain how you know.
3 Describe the control variables in this investigation.
4 Give the independent variable.
5 Name the dependent variable.

Conclusion
1 Make a claim from this experiment regarding the viscosity of varying liquids.
2 Support the statement by using your observations (include potential sources of error).
3 Explain how your observations support your claim.

Lava is not the only hazard of a volcanic of hot gas and rock also have the potential
pyroclastic eruption. Gas and ash clouds, to cause major damage, not only to the
consisting of or relating to
small pieces of rock from a acidic gas causing acid rain surrounding areas but across the world, as
volcano
and pyroclastic flows made up shown in Figure 7.41.

Figure 7.41 Pyroclastic flows from the eruption of the Sinabung volcano in
Indonesia in October 2017

1 Distinguish between magma and lava. Quick check 7.11

2 Explain how the viscosity of lava affects a volcanic eruption.

Iceland’s Eyjafjallajökull volcanic eruption in 2010 Explore! 7.3

On 20 March 2010, the Eyjafjallajökull volcano in
Iceland erupted throwing volcanic ash several
kilometres into the air. Conduct some research to
answer the following questions.
1 Recall for how long the volcano was dormant for
before it erupted in 2010.
2 The volcano is completely covered by an ice
cap. Describe how this affected residents in the
area when the volcano erupted.
3 Outline the most significant consequence of
this volcanic eruption.
4 Explain whether volcanic eruptions only affect
Figure 7.42 This satellite image shows the
the surrounding area. Use this case study as an
force of the explosion observed from Iceland’s
example in your answer. erupting Eyjafjallajökull volcano in 2010.

Earthquakes and tsunamis How are earthquakes detected?

Earthquakes are detected by using a piece of
Where do earthquakes occur?
technology called a seismometer. A simple
Earthquakes occur when there is a sudden
seismometer is shown in Figure 7.44. Its basic
movement of land. This can happen at a
structure uses a weight hanging from a spring
transform or destructive plate boundary.
suspended from a frame
Friction between two plates must be seismometer
which moves along with the an instrument that measures
overcome before the plates can slide past the intensity and duration
motion of Earth. A rotating of seismic waves during an
each other. When the driving force is earthquake
drum is attached to the frame
strong enough to overcome this friction,
and a pen attached to the weight.
the two plates will suddenly move,
seismic wave sending out waves of energy called
wave that moves through
Earth during an earthquake seismic waves. The exact point under
focus the Earth where the earthquake
the exact point under Earth
where the earthquake occurs occurs is called the focus. The point
epicentre directly above the focus, on the
the part of Earth’s surface
directly above the focus of surface of the Earth is called the Frame
an earthquake
epicentre.
Wire

Epicentre Seismic waves

Weight
Earth’s surface

Vibrations Rotating
drum

Focus
Base
Figure 7.43 A diagram showing the location of an
earthquake’s focus and epicentre Figure 7.44 A simple seismometer

When the land moves from side to side, Lag time – the time
the box remains fixed to the ground and between the arrival of Earthquake
moves with it, but the mass on the end of the P and S waves
the spring stays in its original position. It is
not affected by the movement
seismogram of the ground. The pen
the pattern produced when
seismic activity is recorded attached to the mass records
by a seismometer P wave
the movement of the box in
relationship to the stationary mass. The
resulting pattern is called a seismogram. S wave
Note that seismometers are also available for
Figure 7.45 A seismogram of seismic activity within the Earth
many smartphones.

Practical 7.6: Student design

Designing a seismometer
Aim
To design a seismometer to measure seismic activity.

Materials
• 100 g masses • plastic cup • any other materials required
• pen and paper • ball of string after requesting them from your
• cardboard box • modelling clay teacher
• scissors • retort stand and clamp

Method
1 Using the materials listed above and any other materials that you think you might need, draw a labelled
diagram for your design of a seismometer.
2 Show your design to your teacher. If they approve, start making a prototype of your design.
3 Test your seismometer by gently moving the desk from side to side while moving the paper forwards.

Evaluation
1 Evaluate the success of your model seismometer.
2 If you were to build another model, propose how you would improve it.
3 Compare your model of a simple seismometer to more complex ones used today.

Conclusion
1 Make a claim from this experiment regarding what is required for a functioning seismometer.
2 Support the statement by using your observations (include potential flaws in your design).
3 Explain how your observations support your claim.

The two main types of seismic waves seismometer first. You can see the
produced by an earthquake are primary (P) first seismic activity detected by the
waves and secondary (S) waves. The properties seismometer on the seismogram in
of these waves are summarised in Table 7.2. Figure 7.45. The S waves are slower and
so arrive second. They are also the most
As P waves are the fastest of the intense and so register larger movements
two waves, they are detected by the on the seismogram.

P waves S waves
Name Primary Secondary
Speed Fast Slow
Movement Longitudinal (up and down) Transverse (side to side)
Materials they can travel through Liquids and solids Solids only
Level of damage caused Minimal damage to buildings from Very destructive due to side to side
up and down movements movements
Table 7.2 The properties of P and S waves

1 Identify the two plate boundaries at which earthquakes occur. Quick check 7.12
2 Why do they occur at these boundaries?
3 Recall the name given to the part of Earth where the earthquake is generated.
4 What is the name of the equipment used to detect seismic activity?
5 Which type of seismic waves are the fastest and therefore arrive first following an earthquake?

How do P and S waves give us evidence for the structure of the Earth? Explore! 7.4
The properties of P waves and S waves generated
by an earthquake can be used to determine the Earthquake focus
properties of the layers of the Earth.
1 What can you conclude about the movements of P
and S waves through Earth using the diagram in
Figure 7.46?
2 Interpret the properties of the seismic waves
listed in Table 7.2 to make conclusions about
the physical properties of the outer core and the
mantle.
P waves detected
3 When P waves travel through the inner core and
S waves detected
outer core they appear to bend. Discuss why you
S wave shadow zone
think this is.
4 What is the S wave shadow zone? Deduce why
Figure 7.46 The pattern of seismic activity away from an
it occurs. earthquake’s focus

The effects of earthquakes If an earthquake occurs in the tsunami

a great wave produced by
Richter scale The severity of an earthquake is ocean it can produce a large wave earthquakes in the ocean
a system used to measure
the strength of an measured using the Richter scale: called a tsunami. When this wave
earthquake
the more severe the earthquake, the reaches shallow water, it suddenly grows to
higher the number on the Richter scale. An tens of metres in height and can be devastating.
earthquake measured as four on this scale is
ten times more severe than an earthquake
measured at three on the same scale.

The largest earthquake ever Did you know? 7.3

recorded occurred in Chile on
22 May 1960. It was recorded at 9.5 on the Richter scale.
It killed 1655 people and displaced more than two million
people from their homes.
Figure 7.47 A tsunami breaching the embankments
after an earthquake measuring 9 on the Richter
scale hit off the coast of northern Japan in 2011.

On Boxing Day 2004 an earthquake was

measured in the Indian Ocean at 9.1 on the
Richter scale. The tsunami waves produced
following this earthquake reached up to
15 metres high in some places near to
land and affected more than 14 different
countries. A quarter of a million people died
and two million people were left homeless.

Figure 7.49 Rescue workers trying to find survivors under the rubble
beneath the Kent Hotel in Hamilton, Newcastle, after the 1989
earthquake

In fact, Australia has more earthquakes

than other regions that sit in the middle
of tectonic plates. In 1989, an earthquake
of magnitude 5.6 hit Newcastle in New
South Wales killing 13 people. In Victoria,
Red Rock is a young volcano located to
Figure 7.48 An aerial view of the devastation caused by the
Melbourne’s south west. The whole province
Boxing Day tsunami in 2004 between Ballarat and Geelong is volcanically
active, and a new volcano could form
anywhere at any time.
1 How many times more Quick check 7.13
intense is a magnitude
7.0 earthquake compared to a magnitude 5.0
earthquake on the Richter scale?
2 Clarify what a tsunami is and how it forms.

Is Australia at risk?
Australia is located in the middle of the
Australian plate and therefore is not
directly at risk from major earthquakes
and volcanoes. However, because the
Australian plate is moving gradually
northwards and colliding with the Eurasian
plate, a significant amount of pressure is
building up at the boundary between these Figure 7.50 The lower slope of Mount Noorat, Victoria, a volcano that last
erupted between 5000 and 20 000 years ago. It is Australia’s largest dry
plates. This build-up of pressure can cause volcanic crater and was a traditional meeting and bartering place for the
earthquakes in Australia. Kirrae Wuurong people.

Section 7.3 questions

QUIZ Remembering
1 Recall the name for the volcanic hazard that produces hot fast-moving gas and rocks.
2 Name the equipment used to measure the seismic activity of the Earth.
3 Name the scale used to measure the magnitude of an earthquake.
4 Name the point on Earth’s surface directly above the focus of an earthquake.

Understanding
5 Describe how earthquakes cause tsunamis.
6 Explain why plates at a transform or destructive plate boundary do not slide past each other
all the time.
7 Explain how the silica content of lava can affect the outcome of a volcanic eruption.
8 Outline the reasons why the Ring of Fire in the Pacific is so volcanically active.

Applying
9 On the seismogram below, identify which is the P wave and which is the S wave.

10 Research the term ‘lag time’ in relation to seismic waves and identify this on the
seismograph below.

lag time
the time between the arrival
of the P and S waves

Analysing
11 Hannah says that volcanoes only affect the people who live in the country of the eruption.
Rob thinks that volcanic eruptions can affect many countries. State who is right and
examine the reasons why.
12 Compare and contrast the properties of P waves and S waves.
13 Contrast magma and lava.

Evaluating
14 There are many different types of volcanoes. Deduce definitions for the following types of
volcanoes:
a dormant b extinct c active
15 Decide whether more geological activity is experienced by countries in the middle of a plate
boundary or by countries on a plate boundary. Outline your reasoning.
16 Discuss the intensity and frequency of geological activity in Australia.

7.4 Technologies and natural

disasters
As technology improves, so does our Earth the GPS receiver must receive signals
understanding of geological patterns and from at least four different satellites. GPS
changes. This greater understanding has receivers used for plate boundary observation WORKSHEET
allowed scientists to predict the continuing can determine their location to a precision
movement of tectonic plates. It also assists equal to the size of a grain of rice.
governments and aid organisations to
respond quickly and more effectively when Gravity mapping
plate movements result in natural disasters.

Measuring and mapping plate

movement
Global positioning satellites (GPS)
Forecasting the movements of tectonic plates
has become an important area of geology. To
do this, geologists use GPS and small base
stations on the surface of Earth. GPS relies
on two dozen satellites that orbit the Earth
as well as GPS receivers on the ground
which detect the radio signals from the
satellites. To determine precise locations on
Figure 7.52 A geoid of the Earth. Red areas show
strong gravity, blue areas show weaker gravity.

Gravity can be stronger and weaker at

different points of Earth’s surface. Where
rocks are denser the gravity is stronger geoid
and where they are less dense it a model of the Earth surface
which defines zero elevation
is weaker. Scientists can create a
gravitational map of Earth, called a geoid,
using these gravitational measurements.

Computer modelling
Computer models simulating the way
tectonic plates move, are becoming more
and more accurate. A new model built by
scientists in 2012 was found to be highly
accurate in predicting plate motion and the
way in which plate boundaries deform. The
model focuses on the mantle and it allows
for variations in the physical properties of
Figure 7.51 GPS is used to measure position and the mantle which can either speed up or
therefore the rate of movement of tectonic plates. resist plate movement.

Studying active volcanoes is a risky business.

Volcanologists (scientists who study volcanoes)
working together with robotics engineers are
therefore developing robots that will be able
to go into crevices in volcanoes that no human
could access. VolcanoBot 1, built by NASA’s
Jet Propulsion Laboratory, reached a depth
of 25 m in a volcano in Hawaii, and was able
to put together a 3D map of a volcanic fissure
(crack). This enabled scientists to understand
the path that magma takes from the mantle to
the surface during an eruption.

Drones
Figure 7.53 3D visualisation and geological
modelling suite being used by geologists to
interpret seismic data from an oilfield.

1 List two pieces of technology Quick check 7.14

used in predicting plate
movements.
2 What did the computer model constructed in 2012 allow
for so that plate movement could be modelled more
accurately?

Figure 7.55 Drones are being used to search for

survivors following natural disasters.
Predicting and responding to
natural disasters Drones can make finding survivors faster and
NASA Volcanobots easier than ever before. If people can be found
within half an hour of a natural disaster their
chances of survival are 90%. After 24 hours,
this survival rate drops to 80%. Not only
do drones help find survivors, they can also
quickly map the areas in most significant need
of aid, no matter how remote they are. This
allows rescue teams and aid to be deployed
first to those who need it the most. They are
also useful for getting medical aid into areas
that have been blocked off by landslides or
collapsed buildings.

1 State the name given Quick check 7.15

to scientists that study
volcanoes.
Figure 7.54 Robots similar to the one used in the
mission to Mars are being created to explore areas 2 Give one use of drones after an earthquake.
of volcanoes that humans could never access.

Most buildings are designed to support

1 Give one way in which a building Quick check 7.16
vertical forces, like the walls and roof. can be earthquake proofed.
However, earthquakes provide sideways 2 Discuss why existing buildings are not able to withstand
or horizontal forces, which is why many high magnitude earthquakes.
current buildings struggle to withstand
high magnitude earthquakes. There are
three ways that a building can be made
‘earthquake proof ’. Levitating Science as a human endeavour 7.2
houses!
Air Danshin, a
1 Base isolation.
company in Japan,
Here, buildings do not sit directly on
have invented
the ground, but are supported by ball
levitating homes.
bearings and springs, which act like shock
Inventor Shoichi
absorbers.
Sakamoto developed
2 Vibration control.
a remarkably simple
Mass dampers are built to sway in the
technology to raise a
opposite direction to the building’s sway whole house during
during an earthquake. an earthquake until
3 Seismic resistance. the tremors stop.
Tying the walls, roof and foundations This has already
into a rigid box that holds together when been deployed in
shaken by an earthquake. nearly 90 sites across
Japan. The house is
separated from its
foundations by an air
Figure 7.57 Would you want to live in a
chamber. When an
floating house?
earthquake hits, air
fills the chamber lifting the whole structure about 3 cm off
the ground. A sensor detects when the shaking stops, and
the house gently falls back into position. Although it seems
like an excellent solution to protect against earthquakes, it
offers no protection if a tsunami hits: in fact, it makes a house
Figure 7.56 Buildings can be made earthquake proof by three completely defenceless to such a large wave.
different methods.

The Taipei World Financial Centre Explore! 7.5

This building located in Taiwan is designed to withstand earthquakes and typhoons. Answer
the following questions by researching the structure of the building.
1 How tall is the building?
2 It was once the tallest building in the world. Identify the building that overtook it to be the tallest in 2010.
3 Distinguish which of the three methods of earthquake proofing is used in the building.
4 Explain the function of the pendulum that is suspended between the 89th and 92nd floors.
5 In August 2015, the swinging of the pendulum set a world record when Typhoon Soudelor hit. How far did it shift?

Practical 7.7: Student design

Designing earthquake-proof building bases

Aim
To observe the effect of base isolation on damage to buildings during an earthquake.

Materials
• 100 g masses • string
• plastic or paper straws • wooden block
• masking tape • wooden dowels or pens
• cardboard

Method
1 Will base isolation create more or less damage to a building during an earthquake? Write a hypothesis for
your investigation.
2 Using the equipment provided, except for the wooden block, dowels and pens, design two identical
earthquake-proof buildings. (You may want to refer to the STEM activity at the end of this chapter for the
building creation.)
3 Draw the results table.
4 Put your finished design on a table and shake the table for 20 seconds. Record what happened in your results
table.
5 Now lay the pens or the wooden dowels on the table so they align.
6 Place the wooden block on top of the pens or dowels and put your second building on top.
7 Shake the table again for 20 seconds and record what happened in your results table.

Results

Observations
Without base isolation (just on the table)
With base isolation (on the pens and wooden block)

Evaluation
1 Identify which structure was the most earthquake resistant and why.
2 Identify which structure was the least earthquake resistant and why.
3 Examine how base isolation helps the building survive an earthquake.
4 Discuss how the design and construction decisions make the building more earthquake resistant.
5 Recommend what you would do differently next time in the construction of your building. Explain why.

Conclusion
1 Make a claim from this experiment regarding the role of base isolation during earthquakes.
2 Support the statement by using your observations.
3 Explain how your observations support your claim.

Section 7.4 questions

Remembering QUIZ
1 Recall what GPS stands for.
2 List the three methods of earthquake proofing buildings.
3 Identify the name of NASA’s first robot used to explore volcanoes.
4 Outline why scientists need to study the inside of volcanoes.

Understanding
5 Explain how GPS can map the position of tectonic plates.
6 Summarise the advantages of using drones after an earthquake.

Applying
7 Apply your knowledge of tsunamis to explain why levitating homes are not effective in
preventing damage caused by them.

Analysing
8 Compare and contrast the three methods of protecting buildings from earthquakes.

Evaluating
9 Propose reasons why humans cannot enter some parts of volcanoes.
10 Suggest benefits and shortcomings of using technologies to map plate movement and
Earth’s geology by using examples.
11 Recall the various earthquake-proofing methods you have learned about. Propose which
earthquake-proofing method you would choose and justify your choice.

Review questions

Remembering
1 List five major tectonic plates using the image below.
SCORCHER

2 Match the layer of the Earth (A–D) to its physical properties (1–4).

A Crust 1 Made of metals (iron and nickel)

Very hot temperatures
Under intense pressure from the layers above so is a solid structure
B Mantle 2 Made of dense solid rock which flows in the hot temperatures
C Outer core 3 Thinnest layer
Supports all the life on Earth
D Inner core 4 Made of metals (iron and nickel)
Very hot temperatures
Liquid

3 Give the name of one piece of

technology used to measure plate
movements.
4 Name the tectonic plate which lies
underneath Australia.
5 Name the mechanism in Earth’s mantle A B
that causes tectonic plates to move.
6 Label the continental and oceanic
plates at the subduction zone in the
diagram opposite.

Understanding
7 Describe the three types of plate boundaries and how they affect the amount of crust.
8 Explain how mid-ocean ridges form.
9 Outline the evidence proposed by Alfred Wegener for his continental drift theory.
10 Explain why the rocks in the sea floor are magnetised and how this supports Hess’s theory of
seafloor spreading.
11 Describe how a seismometer works.

Applying
12 Identify the source of heat causing convection currents in Earth’s mantle.
13 Using the diagram below, model how convection currents in the mantle move tectonic plates.

Crust

Cool
rock
Mantle

CORE

14 Identify the type of seismic wave from the description:

a A transverse wave which cannot travel through liquids
b A longitudinal wave that can be detected on the opposite side of Earth to the epicentre of
an earthquake.

Analysing
15 Examine the results from Harry Hess’s mapping of the sea floor. How did this account for
movements of tectonic plates?
16 Compare and contrast the two types of destructive plate boundaries.
17 Make an inference as to whether the following effects indicate a constructive, destructive or
transform plate boundary.
a No mountains form
b Island arcs
c Crust is conserved
18 Classify the following as constructive, destructive or transform plate boundaries.
a The Himalayas
b Mid-Atlantic Ridge
c Mariana Trench

Evaluating
19 At the East African Rift zone, the plates are moving away from each other. Predict what will
happen to the continent of Africa in the next million years.
20 Determine which island is the oldest from the diagram below. What type of volcano is shown in
the diagram?

Oahu

Maui
Hawaii

Pla
te
mo
ve
me
nt

21 Predict what you think will happen to the Earth’s continents in the next 100 million years.

STEM activity: Earthquake-proof structures

Background information
In this chapter, you have gained an insight on the VCSSU127 VCSIS113 VCDSTC059 VCDSCD063

inner workings of our planet. You learned that,

contrary to appearances, our planet has been
very active for over 4 billion years! Our planet is
constantly changing via many important geological
processes over eons, and some of the movements
produce earthquakes.

a b

c d

Figure 7.58 (a–c) Damage caused by earthquakes in Papua New Guinea. Earthquakes occur all over the world, in
developed and underdeveloped countries. They have the power to destroy whole cities, move entire mountains and lift
the ground by many metres. (d) Scientists analyse data collected during an earthquake.

Unfortunately, poorer countries have been Papua New Guinea (PNG) is located in the
greatly impacted by earthquakes over the centuries, Australasia ‘ecozone’, which includes Australia,
as whole populations live in high earthquake New Zealand, eastern Indonesia, and several
areas (for example, the Pacific ring of fire and the Pacific island groups, such as the Solomon Islands
Andes). Experts have demonstrated that most and Vanuatu. PNG is one of the poorest countries in
deaths in earthquakes occur because buildings and the world and is severely affected by earthquakes.
dwellings collapse due to poor construction. Earthquakes are particularly severe in PNG

because of a combination of factors: steep terrain, Evaluate and modify

poor infrastructure and housing, lack of roads,
1 Take time to think about the investment required
and extensive seasonal rains, all of which create
to change the lives of villagers. Imagine that a
an environment that is prone to collapse after an
10 cm wooden stick used to build your model
earthquake.
costs around $10 to purchase, and that the piece
Knowledge has the power to improve people’s
that joins them costs $2. Calculate the current
lives. How can you use technology and your
cost of building a house using cubes (teachers,
knowledge of geometry to improve the lives of
see the teacher guide for this activity in the
people living in these high-risk areas?
Online Teaching Suite for models). Estimate
the savings or increase price of your proposed
Design brief: Improving building design in
design.
earthquake zones.
2 It is important to remember who your target
audience is throughout this project. Discuss
Activity instructions with your colleagues how your team should
approach the communication of your ideas to
In teams (a maximum of three people), investigate local authorities in PNG.
how housing design can affect the stability of 3 Suggest a strategy you could use to improve the
a building. Use your observations to improve a way you demonstrate to people in poor countries
given design to make it more stable and therefore that simple tweaks to designs can save their lives.
safer. Finally, present (show) how changes to the 4 How will your new design perform compared to
original design can improve the lives of people your teacher’s model? What will be different?
living in high-risk areas. Consider these predictions and use them to
help evaluate the performance of your design
Scenario solution.
Whole populations in PNG currently live in high- 5 It is now time to show the improvements to the
risk areas susceptible to major earthquakes. original design by performing the following
People living in the high hills in the countryside tests.
have no access to roads or airports, making them Draw a results table.
particularly vulnerable during an evacuation A Shake test: Place the original design on
process. For example, the PNG earthquake in March a table and secure it using tape. Shake the
2018 killed more than 200 people and destroyed table forwards and backwards four times.
around 7000 houses. Most of these houses were Now, repeat the same process using your
flattened because they were poorly constructed design. Describe how successful your
(see Figure 7.58c) and had little chance of design was. Did it fail? And if so, where and
withstanding a major tremor. why?
Your team has been hired by the local Red Cross B Weight test: Your design has survived the
branch to demonstrate, using simple models, to shake test! Now, it is time to compare how it
local authorities and villagers how simple tweaks to behaves when 0.5 kg masses are placed on
housing design can be an effective way to save lives. top of it.
C Combination test: Your design is still
Suggested materials standing – that is great! Now, repeat tests
A and B at the same time. Describe what
• wooden sticks
happened.
• sticky tape
6 Repeat the tests using your teacher’s model.
• glue

Chapter 8 Electricity

Chapter introduction
Many household appliances rely on electricity to operate. The way they function depends on how the
electrical components within them are arranged; this is called their electrical circuit. In this chapter,
you will learn about what electricity is and how electricity flows in a circuit. You will learn about various
components in an electrical circuit and how using different electrical circuits and components changes
the outcome.

Curriculum
Electric circuits can be designed for diverse purposes using different components; the operation of
circuits can be explained by the concepts of voltage and current (VCSSU130)
• investigating parallel and series circuits and measuring voltage drops across and 8.1, 8.3
currents through various components
• investigating the properties of components such as LEDs, and temperature and 8.2
light sensors
• comparing circuit design to household wiring 8.3
• exploring the use of sensors in robotics and control devices 8.2, 8.3

Glossary terms
alternating current direct current ohm
ammeter double-insulated Ohm’s law
ampere dry cell parallel circuit
battery earthed resistance
circuit electricity series circuit
circuit breaker (ordinary) electrocution short circuit
circuit breaker (RCI) electrostatic static electricity
component fuse voltage
conductor insulator voltage drop
coulomb load voltmeter
current mains electricity

Concept map

Electricity

Battery Current electricity Static electricity

Involves a circuit made of involves electrostatic
Power supply
Power source charge
e.g. lightning
Light bulb Load
LED Connecting wires

Resistor
Variable resistor

Ohm’s law Have many

Circuit diagrams
household
V are used to
applications
indicate how
I R
a circuit is
V = IR or I = V or R = V set up
R I Safety
Measurements
Voltage, V, in volts (V)
Current, I, in amperes (A) Robotics
Resistance, R, in ohms (Ω) Earthing
Double insulation
Fuses
Circuit breakers
RCI circuit breakers
Short circuit

Series Parallel

8.1

8.2

8.3

8.1 What is electricity?

Electricity is a form of energy that results

Lightning Explore! 8.1
from either the accumulation of charge or
Have you ever received a small shock from
WORKSHEET the flow of charge. Charge can be positive your car or doorknob, or seen sparks when you take your jumper
(+) or negative (–). Recall from Chapter off? That’s static electricity. Lightning occurs because of the
5 that atoms contain positive charge in same principles. When particles of ice bump into each other
the form of protons and negative charge in storm clouds, a huge amount charge is built up. The top of
in the form of electrons. It is generally the cloud becomes positively charged, while the bottom of the
VIDEO
Electricity. the movement of the negatively charged cloud is negatively charged. Eventually, the attraction between
electrons that results in movement and the charges becomes too great and a discharge of electrical
separation of charge. energy occurs between them, producing lightning in the cloud.
Sometimes the lightning moves from the cloud to the ground.
electricity
a form of energy
that results
from either the
accumulation of
charge or the flow
of charge

Figure 8.1 This is the Bohr model of a lithium atom

with the 4 neutrons, 3 positively charged protons,
Figure 8.2 Lightning being discharged between clouds
and 3 negatively charged electrons. The net charge
is neutral, but when it loses an electron, the atom
1 Statistically, does lightning strike more men than women?
becomes positively charged.
2 Propose several reasons why this might be the case.
3 Explain what the lightning 30–30 rule is.
Static electricity and charge
Static electricity is created when there is an
imbalance of charge on objects, that is, there Blow up a balloon and tie it up. Rub it Try this 8.1
against your hair or find a colleague who
is a build-up of positive or negative charge.
has fine hair and ask them to rub the balloon against their
You may have experienced the effects of
hair. What do you observe? Can you explain what happened
static electricity when you have combed your
in terms of movement of charge?
hair, or you may have received a small shock
when you got out of the car and touched the
metal door of the car. The charge build-up is Nowadays, to demonstrate aspects of static
called electrostatic charge because it stays on electricity a Van de Graaff generator may
the object, (static means ‘stationary’ or ‘still’). be used, as shown in Figure 8.3 on the
VIDEO
One of the most dramatic demonstrations of following page. This can produce voltages Example
the energy of static electricity in the order of 50 000–100 000 volts of static
electricity at
static electricity
an imbalance of charge on is seen during a thunderstorm. (50–100 kV). The Van de Graaff generator work.
objects
A bolt of lightning releases an should only be used under controlled
electrostatic
charge that stays on an enormous amount of energy in conditions (i.e. by your Science teacher or
object
an electrical discharge. at places like Scienceworks).

a b c

Figure 8.3 (a–b) When a balloon is rubbed against hair, electrons from the hair transfer to the surface of the balloon, giving the
balloon an overall negative charge, while the hair is now positive in charge. Recall that like charges repel and opposite charges
attract, so the hair (+) is now attracted to the balloon (–). (c) Static electricity created by a Van de Graaff generator causes a
student’s hair to rise. This is due to all the hair strands having the same charge and repelling each other.

History of static electricity Did you know? 8.1

The ancient Greek philosopher, Thales of Miletus,
writing at around 600 BCE, was the first to describe
a form of static electricity. Using a piece of amber
(fossilised tree resin), which he rubbed on fur, he noted
that he could attract light objects such as hair, straw
and small pieces of wood shavings. More vigorous
rubbing of the amber even managed to produce small
electrical sparks. In Ancient Greek, the word for amber
is elektron, which gave its name to the electron and
electricity.

Figure 8.4 Amber was rubbed on fur to

produce static electricity.

The presence of electrostatic charge can be

dangerous. Aeroplanes being refuelled must
be ‘grounded’; that is, connected by wires to
the earth, so that static electricity does not
cause a spark and an explosion.

Figure 8.5 The aeroplane is connected to earthing

wires during refuelling to avoid sparks and a possible
explosion.

1 Outline the structure of an atom. Quick check 8.1

2 Define the following terms.
a Electricity b Charge c Static electricity
3 How does rubbing of two different materials together sometimes create static electricity?
4 How is static electricity created by combing your hair?

Practical 8.1

Exploring static electricity

Aim
To explore the effects of static electricity.

Materials
• 2 inflated balloons with strings attached
• empty aluminium soft-drink can
• woollen fabric
• your hair
• mirror

Method
1 Rub the two balloons one at a time with the woollen fabric. Try to move the balloons together. Record what
you notice.
2 Rub one of the balloons back and forth on your hair then slowly move it away from your head. Look at yourself
in a mirror. What do you notice?
3 Put the empty aluminium soft-drink can on its side on a table. Rub the balloon against the woollen fabric.
Hold the charged balloon close to the can (but do not touch the can with the balloon) and watch as it rolls
towards it. Slowly move the balloon away from the can and note what happens.

Results
Record all observations from each step of the method.

Evaluation
1 Explain how rubbing the balloons against the woollen fabric or your hair creates static electricity.
2 Discuss why the two balloons in step 1 of the experiment repelled each other. Use a labelled diagram in your
explanation.
3 Explain what happened to your hair in step 2 of the experiment. Why did this happen? Use a labelled diagram
in your explanation.
4 Explain how your charged balloon made the aluminium can roll along in step 3 of the experiment. Use a
labelled diagram in your explanation.
5 What faults might there be for this experiment and how could they be resolved?

Conclusion
1 Make a claim from this experiment regarding how static electricity can be created.
2 Support the statement by using your observations.
3 Explain how your observations support your claim.

Current electricity through electrical components, such current

the flow of electric charge
as a light bulb, it transfers energy to which may continue in a
While static electricity is when charge gathers
that component. Depending on what steady manner for a period
in one place, in current electricity, charges of time
the component is, it converts that component
move and may continue moving in a steady
energy into other forms of energy like part of a circuit
manner for a period of time. These charges
movement, light and heat.
are electrons. When the charge passes

Try this 8.2

Figure 8.6 Electricity is used to run many household items.

What are some electrical appliances you see used in the classroom or at home? In each case, what is electrical
energy being converted into? What does a remote control convert electrical energy into?

Circuits • a load (something that uses the energy

You use electrical circuits all the time like a light bulb)
whether it is in simply turning on a torch • connecting wires (carry the moving
or using a computer. Electrical circuits can electrons).
be simple (for example, a torch) or complex
(for example, a computer’s central processing Power source
unit), but they all consist of the same basic Figure 8.7 shows the symbol for a battery, the
components and follow the same principles power source in a circuit. The longer vertical
in their operation. line represents the positive terminal, and the
shorter line represents the negative terminal.
It is current electricity that moves in a Because there is an imbalance of charge, when
circuit
structure through which circuit (a closed loop of wires, power the negative terminal is connected via a circuit
charges can move
source and electrical components). to the positive terminal, electrons flow from
load
something that uses energy If there is a break in the loop, then the negative to the positive terminal. The
in a circuit
electricity would stop flowing in battery supplies the energy to the electrons
that loop. Electrons need a path out of the which are then carried around the circuit.
power source, and back to the power source
to continue moving around the circuit.
An electrical circuit always has these three – +
components: Figure 8.7 Never connect a wire directly from the
• a power source (provides energy to positive to the negative terminal of a battery! As
there is no energy user or load, the wire will become
electrons like a battery or power pack) very hot and can flatten or damage the battery.

What happens to used batteries? Did you know? 8.2

Australia goes through approximately 350 million batteries every year. Around 80% of
these are alkaline batteries, which are the most commonly used dry cell, amounting to 6000 tonnes. Most people
do not utilise the recycling options available, and only around 4% of batteries are recycled. Some batteries
dry cell contain cadmium, lead, mercury, nickel or lithium, which are all toxic, as well as corrosive chemicals
a battery in which the that will corrode the casing and release these toxic metals to the water supply if buried in landfills.
electrolyte is absorbed in a
solid to form a paste Let’s all do our part and recycle disposable batteries!

Load forms of energy as the electrons pass. For

Electrons moving through the circuit carry example, in light globes, the energy being
energy from the power source to components carried by the electrons is transformed into
that can transform that energy into other light energy.

Figure 8.8 An older-style light globe transforms electrical energy into light energy .
These are typically only 3–4% efficient in transforming electrical energy into light.

Figure 8.9 shows the circuit symbol for

a incandescent light globe. Only a small
amount of the energy is transformed into
light energy – around 96% is wasted as heat.
Some light bulbs that are not very energy
efficient can get quite hot!

Figure 8.9 Circuit symbol for a light globe

Figure 8.10 LEDs (light emitting diodes)

LEDs
Light emitting diodes (LEDs) are like tiny electrical energy into light energy. They
light bulbs that fit into electric circuits, are much more efficient than light bulbs,
as shown in Figure 8.10. They transform and only 20% of the energy is lost as heat.

The lifespan of LEDs is also much longer

than incandescent light globes. LEDs are
often used in appliances such as watches, Load
microwaves, calculators, and when collected (light bulb)

together, traffic lights and TV screens. The

symbol for an LED is shown in Figure 8.11.
Connecting Power source Current flow
wires (battery)
Figure 8.12 Current is indicated in this simple circuit as flowing
from the positive terminal to the negative terminal of a battery.
Symbol
The connecting wires are drawn as straight lines.
Figure 8.11 Circuit symbol for an LED

Connecting wires 1 Contrast current and Quick check 8.2

Current is the name given to the electrons static electricity.
flowing through the connecting wires in 2 Contrast direct current and alternating current.
a circuit. While it is known that it is the 3 Identify what flows in the connecting wires of a
negatively charged electrons that move, the battery circuit.
current direction is indicated as the opposite 4 Why must a circuit be ‘closed’ or complete for it
direction; that is, the imagined direction to work?
of positive charge movement. This is the
historical convention of current still in
use today.
Using a 2.5 V torch light bulb, a Try this 8.3
1.5 V battery and two connecting
In an alternating current (AC)
alternating current wires, try different arrangements to see how many
a form of electricity where electricity source (like an AC power
the current reverses ways you can make your light globe light up.
direction in regular cycles pack), the current reverses direction
Remember, do not connect the positive terminal
battery around 50 times every second! This
a portable source of power
to the negative terminal directly with a connecting
is what is used in the power supplies wire as it will get very hot, and can flatten or damage
direct current
a form of electricity when where you plug appliances into. A the batteries. Draw a circuit diagram for each
the current flows in one
direction
battery, on the other hand, produces a successful arrangement.
direct current (DC), and the current
flows only in one direction. In this chapter
you will mainly be using DC sources.

Electric cars Science as a human endeavour 8.1

There are many reasons why electrical cars are becoming more mainstream
worldwide.
They do not release any exhaust gases and have the potential to dramatically reduce air pollution in large cities. They
are quiet and efficient. An electric car powered by rechargeable batteries uses electric motors to drive all four wheels.
These motors can also become efficient electrical generators when the car is braking. This ‘regenerative’ braking system
can recoup up to 60% of the car’s energy of motion and turn it back into electricity!
Additionally, electric cars are being designed so that their batteries can be fully or partially recharged by renewable
resources such as your domestic solar energy. There is no point driving an environmentally friendly electric car if you are
charging up with electric power made from highly polluting coal-fired power stations!
continued…

…continued
While electric cars are ideal for city and suburban runs (having a
typical range of approximately 200–300 km), they cannot yet manage long-
distance journeys. Petrol and diesel cars can typically do 500–800 km on a
tank of petrol/diesel and can be refilled in 10 minutes at numerous petrol
stations dotting the highways. Electric recharge stations are still few and
far between in Australia, especially when you think that the first electric
car was made in Australia in 2008! The infrastructure required needs a
critical mass of electric cars to make it economically feasible. Electric
Figure 8.13 Fast charging an electric
cars also take a longer time to recharge (often more than 1 hour to do a
car. The 85 kWh battery pack has
fast recharge). a mass of 540 kg and contains 7104
A Melbourne to Sydney car trip (approximately 900 km) might involve lithium-ion battery cells in 16 modules
two enforced extended recharges. Although possibly inconvenient, such wired in series.
a recharge break may inadvertently save lives as drivers are forced to take a rest break – driver fatigue on such
long trips is a factor in serious accidents.

Practical 8.2

Investigating a lemon battery

Aim
To investigate lemon batteries.

Materials
• 2–4 lemons
• microammeter
• 2–4 galvanised nails
• 2–4 pieces of thin copper strip or uninsulated copper wire
• 3–5 connecting leads

Method
1 Roll two lemons on a table while pushing down
on them a little. The squeezing action releases
the juice inside the lemon and makes the battery
work better.
2 Insert half the galvanised nail into each of the two
lemons.
3 Insert half the piece of copper strip or copper wire
into each of the two lemons.
Important: The galvanised nail and copper strip/
wire should be about 2 cm apart.
4 Use the connecting leads to connect the copper
strip to the positive terminal of the ammeter and
Figure 8.14 Experimental set-up for a 2-lemon battery
the galvanised nail to the negative terminal of the
ammeter.
5 Record the electric current – this is a measure of the flow of charge, measured in amperes (A). (This is
covered later in the next section.)
continued…

…continued
6 Observe what happens to the electric current when you make the following changes.
a Push the electrodes further into the lemon. Record your results.
b Increase the distance between the nail and the copper wire. Record your results.
c Add another one or two lemons. Record your results.

Results
Record the current for step 5, and then for the changes in steps 6a, b, and c of your method.

Evaluation
1 Propose why you need different metals for the battery to work.
2 Identify the function of the lemon juice/acid in this lemon battery.
3 Describe what happened when the depth of the electrodes and the distance between the electrodes was
changed. How did it affect the current produced by your lemon battery?
4 How did changing the number of lemons affect the current produced by your lemon battery?
5 Propose why lemon batteries are not used in everyday life.
6 Identify any potential faults with the experiment and suggest how you may overcome them.

Conclusion
1 Make a claim from this experiment regarding the electrical properties of lemon batteries.
2 Support the statement by using your observations (include potential sources of faults).
3 Explain how your observations support your claim.

Section 8.1 questions

QUIZ Remembering
1 What is the electric charge on a neutron, an electron, a proton and an atom? Give your
answer in terms of the elementary charge e.
2 Recall what an elementary charge is.
3 Name the charged particles that carry an electric current through a circuit.
4 Define the following terms.
a Direct current
b Conventional current
c Electron current

Understanding
5 How does rubbing amber produce electric sparks?
6 Draw a simple circuit diagram that shows how to light a LED. What is the role of the
connecting wires in an electric circuit?
7 Contrast static and current electricity and give examples of each.

Applying
8 Explain how the spray painting of cars relies on static electricity.
9 Your body relies on electricity to function. Your nervous system sends electric signals
through your body, as you learned in Chapter 3. Draw a simple model of the electric circuit
and label what the energy source, connecting wires and load are in your body.

Analysing
10 It is often difficult to completely empty the plastic bag that contains your breakfast muesli
as small flakes of oats seem to get stuck to the inside of the bag. What is a possible
explanation for this effect?
continued…

…continued
11 Modern laser printers use static electricity as part of the printing process.
The printing process is a 4-step process as follows. Note step 3 is missing.
Step 1: The laser beam scans back and forth on a cylindrical drum inside the printer and creates a pattern
of static electricity on the drum.
Step 2: A very fine powdered ink (normally black but can be any designated colour) called the toner is
inserted near the drum.
Step 3:
Step 4: Finally, a fuser unit binds the toner to the paper.
Deduce what you think happens to the toner in step 3 of the process.

Evaluating
12 An electrostatic smoke stack is used to remove pollutants from the smoke before they are released into the
environment. Explain how neutral particles can be attracted to the statically charged rods hanging in the
smoke stack. Determine if this is a good method to remove pollutants from industrial smokestacks and justify
your answer.
13 Give reasons why the electricity from lightning bolts is not captured for our electrical needs, although
lightning bolts contain large amounts of electrical energy.

8.2 Simple circuits

Circuit diagrams To understand a circuit and analyse how it

works, you need to identify its component
The circuit in Figure 8.15 shows a battery
parts and see how they work together to WORKSHEET
pack connected to a light globe with
make the circuit operate. Many circuits
connecting wires and a switch. When the
are shown in the form of a diagram in
switch is pressed down, it completes the
which each symbol represents a different
circuit, so electrons can flow from the
electrical component. Figure 8.16 shows the
negative terminal of the battery, through the
equivalent circuit diagram to Figure 8.15 but
circuit, and back to the positive terminal.
using circuit symbols.

Figure 8.15 A simple circuit with a power source,

light globe and a switch Figure 8.16 A circuit diagram of a light globe, power
source and switch

Crystal circuits Science as a human endeavour 8.2

In 2017, scientists found a way to engrave an electrical circuit into
a crystal. By accident, physicists from Washington State University
found that if a crystal is heated and then left exposed to light, it can
conduct electricity. A circuit can be engraved into the crystal using
a laser.
Even better, it was found that the circuit can be erased by
heating it on a hot plate. Similar to an Etch-a-Sketch, this means the
circuits can be erased and reconfigured numerous times.
This type of circuit would be transparent as well, leading to
electronics being embedded in windows.
Figure 8.17 Laser beams create dots on glass
in order to store data. Electrical circuits in
crystals are the next step!

As you investigate current electricity in Circuit symbols

closed circuits, you will use more and You have already seen some common
more of these simplified diagrams as a electrical components and their circuit
representation of circuits. You will begin by symbols in the previous section (battery,
looking at the different symbols used for the load and connecting wires). Table 8.1 shows
different components of circuits. several other useful electrical components
and their associated circuit symbols.

Component Image Symbol

Connecting wire

Switch open

Switch closed

Table 8.1 Electrical components and their circuit symbols

Component Image Symbol

Single battery

+ –

Power supply or battery pack

+ –

Load or light bulb

Ammeter

ammeter
a device for measuring the
strength of an electric current A

Voltmeter

voltmeter
a device for measuring voltage
between two points on an V
electric circuit

Resistor

Variable resistor

TABLE 8.1 continued…

Drawing circuit diagrams see how all the components in a circuit are
A circuit diagram is a diagrammatical connected. Circuit diagrams should always
representation of an electrical circuit using be drawn with a ruler and pencil. All lines
basic symbols. It is a simple and fast way to should be straight and joined at right angles.

Connecting wires

Load

Power supply
Figure 8.18 The top drawing is the inside of a torch, but you use a simplified diagram like the bottom one to
represent the circuit. The batteries are the energy source, and the light bulb is the load. Can you think of one
component that needs to be added to the diagram?

Draw circuit diagrams for the following circuits. Try this 8.4
a b
Battery Battery

Switch

Connecting
wire

Light bulb Light bulb

continued…

continued… d

c Light globe

Light globe Light globe

Light bulb

Battery Battery

contain a transformer that reduces the

1 List five components that Quick check 8.3
could be included in a
voltage to a more suitable number. Voltage is
circuit.
measured in volts (V) using a voltmeter.
2 For the list from question 1, draw the circuit
symbol for each. A voltmeter can measure the voltage provided
3 Explain why circuit diagrams are used. by the power supply or the voltage drop across
4 List the rules that apply to drawing a circuit components of the circuit. A voltmeter needs
diagram. to be connected to the start and the end of the
component whose voltage you are measuring
in a circuit to measure the voltage drop across
the component. The circuit symbol for a
Voltage
voltmeter is shown in Figure 8.19.
Voltage is supplied by the power source
of a circuit and is a measurement of how V
voltage much energy each electron or
a measurement of how much Figure 8.19 Circuit symbol for a voltmeter
energy each charge is given charge is given. For example,
voltage drop a 1.5 volt battery supplies
the difference in energy the Current
charges carry before and 1.5 joules of energy to each
after the load unit of charge (remember that You already know that current is the
a joule ( J) is a unit of energy) and that a unit movement of charge or electrons around
of charge is a coulomb). Components such a circuit. It is possible to measure the
as light globes and speakers transform the rate at which charge passes any point in
energy supplied by charges into light, heat a circuit. Imagine being able to see the
and sound. The difference in energy the electrons moving along a conductor carrying
charges carry before and after the light globe an electric current. You could count the
or speaker is called a voltage drop. The number which pass any particular point in
voltage of a battery is usually standardised one second and use that number as a
coulomb
for its particular purpose. Car batteries measure of the current (in electrons the amount of charge
transferred in one second
used for starting petrol cars are virtually all per second). The unit of current is with a current of one amp
standardised at 12 V. In Australia, power defined this way where one coulomb ampere
points supply 230 V. Some appliances per second is one ampere (A), or amp one coulomb per second

for short. A coulomb can be described as the A

amount of charge transferred in one second
with a current of 1 amp. You can increase Figure 8.20 Circuit symbol for an ammeter

the electric current flowing through a circuit

by increasing the voltage or energy supplied
to each charge.

To measure the current in specific locations A

of a circuit, an ammeter is used. An ammeter
is connected in line to measure the current In line
through a circuit. The circuit symbol for an
ammeter is shown in Figure 8.20.

V
An ammeter can measure current in amperes
(A) or in milliamperes (mA): Across

ª Figure 8.21 An example of how voltmeters and

1 A = 1000 mA; 1 mA = A ammeters are positioned in a circuit
ªªªª

1 Define the following terms. Quick check 8.4

a Voltage d Current
b Voltage drop e Ampere
c Voltmeter f Ammeter
2 How does current differ in a circuit when the switch is open and closed? Explain your answer.

Practical 8.3

Measuring current and voltage

Be careful
Aim Hot wires can burn if there
To practise measuring current and voltage in simple circuits. are short circuits. Ensure the
Materials voltage output is not exceeded.
• power supply (6 V DC) Power supply is to be turned off
• 6 V light globe and light holder when changing the circuit.
• 4–6 connecting leads with alligator clips or other connectors.
• switch
• ammeter
• voltmeter
A
Method
1 Set up the circuit A shown in the diagram at right.
a Use the ammeter to measure the electric current in circuit A with the
switch open. Record your measurement in the results table.
b Repeat with the switch closed. Record your measurement in the Circuit A
results table. Circuit A
c Move the ammeter to the other side of the globe. Repeat with the
switch closed. Record your measurement in the results table.
continued…

…continued
2 Remove the ammeter from the circuit.
3 Now set up the circuit using the voltmeter as shown below in circuit B.
4 Set the switch to open and use the voltmeter to determine the following
measurements.
a Measure the voltage across the light globe. Record your measurement in
the results table.
b Measure the voltage across the power supply. Record your measurement
in the results table.
c Measure the voltage across the switch. Record your measurement in the
V
results table.
5 Now repeat steps 4a, b and c with the switch closed.
Circuit B
Results

Circuit A Current
Switch open
Switch closed
Ammeter on other side

Circuit B Voltage when switch is open Voltage when switch is closed

Across light globe
Across power supply
Across switch

Evaluation
1 Is there any difference between the current measurements when the ammeter is either side of the globe in
circuit A? Explain.
2 Compare the voltage across the terminals of the power supply with the voltage across the light globe when
the switch is open in circuit B.
3 Compare the voltage across the terminals of the power supply with the voltage across the light globe when
the switch is closed in circuit B.
4 Deduce the form of energy most of the electrical energy converted to in circuits A and B. Explain the energy
conversions.

Conclusion
1 Make a claim from this experiment regarding the electrical properties of current and voltage.
2 Support the statement by using your observations (include potential sources of error).
3 Explain how your observations support your claim.

Resistance Conductors
If the current can flow easily through a
The resistance in an electric circuit is how
material, you say that it has a low resistance.
difficult it is for the current to flow through
Low resistance materials are called
a material or component. Resistance is conductor
conductors. Metals are a good a material that allows
measured using the unit ohm.
resistance example of conductors. electric current to flow easily
the degree to which a The unit symbol for ohms
substance resists the flow of
an electric current through it is the symbol for the last
Some metals are much better at conducting
ohm letter in the Greek alphabet –
the unit of resistance electricity than others. Copper is an excellent
omega Ω.

conductor of electricity. It is used in electrical spacecraft electronics. Aluminium is another

wiring, electrical motors, telecommunications very good low-resistance conductor (at 20°C
and electric cars. Gold is also an excellent it is approximately 60% more resistive than
conductor of electricity. It is, however, much copper). However, it is much lighter than
more expensive than copper. Because it does copper. This makes it suitable for conducting
not easily oxidise and therefore deteriorate, it electricity in the high voltage transmission
is used in small amounts in critical electronic lines that criss-cross the country.
components such as computer chips and
A digital multimeter is a tool often used to
measure current, voltage and resistance.

Figure 8.22 High-voltage (typically 550 000 volts)

power lines distributing electricity most often use
aluminium wires as their main conductor. Figure 8.23 A typical digital multimeter

Saving lives Did you know? 8.3

A defibrillator is a device
that treats life-threatening heart problems by
delivering a measured dose of electric current to the
heart. When the heart does not beat as it should,
blood is not circulated around the body. To get the
heart pumping, an electric shock is delivered to the
heart. An Automatic External Defibrillator (AED)
can be used by untrained people and can increase
the chance of survival from between 21 to 51%.
Figure 8.24 An AED can increase the
chance of survival during a heart attack.

Insulators completely. Such materials are called

High resistance means that it is difficult for insulators. Examples of good electrical
electrons to pass through the material. insulators are various insulator
a material through which
plastics, glass, ceramics, current cannot flow easily
Some materials have such a high resistance wood and rubber.
that they block electric current almost

Electrical engineering as a career Explore! 8.2

Figure 8.25 This electrical engineer is carrying a high-voltage electrical insulator ready for
installation.
Electrical engineering is a career that deals with the principles of electricity, electronics and electromagnetism.
One of the jobs of electrical engineers is to maintain the delivery of power to homes and businesses; that means
maintaining power lines and transmission towers. Power lines are the most efficient way to transmit large
amounts of electrical energy. You may notice that power lines are bare – the air insulates them. However, utility
poles and transmission towers need insulation. Conduct some research to answer the following.
1 Identify the material used in insulators for high-voltage power transmissions.
2 Some electric utilities have begun converting to polymer composite materials for some types of insulators.
Identify what these are made of and deduce why they are useful as an alternative to other insulators.

1 Define the term ‘resistance’. Quick check 8.5

2 Explain what a conductor and an insulator are and give an example of each.

Ohm’s law known as Ohm’s law, where R is Ohm’s law

the law that states: There
the resistance in ohms (Ω), V is the is a direct proportionality
Georg Simon Ohm was a German physicist.
voltage drop in volts (V) and I is the between the voltage applied
In 1827, Ohm began his research with the across some conductors and
current in amperes (A). the resultant electric current
battery invented by the Italian scientist
Alessandro Volta. Constructing his own
equipment, Ohm found that electric V
current had direct proportionality with the
voltage applied across some conductors; I R
that is, if you double the voltage you
Figure 8.26 Ohm’s law triangle describes the
double the current. There was also inverse
relationship between voltage, current and resistance.
proportionality between resistance and
current; that is, if you double the resistance, V V V
you halve the current. This relationship is V = IR =
Vor IR
=,II = , R or
= R=
R I I

For example, if you have a circuit with a ª.ª V

2.5 V power source and a 1 Ω resistor, the I ª.ªª A .
ª
ª.ª V Recall that resistance is how difficult it is
current would be I ª.ª A . If the
ª for electrons to travel around a circuit. So,
resistor is changed to having a 2 Ω resistance
if you increase resistance, the current must
while keeping the voltage the same at 2.5 V,
decrease.
then the current is decreased to

1 Explain the relationship between current and voltage as stated in Ohm’s law. Quick check 8.6
V V
2 Using the formulas= =
V IR,I , R = , calculate:
R I
a the resistance of a circuit where the voltage supplied is 6 V and the current is 2 A.
b the current in a circuit where the resistance is 50 Ω and the voltage is 25 V
c the voltage in a circuit where the resistance is 100 Ω and the current in the circuit is 0.5 A.

Practical 8.4

Investigating resistance
Be careful
Aim
Hot wires can burn if there are short
To observe and compare the flow of electrical energy through
circuits. Ensure the voltage output is not
objects with varied resistance and explore the relationship
exceeded. Power supply is to be turned
between voltage and resistance.
off when changing the circuit.
Materials
• DC power supply (6 V) • small piece of cylindrical carbon
• 2 × 6 V light globes • standard iron or steel nail
• 2 × 6 V globe holders • ammeter
• connecting leads (alligator clips) • voltmeter
• small piece of cylindrical plastic

Method
In this experiment, you will be setting up various circuits as shown in the following diagrams. Draw each circuit
diagram in the results section.
Record your observations of the relative brightness of globes in your results table.
1 Set up circuit 1. Record the brightness of the globe.

Circuit 1 Circuit 2
continued…

…continued
2 Set up circuit 2. Place the plastic, carbon and then the iron nail in turn
at the position labelled X.
3 Record the brightness of the globe for each material and compare the
brightness of the globe with that produced in circuit 1.
4 Set up circuit 3. Set your power source to 2 V. Connect the ammeter
and voltmeter as shown at right.
5 Record the brightness of the globe and the readings from the A
ammeter and voltmeter in your results table.
6 Repeat step 5 for 4 V and 6 V, recording the current and voltage in
V
your results table for each voltage.

Results Circuit 3

Brightness of globe Current (A) Voltage (V)

Circuit 1
Circuit 2 with nail
Circuit 2 with plastic
Circuit 2 with carbon
Circuit 3 2 V
Circuit 3 4 V
Circuit 3 6 V

Evaluation
1 Describe how the brightness of the globe changed between circuits.
2 Explain the reason for the difference in globe brightness for the nail and the plastic.
3 Describe the relationship between the number of volts and amps for each of the conditions in circuit 3.

Conclusion
1 Make a claim from this experiment regarding voltage and resistance.
2 Support the statement by using your observations (include potential sources of error).
3 Explain how your observations support your claim.

Variable resistors
Resistors can be tailored for various circuits
to control the amount of current that flows
through the other components. There are
also variable resistors. These can be used to
control the sound volumes on stereos and
televisions, or the brightness of the lights
in dimmer switches. Examples of fixed
Figure 8.27 Fixed resistors
and variable resistors and their symbols are
shown in Figures 8.27 and 8.28.

Figure 8.28 Symbol for a fixed resistor (left) and a

variable resistor (right)

A light-dependent resistor (LDR) is a special Thermistors, another special type of variable

type of variable resistor because the resistance resistor, act in the same way except that
of it changes depending on the amount of their resistance changes as the temperature
light falling on it. As light intensity increases, increases or decreases. You would not realise
the substance they are made of has less it but when you set your air conditioner or
resistance. LDRs are used in light-sensitive ducted heating to a certain point, or even
electronic circuits and act as light-sensitive your refrigerator, it is a thermistor that
switches; for example, lights that turn on helps regulate the temperature using the
automatically when it gets dark. relationship between voltage and resistance.

Practical 8.5

Current and resistance

Be careful
Aim
Hot wires can burn if there are short
To investigate the relationship between current and
circuits. Ensure the voltage output is not
resistance using a variable resistor.
exceeded. Power supply is to be turned off
Materials when changing the circuit.
• 6 V power supply
• 6 V light globe
• variable resistor
• 4 connecting wires and connectors
• ammeter

Method
1 Set up the circuit as shown in the diagram at right and set the power supply
to 6 V. A
2 Adjust the variable resistor so that the light globe is at its brightest. Record
the current shown.
3 Adjust the variable resistor so that the light globe gets dimmer and dimmer,
recording the current at various points until it is at its dimmest.

Results

Brightness of globe Current

Brightest
Bright
Dim
Dimmest

Evaluation
1 Describe what happens to the current in the circuit as the resistance of the variable resistor increases.
2 Describe what happens to the brightness of the globe as the resistance is increased.
3 Predict what is happening to the voltage across the globe as it gets dimmer.

Conclusion
1 Make a claim from this experiment regarding resistance and current.
2 Support the statement by using your observations (include potential sources of error).
3 Explain how your observations support your claim.

Explain how a variable resistor works and give an example of how it may be used Quick check 8.7
in your home.

Robotic sensors Explore! 8.3

Humans have five main senses: sight, smell, touch, hearing and taste. Engineers take a lot of
inspiration from these senses and incorporate them into other pieces of technology, such as robots. For example,
there are now robotic vacuum cleaners that have sensors which tell the robot what part of the room it is in and
where it has already vacuumed.

Figure 8.29 The Roomba vacuum cleaner Figure 8.30 Bionic hands need to be able to replicate the
senses in a working human hand to operate effectively.

1 Research how sensors are being used in robots.

2 How can the study of human senses help people in the medical field?

Section 8.2 questions

Remembering
QUIZ
1 Draw the symbols for the following electrical components.
a Single cell
b Three batteries in a row
c Open switch
d Resistor
e Globe
2 Define the following terms and give an example of each.
a Conductor c Resistor
b Insulator d Variable resistor
3 Recall the device that measures current.
4 Recall the device that measures voltage.
5 State Ohm’s law.

Understanding
6 a Explain why an ammeter needs to be connected in line with the other components of a
circuit (this is called being ‘in series’).
b Explain why a voltmeter needs to be connected across the component whose voltage
you are measuring in a circuit (this is called being ‘in parallel’).
continued…

…continued
7 Contrast the terms ‘voltage’ and ‘voltage drop’.
8 Outline how a variable resistor works.

Applying
9 Both aluminium and copper conduct electricity. Which one of these two conducting metals would you most
likely find in the following? Give reasons why.
a In household wiring
b In high-voltage transmission lines
10 Use your knowledge of thermistors and light-dependent resistors to propose a
household appliance that uses them.

Analysing
11 The circuit on the right was constructed by a student using a 6 V battery, a
switch, a 6 V globe and a voltmeter.
a Identify each of the electrical components on the diagram.
b Label which side of the battery is positive on the diagram. V
c Copy and complete the following table for the voltage across each
component when the switch is open (off) and closed (on).

Component Switch open Switch closed

Voltage Voltage
Battery
Switch
Globe

12 The following circuit has been constructed using a 6 V battery, a switch, a 6 V light globe with a resistance of
5 Ω and an ammeter.

Copy and complete the following table, indicating the current flowing through the circuit when the switch is
open and closed for different positions of the ammeter.

Position of the ammeter Switch open Switch closed

Current Current
Between power source and switch
Between switch and globe
Between globe and power

Evaluating
13 Research measures that can be taken to stop the wastage of resources associated with the excessive use of
dry cell non-rechargeable batteries in Australia.
14 Propose three arguments supporting, and three arguments against, the widespread adoption and use of
electric cars in Australia.

8.3 More circuits and their

applications

Series circuits of the power source. The current is the same

throughout the circuit.
A torch circuit (see Figure 8.31) where
WORKSHEET
the batteries, the switch and the globe are 6V
series circuit all connected one after the a b
a circuit in which the batteries
and other components are all other is an example of a
connected one after the other series circuit.
1A 1A

3V 3V

1A
Figure 8.32 (a) Car headlight circuit modelled as a series circuit.
(b) Matching circuit diagram with a 6 V power source and identical globes.

Figure 8.31 A series circuit diagram of a torch

Series circuits Try this 8.5
Two circuits have been set up for you.
Series circuits are easy to make and
Circuit 1 is shown below. Note the brightness of the globe.
connect. However, if any one part of
Now look at circuit 2 where the two globes are connected
the circuit fails, the circuit will not work
in series.
because there is a break in the path. In
the example of the torch circuit, any one
or more of a flat battery, a faulty switch
or a faulty globe would cause the circuit
to stop working. Troubleshooting a faulty
torch circuit would require systematically
looking at each of these three components
in turn. Could you use a series circuit
for car headlights? What would happen
if one headlight globe burned out? Both Circuit 1 – Simple Circuit 2 – Series
headlights would stop working. This 1 Are the globes glowing as brightly as the globe was in
would be extremely dangerous if you were circuit 1? Explain why or why not.
travelling at 80 km/h around a corner on a 2 Predict what will happen if you disconnect the lead
country road on a dark night. between the two globes in circuit.
3 Disconnect the lead and note what happens. Explain
In a series circuit, the voltage, or energy, what you observe.
is shared among the load. For example, in 4 What happens if you add another globe in series? Explain
the following circuit, if the light globes are what you observe.
identical, the voltage across each is half that

Parallel circuits to be taken out one by one and replaced with

a working globe until the whole circuit lit up
An alternative car headlight circuit could
again when the faulty one was found!
be constructed using the same components
as you used previously, to prevent both
lights from turning off. In this instance,
parallel circuit you will model the headlight circuit
a circuit in which each
component is connected in a using a parallel circuit, as shown
separate conducting path
in Figure 8.33.

In a parallel circuit, the current is split

at each branching. For example, in the
following circuit, if the light globes are
identical, the current in each branch is
half that of the current from the main wire
coming from the power source. The voltage
drop is the same for all the components.
Figure 8.34 Christmas tree fairy lights are wired in a parallel circuit.
6V
a b
1 Describe the differences Quick check 8.8
1A between a series and a
0.5 A 6V parallel circuit.
2 Explain why you would not wire your house in
6V series configuration.
0.5 A
3 How does the brightness of globes compare in a
series and parallel circuit?
Figure 8.33 (a) Car headlight circuit modelled as a parallel circuit. 4 Assuming that each light globe is identical, copy
(b) Matching circuit diagram with the blue arrows indicating current split. and complete the following diagrams.

Now if one headlight fails, the other one will 12 V

still work as there is a clear connecting path
between the battery and the other headlight
WIDGET
Simple
when the switch is on. You may have seen
circuits a car travelling with just one headlight at 4A A
night. This indicates that car headlights have
been wired in parallel. V V

In a parallel circuit therefore, each

A
component is connected in a separate
conducting path. This means that if one 12 V
load component of the circuit is faulty, the
other load components will still work. Most
4A
modern Christmas tree lights are connected V
A
in parallel. If one of the 200 fairy light globes
fails, then the other 199 globes will still
glow. In older-style Christmas tree lights, 20 A V
globes were connected in series. This meant
that if one globe failed, then all 20 globes
would not glow. Each individual globe had

Parallel circuits Try this 8.6

Two circuits have been set up for you.
Circuit 1 is shown below. Note the brightness of the globe.
Then look at circuit 2 where the two globes are connected in parallel.

Circuit 1 – Simple Circuit 2 – Parallel

1 Are the globes in circuit 2 glowing as brightly as the globes in circuit 1? Explain what you observe.
2 Predict what will happen if you disconnect the bottom globe in circuit 2.
3 Disconnect the lead. What happens to the brightness of the other globe? Explain what you observe.
4 What happens if you add another globe in parallel? Explain what you observe.
5 What happens if you add another globe in series with the bottom globe? Explain what you observe.

Practical 8.6

Series and parallel circuits

Be careful
Aim Hot wires can burn if there are short circuits. Ensure
To observe and compare the values of current and the voltage output is not exceeded. Power supply is
voltage in series and parallel circuits. to be turned off when changing the circuit.
Materials
• DC power supply (6 V)
• 2 × 6 V light globes and 2 × 6 V globe holders
• connecting leads (alligator clips)
3 1
• ammeter
• voltmeter
2
Method
Globe 2 Globe 1
Series
1 Set up circuit 1 so that the two globes are connected in series. Circuit 1 – Series
2 Measure the current in the circuit and voltage in three
different positions; across the power pack, across globe 1,
across globe 2. Record the readings in your results table.
6 1
Parallel
3 2
3 Set up circuit 2 so that the two globes are connected in parallel.
4 Measure and record the current in the circuit at each number 5 Globe 1 4
and voltage across each globe.

Globe 2

Circuit 2 – Parallel continued…

…continued
Results

Series circuit Series circuit

Position Current (A) Component Voltage (V)
1 Power source
2
Globe 1
3
Parallel circuit Globe 2
Position Current (A) Parallel circuit
1
Component Voltage (V)
2
3 Power source
4 Globe 1
5
Globe 2
6

Evaluate
1 Explain your observations regarding the current values in the series circuit.
2 Explain your observations regarding the current values in the parallel circuit.
3 Explain your observations regarding the voltage values in the series circuit.
4 Explain your observations regarding the voltage values in the parallel circuit.

Conclusion
1 Make a claim from this experiment regarding series and parallel circuits.
2 Support the statement by using your observations (include potential sources of error).
3 Explain how your observations support your claim.

Household electricity active and the neutral via the appliance). The
third socket is the earth socket. It is normally
In your household all your electrical
connected to a metal pipe in the ground; that
appliances and your lights transform the
is, directly connected locally to the earth.
electrical energy into other forms of energy
as the electrons flow through the different
components. Power stations supply AC rather
than DC through the power points, which
you will learn about in the next chapter. In
Australia, electricity is supplied to homes
mains electricity
the electricity that is at a voltage of 230 volts and is referred to
supplied to homes
as the mains electricity.
Figure 8.35 An Australian power point

Power points in the home have three sockets Electrical plugs are designed double-insulated
appliances that have two
(active, neutral and earth). When you plug to fit into these sockets. levels of insulating materials
in an electrical device and switch the power They may be 2-pin plugs or between the electrical parts
of the appliance and any parts
on, current flows between sockets at the top 3-pin plugs. This is because on the outside that you touch

through the appliance (that is, between the some electrical appliances are double-

insulated and only require an active–neutral be earthed to protect the user from stray earthed
a pin in a plug through
connection. These appliances use a 2-pin current. These appliances use a 3-pin which the electric
plug. An example of a 2-pin plug you might plug. An example of a 3-pin plug that current will flow via the
earth pin to the ground
have at home would probably be your laptop you might have at home would probably in the case of a fault

computer. Other electrical appliances need to be your toaster.

Figure 8.36 A 2-pin plug (left) and a 3-pin plug (right)

Smart homes Explore! 8.4

Research shows that by 2021, around 140 million ‘smart’ home products will be connected.
Appliances such as lights, alarms, heaters, air conditioners,
speaker systems and fridges can be connected to, and
controlled by, your smartphone or PC via the internet. You
can control these aspects of your house even when you are
away from home!
1 Explain what it means to have a ‘smart’ home and the
devices that can be connected.
2 Research and identify how expensive it is to have a
‘smart’ home.
3 Discuss how ‘smart’ homes can save energy.
4 Discuss the obstacles that need to be overcome in the
Figure 8.37 You can use your smartphone to control
industry and propose solutions for each challenge. aspects of your home remotely.

Safety fits into the earth socket. If there is a fault

Earthing in the appliance, and the metal casing
You saw earlier that, in Australia, toasters accidently becomes ‘live’, the electric
and some other appliances have a plug current will flow via the earth pin to the
with three pins, but why and how does ground. This prevents the current going
earthing protect you? If your toaster has through the body of a person who might
a metal casing, then the bottom earth pin be touching the metal case of the toaster.

Electrical wiring it Did you know? 8.4

Switch In Australia, the following
Active modern colour code is used for electrical wiring. The
old colour code is put in brackets, which you may still
see on some older electrical appliances.
The active wire (which is at mains voltage, 230 V)
Toasting is coloured brown (it used to be red – a colour which
element is normally associated with danger).
The neutral wire (which is nominally at 0 V) is
coloured blue (it used to be black).
Neutral
The earth wire (which is connected to the earth)
is striped green and yellow (used to be only green).

Metal case
Earth

Figure 8.38 In an earthed appliance, like this toaster,

any metal parts that can come into contact with the
active part of the circuit and become ‘live’, automatically
cause a large current to run to earth and blow a fuse or
trip a circuit breaker. (This will be covered later in this
chapter.) This is much better than having the current run Figure 8.39 Modern colour-coded electrical wire
through the user of the appliance!

Double insulation So, the primary difference between a 3-pin

Many newer small electrical appliances plug electric drill and a 2-pin plug electric
have two pins without the earth pin. drill is the drill case material. If it is made
Typical examples you may have at home are of conductive material (for example, metal)
computers, printers, hair dryers and drills. then it must have an earth pin (3-pin plug).
These appliances are examples of ‘double Industrial appliances generally have three
insulation’. They have two levels of insulating pins as in the rougher environment they
materials between the electrical parts of the may encounter rougher treatment, whereas a
Figure 8.40 Symbol appliance and any parts on the outside that commercial appliance is more likely to have
placed on all
double-insulated you touch. The symbol placed on all double double insulation and two pins.
appliances insulated appliances is shown in Figure 8.40.

Household electrical devices and appliances Try this 8.7

Work in a small group of 3 or 4 students.
1 Create a table with the following headings and four blank rows underneath.

Electrical Connects Has 2-pin Has 3-pin Has Has a non- Typical
device/ to a 230 V connector connector rechargeable rechargeable daily use
appliance power point battery battery (hrs)
LED/LCD TV Yes Yes No No No 5.0
Laptop Yes Yes No Yes No 7.5
computer
Fridge Yes No Yes No No 24
Old style No N/A N/A No Yes 24
smoke alarm*
* Note new smoke alarms are connected to the mains electricity (230 V) and have a 9.0 V backup battery for blackouts.
[N/A – not applicable].
continued…

…continued
2 Four electrical devices have been suggested in the table.
Brainstorm in your group four other electrical devices commonly used in and around the home, place them in
the table and determine their characteristics.
3 Explain why some plug-in devices have three pins while others only have two.
4 Explain why some devices have rechargeable batteries and others non-rechargeable batteries.
5 Which electrical devices in your table are an inconvenience, or a nuisance, if you cannot use them if there is a
blackout in the evening from 6.00 pm to midnight?
6 Which electrical devices in your table are critical if there is a sustained blackout (say 24 hours)?

Electrical hazards Most modern homes have quick-acting

The mains electricity supply in Australia special RCI circuit breakers that can cut
presents a potential hazard to life. Even a the current off in less than one-thirtieth of
relatively small current passing through the a heartbeat! You will explore these a little
human body can be deadly. Anyone using further shortly.
electricity should be aware of the dangers
associated with using it. All electrical work With appropriate care and caution, many
should be carried out only by qualified of these unfortunate electrical incidents can
electricians. People are injured or die every easily be avoided.
year because of carelessness, negligence
Current Effect on the human body
and DIY (Do It Yourself )
electrocution (mA)
electric current passing electrical work. One of the
through the body 1 Can be felt
main causes of electrocution
3 Is likely to be felt
in the home is the use of damaged cords
10 Causes pain
and plugs. Frayed cords and plugs can
expose the active, neutral and earth plastic 20 Paralysed muscles – very
difficult to let go
covered wires inside. If
50 Severe shock
these wires are cracked,
you could come in direct 90 Breathing is affected
contact with a bare active 150 Breathing is very difficult
wire. As Table 8.2 shows, 200 Death is likely
the human body is very 500 Serious burning, breathing
sensitive to relatively small stops, death inevitable
currents. You can feel one Table 8.2 Effect of different currents on the
thousandth of an amp human body

(1 mA) and a current of Fuses and circuit breakers

only 20 mA involuntarily
A fuse is a short length of conducting wire
contracts your muscles –
Figure 8.41 Electrical hazard or strip of metal that melts when the current
you cannot let go of the
symbol through it reaches a certain value, breaking
wire! If someone grabs
the circuit. Many fuses used in
you to save you, they too will most likely
cars are designed this way. Look fuse
paralyse their muscles as well placing two a short length of conducting
at Figure 8.42 – notice the car fuse wire or strip of metal that
people at risk of electrocution. melts when the current
on the right no longer provides an through it reaches a certain
electrical connection. value, breaking the circuit

possibly into a person. When 30 mA ‘leaks’

from a circuit, these CBs trip the power.
They used to be called ‘earth leakage
protection’; now they are Residual Current
Interrupt switches.

Figure 8.42 The difference between a good fuse Short circuit

(left) and bad fuse (right) A short circuit can occur short circuit
when frayed electrical cords when the current is allowed
to flow from one conductor
A circuit breaker as shown in Figure 8.43 or faulty electrical appliances to another with little or no
resistance
carries out the same function as a fuse by allow the current to flow
circuit breaker breaking the circuit when the current from one conductor to another (for example,
carries out the same
function as a fuse by exceeds some safety limit - for from active to neutral or from active to
breaking the circuit when the
current through it exceeds a
example 20 A. earth) with little or no resistance. The
certain threshold
current increases rapidly, causing the wires
NOTE: most modern houses have replaced to get hot and possibly cause a fire.
fuses with such circuit breakers. Safety
switches (RCI circuit breakers) are different.
They detect current leaking from circuits,

Figure 8.43 An RCI circuit breaker is designed to

turn off the current in less than one-thirtieth of a
heartbeat. Figure 8.44 A short circuit can cause a fire.

Tasers Science as a human endeavour 8.3

Law enforcement officers around the world are using
alternative weapons, such as pepper sprays and rubber
bullets, instead of traditional firearms (for example, guns
and rifles) to minimise serious injuries and deaths. One
Taser
new weapon is the Taser, which uses electricity (a small
battery) and simple science to immobilise a suspect.
But what does a 50 000 V shock do to a person’s brain?
Research has found that this electric shock can impair
a person’s ability to process and remember information.
Cognitive function greatly declines immediately after
being tasered, which can pose problems for those who
are being questioned or interrogated by law enforcement
shortly after being subjected to the electric shock.
Figure 8.45 A Taser is used by law enforcement.
This newfound knowledge may change the protocols
surrounding Taser use and it is now heavily regulated.

1 Recall the reason why alternating current is supplied by power stations. Quick check 8.9
2 Recall how much voltage mains electricity is in Australia.
3 State the purpose of the third socket of a power plug.
4 Explain why some appliances do not have the earth socket.

Section 8.3 questions

Remembering QUIZ
1 Using the labels switch, earth, active and neutral, redraw
and then correctly label the electrical power point shown
at right. Is the switch OFF or ON? Explain how you can tell.
2 Using the labels 2-pin, 3-pin, earth, active and neutral,
redraw and then correctly label the electrical plugs
shown below.
3 Describe the differences between series and parallel circuits.

Understanding
4 a Describe the main disadvantage of a series circuit.
b Describe two advantages of a parallel circuit.
5 Explain why some electrical appliances are earthed.
6 Explain why some electrical appliances are not earthed.

Applying
7 Draw a diagram to show how four 1.5 V batteries can be connected in parallel. What is the
total voltage provided by this battery circuit? Label the positive and negative terminals of
each battery. 6V
8 a What happens to your muscles when you experience
a current of 20 mA from a live wire from the mains
2A
electricity? Draw a simple diagram modelling this
scenario and label the components.
b Identify reasons why you should not grab a person who
is being electrocuted by a current of 20 mA.
9 Explain the function of an RCI circuit breaker in an
electrical circuit.

Analysing Circuit 1

10 A student constructs circuit 1 as shown above right using

6V
a 6 V battery and two identical globes and measures the
current through the circuit as 2.0 A.
a Distinguish whether this a series or parallel circuit. 2A
Explain your answer.
b What is the voltage drop across each globe?
c Calculate the resistance of one globe.
11 A student constructs circuit 2 as shown at right. The circuit
contains a 6 V battery and two identical globes of higher
resistance than in question 10.
Circuit 2
a Is this a series or parallel circuit? Explain your answer.
b What is the voltage drop across each globe?
c Calculate the resistance of one globe. continued…

…continued
12 A circuit breaker in your home fuse box continually trips
OFF when you are using your toaster. Explain what this
Switch
means and what you should do next.
E
13 Explain what would happen if a red-green colourblind
electrician using the old colour code for electrical wiring
had connected the metal case of the toaster to the active
– A (old colour red), and the toaster element to the neutral
Toaster
– N (old colour black) and the earth – E (old colour green). element
Evaluating
14 Decide whether or not the use of Tasers in Australia is
justified. Write down three arguments supporting and N
three arguments against, the adoption and use of Tasers
by the police in Australia.
15 Household circuits supplying your lights, television, Metal case
computers, washing machines and suchlike, are wired
A
in parallel, while the fuses (and circuit breakers) to these
circuits are wired in series with the circuits. Explain. Incorrectly wired toaster diagram

Review questions

Remembering
1 State whether the following are true or false, and if false, explain why.
SCORCHER
a Static electricity can be produced by rubbing amber on fur.
b The nucleus of an atom contains protons, neutrons and electrons.
c The unit of charge is the volt.
d Six thousand tonnes of disposable batteries are sent to landfill annually in Australia.
e Tasers can be very dangerous.
2 Name the two types of current electricity.
3 List the three components that an electricity circuit needs.
4 Draw these electrical components: switch open, switch closed, ammeter, voltmeter, battery,
incandescent light globe, LED, photodiode.

Understanding
5 Describe the energy transfers that occur in a working electrical circuit containing a battery and
a light globe.
6 Contrast how an ammeter and a voltmeter would be connected in a circuit.
7 Explain how an RCI circuit breaker can protect you from stray current.
8 Describe how electrical faults can cause house fires.

Applying
9 a For a certain electrical circuit, 20 coulomb of charge flows past a point in 5 seconds. Define
the term ‘current’ and calculate the current in ampere.
b For a certain electrical circuit, there is 20 joules of electrical energy per coulomb of charge.
Define voltage and calculate the voltage of this circuit in volts.
10 Explain what a good electrical insulator is and give an example of where it may be used.
11 Explain why electrical wires made from gold and/or silver are not used for sending power from
the La Trobe Valley to Melbourne.

Analysing
12 a If one or more of the globes were broken in the circuit at right, how would
it affect the other globes? Copy and complete the following table regarding
the circuit.

Globe broken Globe 1 Globe 2 Globe 3 3 1

(on/off) (on/off) (on/off)
Globe 1
Globe 2
Globe 2 and 3 2

b If one or more of the globes were broken in the circuit at right, how
would it affect the other globes? Copy and complete the following table
regarding the circuit.

Globe broken Globe 1 Globe 2 Globe 3

(on/off) (on/off) (on/off) 1 2 3
Globe 1
Globe 2
Globe 3
Globe 2 and 3
A
13 a Copy and complete the following table regarding the circuit shown at right.
C
Switches Globe 1 Globe 2 Globe 3
turned on (on/off) (on/off) (on/off) 3 1
A
B and C
A, B and C
2 B
b Copy and complete the following table regarding the circuit shown at right.

Switches Globe 1 Globe 2 Globe 3

turned on (on/off) (on/off) (on/off) A B C

A, B, C and D 1 2 3
A, B and E
A, C, D and E
A, B, D, E
E D

Evaluating
14 Propose reasons why:
a household electrical wires are coated in plastic
b many household appliances are double insulated.
15 a Identify whether solar energy is a suitable source of electrical power for domestic use.
b Suggest reasons why installation and use of domestic solar electrical units in Australia has
been lower than expected.

STEM activity: Can you see the renewables?

Background information VCSSU130 VCSIS113 VCDSTS055

In this chapter, you learnt how circuits work and
some applications for them in your household.
Technology has significantly advanced over the environmental change over centuries. Still, some
past 30 years and now circuits are becoming minute people in our society need help in understanding
and more powerful to drive smaller devices. Have that the energy resources of our planet are finite.
you ever thought about the amount of carbon Now more than ever, it is important that we all do
emissions produced when you perform a search our very best to change our current practices into
using your favourite search engine? Experts have more sustainable ones.
estimated that a simple search consumes enough There are many ways to showcase this message
energy to release 0.2 g of carbon dioxide into to the world, one of the most powerful of them all
the atmosphere. The number might seem small, involves storytelling. Good stories have the power
however, imagine the emission from today’s nearly to bring us together, encourage us to understand
5 billion connected devices! and empathise with many causes. Recently, digital
People and governments have recently started storytelling has been used by many professionals
to invest in renewable and sustainable energy (including famous YouTubers) to tell/sell their
sources because our planet has gone through ideas, opinions and/or products.

Figure 8.46 Even tablets and smartphones contribute to the

carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere.

Suggested materials
Design brief: Design and create a 60-second
infomercial promoting the use of renewable • mobile device, camera to record footage
energy. • laptop or tablet with a video editor
• paper to create a storyboard
Activity instructions • your imagination!

In teams (maximum of 4 people per group), you Evaluate and modify

will use the digital storytelling process (described
below) to create a short 60-second video to answer 1 Create a mind map of the advantages of
a specific scenario. It is recommended that you and renewable energy over non-renewable energy
your colleagues think about assigning roles and that should be communicated to your audience
tasks for this project (for example: videographer, through the infomercial.
researcher, movie editor) so everyone has the 2 Discuss with at least three of your colleagues
chance to develop and use different skills. the challenges you encountered throughout
this project. List the strategies or actions that
Scenario allowed you to overcome each challenge.
3 Have you finished your video? Congratulations!
Your local council has just informed its residents Now it is time to show it to someone in your
that they wish to invest some capital to secure the family or someone in another year level and ask
energy needs for its residents for the next 20 years. them for their opinion on it.
One local company, Coal Co., has lobbied heavily 4 How effective is your infomercial? Based on the
for funds to expand an old open-cut coal mine feedback from your family member, how will the
in the region. On the other hand, a new start-up target market respond?
business, Argus Renewables, has hired your team 5 Create a range of evaluative questions to use to
to create a 60-second video to gain support from gauge the success of your informercial. Show
residents for the development of a large solar farm your infomercial to a target audience and use
in the region. the question to test its effectiveness.

Chapter 9 Electromagnetism

Chapter introduction
This chapter is all about magnetism and electromagnetism. You will explore how magnetism and
electromagnetism impact on our everyday lives. You will look at how to build electric motors, generators
and transformers. You will also learn the stories of how scientists and electrical engineers contributed to
our current understanding of magnetism and electromagnetism.

Curriculum
The interaction of magnets can be explained by a field model; magnets are used in the generation of
electricity and the operation of motors (VCSSU131)
• investigating the action at a distance or the field model around magnets of different shapes 9.1
• investigating the effect of a magnet on a current from a battery to produce movement 9.1, 9.2
• investigating the movement of a magnet and a wire to produce electricity 9.3

Glossary terms
armature generator pole
brush kinetic energy right-hand grip rule
commutator magnet right-hand slap rule
conductor magnetic field solenoid
current magnetic field line temporary magnet
electric motor magnetic induction torque
electricity magnetism transformer
electromagnet nuclear fission reaction turbine
electromagnetism permanent magnet

Concept map

Electric current can produce a Interaction between electromagnets

magnetic field and magnets produces a force
Right-hand grip rule Right-hand slap rule

Movement applications
Electromagnetism

DC electric motors
Speakers

Movement of a magnet in a
current-carrying coil produces
electricity
Electromagnetic induction

Electric
generators

Energy for movement Adjusting voltage

supplied by
9.1
9.2
Steam
9.3
Water Transformers
Wind

9.1 Magnets and electricity

Magnets
Young Albert Did you know? 9.1
The discovery of magnetism begins, it is
Einstein’s
believed, with the ancient civilisations in Asia
surprise present WORKSHEET
Minor around 600 BC. In a region known
In 1884 when
as Magnesia, stones were found that could Albert Einstein
attract each other! These stones were named was five years
magnets after their place of discovery. The old, his father
VIDEO
word ‘magnet’ comes from Hermann
magnet How do
a material that attracts other the Greek language, magnetis Einstein bought magnets
iron-containing materials work?
or aligns with an external lithos, literally meaning ‘the him a magnetic
magnetic field
stones of Magnesia’. compass. As
Albert was sick Figure 9.2 Albert
Einstein – arguably the
in bed at the
greatest physicist ever –
time, he fiddled inspired by a compass
around with it,
but no matter how hard he tried to trick it
to point elsewhere, the compass needle
would always point to the same direction
(magnetic north). He later wrote
there was ‘something behind things,
something deeply hidden’. This was the
beginning of Albert Einstein’s lifelong
scientific exploration. He was quoted
saying, ‘I have no special gift, I am only
passionately curious’.
Figure 9.1 A piece of magnetic rock (magnetite)
attracting an iron cube

The most magnetic of all the naturally Other civilisations (the Chinese and the
occurring minerals on Earth is magnetite, an Anglo-Saxons, for example) noticed that
oxide of iron. Naturally magnetised chunks these magnetic stones always pointed in the
of magnetite are called lodestone – literally same direction when suspended from a fine
meaning ‘the stone that leads’. The magnetic piece of silk or cotton thread. These people
properties of lodestone were known to had accidently discovered the compass and,
humans since the sixth century BCE at inadvertently, the fact that Earth has a
least, with the Greek philosopher Thales of magnetic field. They created the first land
Miletus (you might remember him or his compasses and they later used these magnetic field
student, Pythagoras, from your Mathematics lodestones to create compasses to
the region in which a magnet
or electromagnet can exert a
course) making one of the earliest known navigate in ocean exploration. force on other magnets
references to it.

called the north (N) and south pole

the end point of a magnet;
(S) poles by convention. also the points near the ends
of Earth's axis of rotation.

The forces between magnets can be

attractive (when unlike poles are placed near
each other) or repulsive (when like poles are
placed near each other).

Figure 9.3 A working model of the first instrument

known to be a compass. The spoon is carved from
magnetic lodestone, and the plate it sits on is
bronze, a non-magnetic metal. It is believed that
the Chinese used such compasses as earth-based
direction pointers over 2400 years ago.

An even more useful property of lodestones was

that they could, simply by stroking, turn an iron
needle or steel needle into a magnet – you have
made a compass before using this method in
Practical 7.1. This process is called magnetic Figure 9.5 Iron filings show the magnetic field
attraction between unlike poles and magnetic
induction. These magnetised needles were repulsion between like poles.
magnetic induction then placed in non-magnetic containers
the process by which an
object is magnetised by an and were used by mariners to navigate These magnetic forces can be put to good
external magnetic field
and explore the world. effect; for example, they keep the door seal on
the fridge closed (attractive) or propel maglev
trains (repulsive), which you will look at later
in this chapter.

1 What inspired Einstein Quick check 9.1

to become a physicist?
2 Explain magnetic induction.
3 Why did magnetic compasses come in brass
containers?

Figure 9.4 A magnetic compass will always align with

Earth’s magnetic field and point north.
In 1846, to understand how magnets could
attract and repel each other, the English
Of course, as the name suggests, temporary physicist Michael Faraday
magnetic field line
magnets are temporary; that is, they only stay (1791–1867) introduced the a visual tool to represent the
direction of magnetic fields
magnetic while they are in the presence of a concept of magnetic field
magnetic field. You will be familiar with the lines. The region around a magnet where
fact that a permanent magnet attracts magnetic effects can be experienced, Faraday
temporary magnet
magnet that does not retain paperclips, steel nails and other objects called the magnetic field. Using Faraday’s
its magnetism outside of an
external magnetic field made of iron. Magnets can also attract ideas, the magnetic field surrounding a bar
permanent magnet nickel and cobalt, which have magnetic magnet can be shown as in the following
a magnet that retains its
magnetic properties outside properties. Shape does not matter, and diagram. The arrows on the field lines
of a magnetic field
all magnets have two ends, which are indicate the direction of the magnetic field.

a b

S N

Figure 9.6 All permanent magnets have a north and south pole. The magnetic field surrounding a magnet can be:
(a) visualised with iron filings and (b) represented using arrows.

In reality, the magnetic field exists in Faraday’s rules for magnetic field lines are
three dimensions. Figure 9.7 is a close- listed below.
up photograph of the iron filings pattern 1 Each magnetic field line is a continuous
between the north and south poles of a loop that leaves the north end of the
magnet and shows the three-dimensional magnet, enters at the south end and
nature of the magnetic field. passes through the magnet back to the
north end.
2 Field lines do not intersect.
3 The closeness of the magnetic field
lines represents the strength of the
magnetic field.
Magnetic field diagrams can be used to
explain why magnets attract each other and
repel each other. When magnets attract each
other the magnetic field lines join the two
magnets, as shown in Figure 9.8a. When
magnets repel each other the magnetic field
Figure 9.7 Three-dimensional magnetic field lines
become visible when iron filings are gathered lines push each other away, as shown in
between the north and south poles of a magnet. Figure 9.8b.

a b

S N S N S N N S

Unlike Like
poles attract poles repel

Figure 9.8 Magnetic field diagrams for (a) attraction: north–south magnets and
(b) repulsion: north–north magnets

Even our planet acts like a giant bar magnet, aurora australis), which are produced around
as shown in Figure 9.9. The physical origin the Arctic and Antarctic respectively, when
of Earth’s magnetic field is not completely charged particles in solar winds interact
understood yet. Scientists think it is due with Earth’s magnetic field. Humans are
to electrical currents in the conductive not the only animals to use Earth’s magnetic
materials of Earth’s core (iron and nickel). field to navigate (using magnetic compasses
This magnetic field protects Earth from that naturally align themselves with Earth’s
dangerous space radiation. The most magnetic field). Some migratory animals
striking evidence of Earth’s magnetic field are known to also depend on it to guide
are probably aurorae (aurora borealis and themselves.

Spin The geographic North Pole

axis is a magnetic south pole.

Magnetic
eld lines
Figure 9.9 Earth’s magnetic
S field acts like a giant bar
magnet. The south pole
of a magnet resides at the
geographic North Magnetic
N Pole of the Earth, which is
close to the geographic North
Pole. You know this because a
compass always points north,
and opposites attract, so the
north of a compass is attracted
to the south pole of a magnet.

1 What happens when you place Quick check 9.2

the north poles of two magnets
next to each other?
2 Describe the magnetic lines inside and outside a magnet.
3 Will the magnetic field experienced by a paperclip
become stronger or weaker as you approach it to one of
the poles of a permanent magnet? Why?
4 What is the probable origin of Earth’s magnetic field?
5 Name two positive effects of Earth’s magnetic field.
6 Which magnetic pole is the closest to the geographic
North Pole of Earth? Figure 9.10 Antarctic penguin gazing up at the
southern lights (aurora australis)

1 Get two bar magnets, a horseshoe magnet, some iron filings and a sheet of A4 paper. Try this 9.1
2 Place one of the bar magnets under the middle of the sheet of paper and sprinkle the iron
filings on the paper. Try not to get filings on the magnets – they are difficult to remove. (Wrapping the magnets
in cling wrap can reduce the removal problem.)
3 Observe how the filings position themselves around the magnet.
4 Repeat the experience with the horseshoe magnet. Do you notice any differences in the way the iron filings
position themselves? Can you explain why the filings assume these distributions?
5 To go further, place the two bar magnets face-to-face and 2–3 cm away from each another then sprinkle the
filings. Observe the distribution of the filings.
6 Now turn one of the magnets over. How does the distribution of iron filings change? Can you guess, from the
filings distribution, when two unlike poles face each other and when two like poles face each other?

Magnetic wand saves wildlife in oil spills Science as a human endeavour 9.1
In 2014, Australian scientists invented a tool that can save
penguins and other wildlife caught in oil spills.

Figure 9.11 A member of an animal rescue team holds a swan affected by an

oil slick after the hull of an oil freighter was punctured. The slick resulted in
more than 200 tonnes of oil being spilled.

A team from Victoria University, led by Professor John Orbell, developed a handheld portable wand that
removes oil from animals. The device applies magnetic micro-particles which absorb oil when applied to fur,
feathers and rocks. The wand then harvests the particles that are bound to the oil.

Figure 9.12 Dr Peter Dann and Professor John Orbell using their magnetic wand to remove oil
from a penguin. Oil not only poisons the penguin when ingested, it also reduces the insulation
of the bird’s plumage, making it susceptible to hypothermia (dangerously below normal body
temperature).

Practical 9.1

Magnetic field direction around a magnet

Aim
To investigate the shape and direction of a magnetic field.

Materials
• bar magnet
• compass
• Blu-Tack

Method
1 Predict the direction the compass north needle will point at each of the locations shown in the results
diagram. The first one has been done for you.
2 Blu-Tack the bar magnet onto a flat surface so it does not move.
3 Place the compass at each location shown in the diagram as circles and draw your results.

Results
Copy and complete this diagram to show the direction the
needle will point.

Evaluation
1 Evaluate whether the results were what you predicted
and explain what happened. N S N S
2 Does a compass needle always point straight to the
north pole of a magnet?
3 Draw what the magnetic field would look like in 3D.
4 From your experiment you can see that between the
north and south poles, the needle is parallel to the pole
orientation rather than continually pointing to the north
pole. You also know that the geographic North Pole is Earth’s magnetic south. Describe what would happen if
the north part of a compass needle always pointed directly to the pole.

Conclusion
1 Make a claim from this experiment regarding the shape and direction of magnetic fields.
2 Support the statement by using your observations.
3 Explain how your observations support your claim.

Electromagnetism
current In 1820, the Danish physicist Hans B +
the flow of electric charge Christian Øersted noticed that
electricity
a form of energy that
the needle of a compass, placed
results from either the
accumulation of charge or
next to an electrical wire carrying a
the flow of charge current, turned so that the needle
-
magnetism was perpendicular to the wire. I
the ability to attract or repel
objects that are magnetic Øersted had discovered a connection
electromagnetism between electricity and magnetism
the interaction between
magnetic fields and electric – electromagnetism. He found that Figure 9.13 Øersted’s discovery of the existence of
currents magnetic field B (red lines) around a wire carrying an
a wire carrying a current created a electric current (I). Recall the convention for current
magnetic field, as shown in Figure 9.13. direction is from the positive to negative terminal.

Right-hand grip rule direction of the current, then your right-

The direction of the magnetic field hand fingers curl in the direction of right-hand grip rule
produced by the wire can be remembered the magnetic field generated. shows the direction of the
magnetic field of a current-
with the right-hand grip, as Figure 9.14 carrying wire

demonstrates. If your thumb represents the

B +
B + B
I

- -
I I

Figure 9.14 Diagram showing the right-hand grip rule where I is the current-carrying wire
and B is the magnetic field. Recall the convention for current direction is from the positive
to negative terminal.

Amazingly, if you already know the direction of the current in the wire. In this case, you
of the magnetic field, and your current- would point your thumb in the direction of
carrying wire is in a coil, you can do the the magnetic field and then curl your fingers
opposite of this rule to figure out the direction around to determine the current’s direction.

B (N) (S)

I
+ -

Figure 9.15 Diagram showing the right-hand grip rule where I is the current-carrying wire and B is the magnetic field

‘Erasable’ MRI contrast agents Science as a human endeavour 9.2

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is a medical imaging device
that allows doctors to see inside the body without surgery. To make MRI scans easier to read, contrast agents
(magnetic dyes) are generally used. Given to patients (either by injection or orally), they travel to tissues and
organs, which are therefore easier to see. Medical research in this field recently concentrated on nanoparticles,
which can target specific sites, like tumours. However, nanoparticles and magnetic dyes present the same issue:
they are difficult to distinguish from body tissue.
continued…

…continued
In 2018, American scientists developed what
they call ‘erasable’ MRI contrast agents to reduce
this problem. In a study performed on mice, they
showed that gas vesicles (a nano-sized protein
shell with a hollow interior) could be used as
contrast agents, because the air in their chambers
reacts differently to magnetic fields compared to
the patient body’s aqueous tissues around them.
What is different, and interesting with this new
type of contrast agent, is that it can be ‘turned off’
on command, simply with ultrasound waves that
make them collapse, making their magnetic signals
Figure 9.16 Doctors preparing a patient for an MRI scan
disappear at the same time. This makes MRI scans
easier to read. For example, a dark patch on a MRI might be due to a contrast agent binding to a tumour, or it
might be an unrelated signal from the surrounding tissue. Being able to simply erase the signals caused by MRI
agents subsequently makes it easier to determine the nature of what is seen on an MRI scan.

The arrow convention is often used to while the dot represents the tip of an arrow.
indicate the direction of the current if the Applying the right-hand grip rule creates
wires go into or come out of the page. A magnetic fields surrounding the currents, as
cross represents the tail feather of an arrow, shown in Figure 9.17.

a b

Current Current

into page out of page

Figure 9.17 Diagrams showing magnetic field for current-carrying wires with
(a) current going into the page or (b) current coming out of the page

The arrow convention is also used for the

magnetic field going into or coming out I

of the page, as shown in Figure 9.18.

B out of B into Figure 9.18 Diagram showing

page page direction of magnetic fields for
a current-carrying wire where
I is the current and B is the
magnetic field

1 Determine the direction of the magnetic field for each of the following wires. Try this 9.2
a b c d
I I
(into the page) (out of the page)

I I

2 Determine the direction of the magnetic field for each of the following coils.
a I b I c

3 Determine the direction of the current in each

of the following coils.
a b

1 What is an electromagnet? How is it different from a permanent Quick check 9.3

magnet?
2 How can the magnetic field created by an electromagnet
be varied?
3 What does MRI stands for? What is it used for?
I
4 Determine the direction of the magnetic field in this wire.

Electromagnets the core of the electromagnet strengthens

the magnetic field.
You can take advantage of VIDEO

electromagnetism by using electromagnets. How do

The reason why a coil of wire is best is electromagnets
An electromagnet consists of a wire coiled work?
because if the wire is made into the shape
around a piece of metal, usually iron.
of a loop, then the right-hand grip rule
electromagnet When a current is passed
a magnet consisting of shows that the magnetic field is more
through a wire, a magnetic
a current-carrying coil
concentrated in the centre of the loop of
surrounding a piece of iron
field is created. The metal in WIDGET
wire (see Figure 9.19).
Electromagnet
properties.
Cambridge Science ISBN 978-1-108-62918-8 © Ardley et al. 2019 Cambridge University Press
Victorian Curriculum Year 9 Photocopying is restricted under law and this material must not be transferred to another party. Updated September 2023
338 Chapter 9 ELECTROMAGNETISM

Magnetic lines Conductor

of force

Paper

Figure 9.21 The magnetic field surrounding an

electromagnet is similar to that of a bar magnet.
+ –
Current flow
Figure 9.19 A single loop of wire concentrates the A simple electromagnet can be Try this 9.3
magnetic field. made using a coil of wire, an iron
nail and a battery.
solenoid By making a coil of wire with lots
a wire wrapped in the shape
of a cylinder of loops in it, called a solenoid, it is
possible to create an intense magnetic
field. When an electric current is applied to
the solenoid, a magnetic field is produced
around the coil (Figure 9.20). One end of
the solenoid is the north pole while the other
end is a south pole.

Figure 9.22 A simple electromagnet

See if your nail is magnetised by holding it near

some paperclips.

One advantage of using electromagnets rather

than permanent magnets is that the magnetic
properties can be switched on or off. The
magnetic field strength can also be altered
by changing the number of turns in the coil:
more coils creates a stronger field.

Figure 9.20 The magnetic field of a solenoid

An electromagnet can be created by inserting

an iron core into the solenoid. The iron
core increases the strength of the magnetic
field. A magnetic field can still be created
without the iron core, however it will not be
as strong. Similar to the solenoid without
an iron core, one end of the electromagnet
is a north pole, the other end is a south pole Figure 9.23 This electromagnet lifting 500 kg of iron ore can be
(Figure 9.21). switched on or off.

1 What did Øersted discover? Quick check 9.4

2 What is a solenoid?
3 What is the purpose of using an iron core in a solenoid?
4 List two advantages an electromagnet has over a permanent magnet.

You might not see them, but electromagnets are ever-present. From doorbells and Did you know? 9.2
electric buzzers to MRI machines and particle accelerators – they are everywhere.
They are in your TVs, computers, cars, microwaves, washing machines, DVD players, in microphones, speakers
and headphones, in cars and elevators, in copy machines, in anti-shoplifting systems, in electric motors and
generators, in magnetic lifters, in maglev trains and electromagnetic aircraft launch systems, from everyday
life objects to cutting-edge technology applications. Everywhere. Look around you, see how many objects using
electromagnets you can spot.

Practical 9.2

Electromagnets
Aim
To investigate the magnetic fields produced by an electromagnet.
Be careful
Materials Hot wires can burn if there are
• 1 m of PVC-covered copper wire with the ends stripped and bare short circuits. Ensure the voltage
• large iron nail output is not exceeded. Power
• iron filings supply is to be turned off when
• paperclips changing the circuit.
• wire stripper
• low-voltage DC power supply
• A4-size plastic sheet
• plastic compass

Method
1 Wind the insulated copper wire around an iron nail as shown.

INPUT: 240VAC AC. 50Hz. OUTPUT

VOLTS DC.

6V
POWER SUPPLY
3V
– + 1.5V
ON

2 Connect the ends of the wire to the low-voltage DC power supply while it is switched off. Once the ends are
connected, switch it on.
continued…

…continued
3 Bring up a small plastic magnetic compass and record a map of the field around the nail. To do so, place the
compass at different positions around the nail and record the direction and sense of the field line in this point
using the compass needle.
4 Place an A4 plastic sheet over the electromagnet. Sprinkle iron filings over the sheet. Turn on power to the
electromagnet and note what happens to the iron filings. Draw the pattern in your results section. Discuss
what happens to the pattern of iron filings if you turn off the current.
5 Collect and recycle iron filings and remove plastic sheet from the electromagnet.
6 Use your electromagnet pick up paper clips. How many can you pick up? Record this number in your results.
7 Investigate two factors affecting the strength of the electromagnet: the number of coils and the current
flowing in the wire. Use the number of paper clips that the electromagnet can pick up as an indication of the
strength of the electromagnet.

Results
1 Draw a diagram of the pattern of iron filings created by the electromagnet.
2 Create a table and note how many paperclips your electromagnet could pick up.

Evaluation
1 What is the purpose of the iron nail in your electromagnet?
2 Explain why your electromagnet gets warm when you turn it on.
3 From your field map, work out which end of the electromagnet is north. Draw this on your recorded magnetic
field map.
4 Explain the pattern of iron filings created by the electromagnet when you use the A4 plastic sheet.
5 Explain what happens to the pattern when you turn the electromagnet off.
6 Explain how the electromagnet can pick up paperclips.
7 What sources of error might there be for this experiment and how could they be resolved?

Conclusion
1 Make a claim from this experiment regarding the magnetic field of electromagnets.
2 Support the statement by using your observations (include potential faults in the experiment).
3 Explain how your observations support your claim.

Maglev trains Explore! 9.1

As discussed earlier in the chapter, unlike poles
of magnets attract, while like poles repel. These
magnetic forces can be put to good effect in
magnetic levitation (maglev) trains.
Research on the internet to answer the
following questions.
1 What is the main difference between the engine
of a conventional train and a maglev train?
2 What is electromagnetic suspension?
3 How do maglev trains compare to conventional
trains in terms of efficiency, noise, pollution,
speed and maintenance?
4 Are there any maglev trains in Australia? Are
there projects to develop maglev trains in Figure 9.24 Shanghai magnetic levitation (maglev) train to
Pudong airport (top speed 430 km/h). Maglev trains can travel at
Australia?
speeds of up to 500 km/h riding on a ‘magnetic cushion’.

Section 9.1 questions

Remembering QUIZ
1 What material makes magnetic rocks magnetic?
2 What is magnetic induction?
3 What are Faraday’s three rules for magnetic field lines?
4 What does the right-hand grip rule tell you?
5 What is the arrow convention for current and magnetic fields?
6 How does a compass work?

Understanding
7 What concept is used to explain magnetic attraction and repulsion between magnetic
poles?
8 What is a solenoid?
9 How does an electromagnet work?
10 Why are iron cores added at the centre of solenoids?

Applying
11 Draw the magnetic field lines for the following two configurations. Use arrows to indicate
the direction of the magnetic field.
a
S S
b
S N
12 Draw the magnetic field generated by the following wires.
a
I
b
I
Analysing
13 How does a magnetic screwdriver work?
14 Determine the direction of the current and draw the magnetic field lines for the following
solenoid. Which side is the north pole?

Evaluating
15 What is a magnetic wand? How does it work? How does it help wildlife in oil spills?
16 Deduce why increasing the number of coils in a solenoid increases the intensity of the
magnetic field generated.

9.2 Generating movement

Electric motors Just like two magnets that experience a

force of attraction or repulsion when their
As discussed previously, repulsive and
WORKSHEET magnetic fields interact, a magnet can exert
attractive forces are generated between
a force on a current carrying wire. This is the
electromagnets and permanent
electric motor basis of how electric motors work.
a device that converts magnets. In 1821, Michael Faraday
electrical energy to
used this effect to create the world’s
mechanical (movement)
When a current carrying wire is placed in an
energy
first electric motor.
external magnetic field, both magnetic fields
will interact and this results
torque
in a force being exerted on a force that causes
the wire. If the wire is coiled, something to rotate
Faraday’s motor
these forces can create torque.

The direction of this force can be predicted

using the right-hand slap right-hand slap rule
rule. If you hold your hand shows the direction of the
force when a conductor
N as shown in the Figure 9.26, moves in a magnetic field

your thumb points in the

direction of the conventional current (I )
S and your fingers point in the direction of
Mercury
the external magnetic field (B). The wire
Figure 9.25 A schematic diagram of Faraday’s
will move in the direction that your palm
electric motor faces (F).

F
Faraday used a wire, a battery and a dish I
of mercury (a good electrical conductor).
_
One end of the wire hung free in the
mercury. When current was applied to
the circuit, a circular magnetic field was
generated. The wire's magnetic field B
interacted with the magnetic field of the
permanent magnet. This caused the +
conductor
a material that allows wire to rotate around the magnet. Figure 9.26 The right-hand slap rule is where your
electric current to fl ow easily
Faraday had converted electrical thumb is aligned with the direction of conventional
kinetic energy current, your fingers are aligned with the magnetic
the energy of an object in energy into rotational kinetic energy field and your palm faces the direction of the force
motion
(movement). on the wire.

Practical 9.3

A simple electric motor

Be careful
Aim Electrical shocks may occur.
To build your own motor. Ensure the voltage output is
Materials not exceeded. Power supply
• D-cell battery is to be turned off when
• insulated copper wire changing the circuit.
• 2 long sewing needles (with the eyes large enough to fit the copper
wire through) or 2 big paperclips
• sand paper or emery board Copper
• modelling clay or Blu-Tack wire
• electrical (duct) tape
• small circular magnet
• marker pen

Method Sewing
1 Make a loop by wrapping the insulated needle
copper wire several times (start with 5 or
Circular
10 times) around your D-cell battery, remove magnet
the loop and wrap the ends of the wire
around the loop, leaving them sticking out, Electrical
as shown in the diagram at right. tape
2 Using the sandpaper or an emery board remove
2 cm of insulation on ONE SIDE of the wire.
Thread each end through the eye of a needle. D-cell Modelling clay
3 Lay the D-cell battery sideway on a flat battery
surface and stick it in place with the
Figure 9.27 The simple coil that will be the spinning part of the motor
modelling clay.
4 Make two small balls of modelling clay and impale them on the sharp end of each needle.
5 Place the needles upright near each of the terminals of the battery so that each needle touches one terminal
of the battery and fix them in place with the electrical tape.
6 Your coil should be hanging above the battery. Place the small magnet on the battery, underneath the coil.
7 Give your coil a spin.
8 Does your coil spin? If not, try to spin it in the other direction. Redo your coil with more loops. What changes
when you spin the coil? Record your observations in your results.

Results
Insert a picture or diagram of your construction and record your observations regarding how your motor operates.

Evaluation
1 Using the right-hand slap rule, could you have predicted the way the coil turns?
2 Deduce what might happen if you used a smaller or larger battery.
3 Deduce what might happen if you use a larger magnet.
4 Can you explain how the number of loops or the intensity of the current delivered by the battery affects your motor?
5 What faults might there be for this experiment and how could they be resolved?

Conclusion
1 Make a claim from this experiment regarding the requirements for a functioning motor.
2 Support the statement by using your observations.
3 Explain how your observations support your claim.

1 Why was Faraday’s 1821 electrical motor experiment dangerous? Quick check 9.5
2 Explain how a permanent magnet can cause a current carrying wire loop to rotate.
3 Explain the right-hand slap rule and describe what it is used for.

DC electric motors When electric current (I) flows through the

Today, electric motors are everywhere. armature coils, a magnetic field is produced.
Electric fans, electric drills, washing The magnetic field produced
armature
machines, hairdryers, trains, electric cars by these coils interacts with the rotating coil which is
part of an electric motor
and much more, all use electric motors. the magnetic field produced
by the permanent magnets on either side
of the armature coils. The magnetic forces
of the two sides of the loop cause a torque,
making the coil turn.

The brushes connected to the power

source lightly touch the commutator. This
allows current to continue being supplied
to the armature coils. The brush
the part of a motor that
commutator ensures that conducts current between
Figure 9.28 Cross-section showing the electric the current supplied to the stationary and moving parts
motor in a drill
coil keeps the coil rotating in commutator
a split ring that reverses
The simplified diagram in Figure 9.29 shows the same direction. It does current at a point in a motor

the magnetic forces (F) acting on the coil of this by turning with the armature and then
wire in a simple direct current (DC) motor. after a 180° rotation, when exposed to the
Recall from Chapter 8 that DC current opposite pole of the permanent magnets,
means the current flows in one direction the commutator makes the current change
around the circuit. Check using the right- direction, allowing the armature to continue
hand slap rule that you understand why the rotating in the same direction rather than
force on the wire on the left (F) goes up, and oscillating back and forth between the two
the force on the wire on the right side (F) magnets.
goes down.
Stator F 1 What does DC Quick check 9.6
stand for?
S
2 Which parts of a simple DC electric
motor are moving and which parts are
Armature
I stationary?
I 3 Write down a list of five electric motors
Commutator
N that you have around your home.
Explain what each electric motor does
+ Brush
– and what the general purpose is of the
motor.
Power source F
4 Explain the role of the brushes and
Figure 9.29 A simplified diagram of a simple commutator in a simple DC motor.
DC motor

Electric motors in everyday life Did you know? 9.3

The number of electric motors used in
consumer-oriented products (such as electronic
devices and cars) is estimated to have reached
12 billion units in 2018.
You will find them everywhere in your home
appliances (from the ventilation fans in your
laptop or desk computer to your refrigerator or
washing machine).
Electric motors are also largely used in cars
(not just electric cars). A modern car can contain
a hundred electric motors (to lift windows,
lock the doors, use the wipers, spool the air
ventilation fans, activate the automatic parking
brake and more.)
Can you think of other uses of electric motors Figure 9.30 The world speed record in an electric wheelchair is
in a car? held by Jason Liversidge, who has motor neurone disease.

Coil windings of armature coil windings and also a triple

segmented commutator (a commutator with
three splits rather than two). This means
that at any point in the rotation, two of the
Triple-segmented three commutator segments are in contact
commutator with the brushes. This design ensures that
Figure 9.31 A DC motor the DC motor does not have a ‘dead spot’,
where the motor does not turn and which
There are many different designs for simple could cause the coils to burn out. This
DC motors. One common design used in absence of a ‘dead spot’ is a handy feature as
some schools for practical work is shown in it prolongs the longevity of these motors!
Figure 9.31. Note the motor has three sets

Simple DC motor Try this 9.4

Look at a permanent magnet DC electric motor set up for you.
Using only 2 V DC for the DC electric motor, turn it on and answer
Be careful
the following.
Hot wires can burn if there
1 Which way is your motor turning – clockwise or anticlockwise? What
are short circuits. Ensure the
effect does the reversing of the current through the coils have on this
voltage output is not exceeded.
DC motor? Try it.
Power supply is to be turned off
2 The current is put back to its original direction. What effect would the
when changing the circuit.
swapping of the permanent magnets have on this DC motor? Try it.
3 You may have noticed some electrical sparking where the brushes made contact with the commutator. Why is
there electrical sparking?
4 When the DC current is replaced with an AC current, the motor probably does not rotate but vibrates instead.
Explain carefully what is happening there.

Speakers
Recall that a coil of wire with an electric
current running through it produces
a magnetic field. This magnetic field
can interact with other magnetic fields,
such as that of a permanent magnet and
experience attraction or repulsion. The
speakers in headphones use the forces
generated by the interaction between
Figure 9.32 Fido’s headphones use the interaction
the electromagnets and the permanent between permanent magnets and electromagnetic
magnets to produce sound. coils to produce the heavy metal music, which Fido
loves hearing in his headphones.
Cone
suspension
Inside the speaker, electric current flows
Support
through the coil around the base of the
chassis
Permanent speaker cone. This base sits inside a
magnet cylindrical permanent magnet. The coil,
also called a moving voice coil, moves
S Cone the whole cone back and forth. The coil
of wire shown in Figure 9.33 creates a
Moving Sound changing magnetic field caused by the
N voice coil wave changing electric current produced by the
Air
movement audio source (music). This coil, which
is attached to the cone of the speaker,
S Electrical therefore interacts with the permanent
leads
magnet either being momentarily attracted
Input
voltage or repelled. This causes the speaker cone to
signal vibrate, which then creates the heavy metal
music, which Fido loves hearing in his
Figure 9.33 Cross-section of a typical headphone moving-coil style headphones.
loudspeaker

Build your own loudspeaker from scratch Try this 9.5

Look up on the internet tutorials on how to make your own loudspeaker with items you might
already have in your home (like a polystyrene cup or an empty yoghurt cup, a small magnet, a broken pair of
headphones, some copper wire, a battery, sticky tape, Alfoil etc.).
Follow the tutorial you found and try your new home-made loudspeaker on a radio for example.
1 Does your loudspeaker work as you would have expected? If it does not work, try to find what might be the
problem. Can you figure out how to make it work?
2 Suggest some improvements, for example, how can you make your loudspeaker louder?
3 With this experiment, can you explain how a loudspeaker transforms electric energy into mechanical energy?

Magnetic cellulose loudspeakers Science as a human endeavour 9.3

If you have ever been to a HiFi shop, you might have noticed that a
wide range of speakers is available, and that new ones, with ingenious technology, keep being developed, in a
never-ending search for the perfect sound rendition associated with the smartest design.
continued…

…continued
In 2013, a Swedish team developed speakers made from a new material derived from wood pulp that do not
even need permanent magnets to work. Instead, magnetic particles are incorporated directly to the cellulose
membrane of the speaker, making it possible to design ultra-thin, great-sounding and environmentally friendly
speakers.

Talking on the phone Explore! 9.2

The first telephones were developed in the nineteenth century and nowadays, it is estimated
that 75% of the world’s population has a smartphone, but did you ever wonder how telephones transform
soundwaves to electric signals and electric signals to soundwaves?
The mouthpiece of a telephone is the part doing the sound collecting, and the earpiece is the part doing the
sound emission, but how?
Research on the internet and answer the following questions.
1 Identify the earpiece part that is used to convert an electric signal to soundwaves.
2 Identify the mouthpiece part that is used to convert soundwaves to electric signals.
3 Explain piezoelectricity. Are piezoelectric materials used in the earpieces and mouthpieces of telephones?

Section 9.2 questions

Remembering QUIZ
1 What are the energy changes associated with an electric motor?
2 Recall what forces Michael Faraday used to create the world’s first electric motor.
3 Describe Faraday’s motor.
4 Recall which parts of a telephone do the sound collecting, and which do the sound emission.
5 List some common devices that use electromagnets.

Understanding
6 Explain why the permanent magnets are curved in some DC motors.
7 Explain how a DC motor works.
8 Explain what happens at any point in the rotation if a simple DC motor has three sets of
armature coil windings and also a triple segmented commutator.

Applying
9 Explain what it means if a DC motor has a ‘dead spot’ and why it is a problem.
10 What are the design parameters (aspects that are needed such as cost, design, materials
and risk) for creating headphone speakers?
11 Describe what happens to both magnetic fields when a current carrying wire is placed in
an external magnetic field.

Analysing
12 Describe how the speakers in headphones use the forces generated by the interaction
between the electromagnets and the permanent magnets to produce sound.

Evaluating
13 Imagine a world where they had not discovered electromagnets. Propose some ideas on what
this would be like and give reasons why you would not be able to use a number of appliances.
14 Headphone speakers are different from ordinary loudspeakers. Decide on the design
aspects which contribute to the function of headphone speakers, for example, cost,
material etc. Explain your choices.

9.3 Generating electricity

Electromagnetic induction A current is generated if there is relative

movement between the the coil and the
Ten years after Michael Faraday created
magnetic field in relation to each other.
the electric motor, he returned to his
The movement could be from the just the
WORKSHEET electrical research and discovered how to
magnet, just the coil or both. To generate
create electricity using a magnet and a coil
sufficient electrical energy to run domestic
of wire. Faraday connected his apparatus to
appliances, tram and train networks, street
a galvanometer (an instrument that detects
lighting, hospitals, factories and so on,
electrical current). He discovered that
electrical energy must be produced on a
when he passed the magnet back and forth
massive scale.
through the coil of wire, which remained
stationary, a current was created. Moving
the magnet to the left into the coil created Electric Did you know? 9.4
a current in one direction and moving the guitars and
magnet right out of the coil created a current Faraday
in the opposite direction. The magnetic Electric guitars use Faraday’s principle
field of the magnet exerted a force on the for generating electricity to create sound.
electrons in the wire, causing them to move, Made of a solid body and various magnetic
generating current. This was the world’s first pick-ups, they are literally mini-generators
generating in the order of 20–200 millivolts.
alternating current (AC) generator. The
A vibrating steel string interacts with
generator production of a current in a wire by
a device that converts a bar magnet to generate a small electric
mechanical (movement) changing the magnetic field is called
current in the magnetic pickups, which
energy into electricity
electromagnetic induction.
are magnets wound with coils of very fine
wire. The signal passes through the tone
and volume circuits to the output jack,
and through a cable to an amplifier where
the electrical signal is then converted into
sound via amplifiers and loudspeakers.

Figure 9.35 Lindsay Ell performing with her

Fender Stratocaster

Figure 9.34 Using a magnet and a coil to create

electricity

1 Explain the term ‘electromagnetic induction’. Quick check 9.7

2 Describe the first AC generator.
3 Explain the outcome of moving a magnet in one direction then the other through a wire coil.

Practical 9.4

Magnets can generate current

Aim
To generate current with a magnet.

Materials
• bar magnet
• insulated copper wire
• galvanometer
• cardboard tube
• wire stripper

Method
1 Make your own solenoid by neatly wrapping the insulated copper wire around the cardboard tube.
2 Using the wire stripper, remove around 2 cm of insulation on each of the free ends of the wire.
3 Connect the free ends of the wire to the positive and negative terminals of the galvanometer.
4 Predict what you think will happen when you put the magnet bar inside your coil. Do it and observe the
galvanometer needle.
5 Move the magnet back and forth inside the coil, what happens to the galvanometer’s needle? Move the bar
magnet faster or slower. Does it have an effect?
6 Now move the magnet bar back and forth outside the coil. How does this affect the galvanometer’s needle?
7 Add more turns to your solenoid. What happens?

Results
Insert a picture or diagram of your construction and record your observations regarding how your current
generator works.

Evaluation
1 Could you have predicted the way the galvanometer’s needle would move, depending on the movement
of the bar magnet?
2 Can you explain why and how the speed of movement of the bar magnet affects the intensity of the current
generated?
3 Is the current generated more intense if you add more coils to your coil?

Conclusion
1 Make a claim from this experiment regarding generators, current and magnets.
2 Support the statement by using your observations.
3 Explain how your observations support your claim.

Generators
turbines to turn the coil or wire. turbine
a type of machine that
To generate massive amounts of electricity, These turbines can be turned by steam turns wheel with blades to
a long piece of wire is coiled up and (similar to the turbine in Figure 9.36), produce power

rotated inside a large magnet. Most large- by falling water (hydroelectricity) or by

scale production of electrical power uses wind (wind farms).

A coil of wire is rotated

by the turbine

Steam turns
the turbine Magnets supply a
magnetic field
Steam is
created

Fossil fuels
Water
are burned to
generate heat
Figure 9.36 A typical steam turbine generator

The turbine blades turn due to the In nuclear power stations, nuclear fission reaction
the process by which an
considerable force on them which then the energy required to boil atom splits into two parts
rotates coils of wire inside very large water to produce the steam
electromagnets. The rotation of the coils in that turns the turbine blades is released in
the magnetic field produces a large electric nuclear fission reactions. Australia does not
current and a high voltage. have any nuclear power generation stations.

Steam-driven turbines Water-driven turbines

For steam turbines the steam can be In hydroelectric power stations, the energy
generated using various methods, for used to turn the turbines is obtained from
example, burning coal, burning gas and gravitational potential energy. Water falling
harnessing nuclear energy. from a great height turns the turbines
directly with no need for high-pressure steam.
In Australia, about 60% of our electrical
energy is generated by coal-fired power
stations. Coal-fired power stations transform
the chemical energy stored in coal into
electrical energy. Burning the coal produces
intense heat, which is used to boil water to
create very high temperature (500°C) and
high-pressure steam. The superhot steam
applies force on the turbine blades which
then rotate coils of wire at 3000 revolutions
per minute (3000 rpm) inside very large
electromagnets. A typical coal-fired steam
generator can generate 300 million watts
(300 MW) of electric power. The average of Figure 9.37 Turbines in Murray 1 power station. Murray 1 is
the second-largest power station in the Snowy Mountains
the 21 coal fired power stations in Australia
hydroelectric scheme. It has 10 turbine generators, each
is 900 MW. producing 95 megawatts of power (95 MW). Each turbine
generates enough electricity to power 95 000 homes.

This is how Australia’s Snowy Mountains that can be used to spin turbines and create
hydroelectric scheme generates approximately large amounts of electricity.
7.5% (in 2018) of Australia’s total electricity
demands. Similarly, tidal energy is a reliable source
of energy. Huge amounts of water move
The energy of waves can also be harnessed by around the Earth as tides go in and out. The
placing generators on the surface of the ocean. movement of this water can be used to turn
Waves are caused by wind and in some places turbines. It is the interaction of gravitational
on Earth, there are consistent amounts of forces between the Earth, Moon, and Sun
wind that produce continuous waves. These that cause tides. So, as long as the Moon
waves contain tremendous amounts of energy continues to orbit Earth and Earth orbits the
Sun, there will be tides to generate electricity.

Figure 9.38 Movement of the water during tides turns the turbines to generate electricity.

Wind energy
environmental cost. Australians produce
Wind energy is gaining popularity massive amounts of greenhouse gases per
around the world. Australia is perfectly head of population and are contributing to
placed to construct and use wind farms climate change. Figure 9.39 shows a modern
to create electricity as there are extensive wind turbine used to generate electricity.
areas where wind harvesting is a viable These typically produce 2 MW of electricity
option. Currently, Australia relies heavily and, currently, the cost is estimated at
on coal-fired power stations for most of approximately $4 million to manufacture,
its electricity and this comes at a large construct and install.
Cambridge Science ISBN 978-1-108-62918-8 © Ardley et al. 2019 Cambridge University Press
Victorian Curriculum Year 9 Photocopying is restricted under law and this material must not be transferred to another party. Updated September 2023
352 Chapter 9 ELECTROMAGNETISM

Figure 9.39 Modern wind turbine used to generate electricity. The wind power turbine housing box sits
70 metres above the ground, while each of the three blades is 35 metres long. Each aerodynamically
constructed blade has a mass of about 20 tonnes.

Although the blades on a wind turbine gearing inside the housing box enables an
appear to rotate fairly slowly (about appropriate high enough rotational speed
20 revolutions per minute, 20 rpm), (1800 rpm) for the electric generator.

Generating electricity Explore! 9.3

Section 1: Energy sources: coal, solar, nuclear
For each energy source, investigate and report on the following.
1 How is electricity generated?
2 What are the advantages and disadvantages of each method of electricity generation?
3 What are the environmental issues (good and bad) associated with each method of electricity generation?

Section 2: Australian states

1 Research and compare each Australian state to the national electricity production method percentages.
Record this in a table or graph.
2 Which state in Australia is the biggest consumer of electricity? What percentage of the nation’s electricity
production does it consume and in which sector of this state’s society is most of the electricity consumed?
continued…

…continued
Other renewable 518.2
Section 3: Australia and the world TWh 2.2%
1 Make a table to compare the methods of electricity Solar 253.0 TWh 1.1%
Wind 841.2 TWh 3.5%
generation and their percentage of total generation
for each of the following countries: Australia, USA,
India, China and France. Hydro
3946.3 TWh
2 Comment on the Global electricity generation 16.4%
by source pie chart (Figure 9.40) with regard to Nuclear
the world’s dependence on fossil fuels and the Fossil fuel 2577.1 TWh
15961.9 TWh 10.6%
implications for climate change. 66.2%

1 TWh = 1 Terrawatt Hour = one trillion watts for one hour.

1 TWh would run 2 million fridges for a whole year.
1TWh is equal to 3.6 × 1015 Joules.
Figure 9.40 Global electricity generation by source

New electricity generators Science as a human endeavour 9.4

Life on Earth is mainly dependent on the renewable energy of the
Sun but we humans have been relying heavily on fossil fuels since the Industrial Revolution. However, since the
beginning of this century, with growing levels of environmental awareness, renewable energies have started
to gain traction. The production of electricity through wind power, for example, with the use of wind turbines,
has dramatically increased over the last two decades but for an average person, having a wind turbine in the
backyard is impractical. Fortunately, microgeneration technologies enabling small businesses and communities
to meet their needs are being developed. The search for new ways to produce energy is a continuous endeavour
and sometimes, researchers draw inspiration from nature.
Imagine a biomimetic tree that produces electricity as its artificial leaves sway in the wind. Does it seem
far-fetched? This is nonetheless what a team of American scientists is developing, striving to allow small scale,
off-grid, energy harvesting with aesthetic devices.
But small-scale energy production can take many forms, as with wearable thermoelectric generators, where
a temperature difference is converted into electricity. Recently, a team of South Korean scientists has been
working on new ways to boost wearable thermoelectric generators. In the near future, it might be possible to self-
power small electronic devices using only our body heat.

Transformers 1 Explain the various ways in Quick check 9.8

In 1831, Michael Faraday was investigating which electricity is currently
electromagnetism and conducted an generated.
experiment with an iron ring, some copper 2 Explain the new ways in which scientists and engineers
wire and a battery. Figure 9.41 shows the are trying to generate electricity.
basic set-up of Faraday’s experiment.

Figure 9.41 Michael Faraday’s

experiment that transformed the
world of electricity
0 +1
–10 0

In the middle is a continuous ring made of

solid soft iron. It is wrapped on opposite
sides in two sets of unconnected copper Transformer

wires. The left-hand side (LHS) coil and the

right-hand side (RHS) coil are insulated and
do not touch each other at any point.

Now this is the surprising part that even

surprised Faraday! When the circuit is closed
and current flows through the LHS, the
galvanometer connected to the RHS registers
a current. However it quickly fades, despite the
current still flowing through the LHS coil. Figure 9.42 Smartphone charging – notice the
transformer is part of the plug.

When the battery is disconnected, another

current is registered on the RHS in the Faraday’s discovery proved crucial for the
opposite direction to the original current. public supply of AC electricity on a large
Again it quickly fades. scale, since power stations generate at high
voltages (10 kV) that need transforming
By switching the battery on and off to very high voltages (500 kV) for efficient
repeatedly, the effect can be reproduced, transmission through the high-voltage
creating 'alternating current' in the RHS transmission wires in the electrical
coil. This can be done as rapidly as you like. distribution system. Further transformers
Faraday discovered it only works with AC are then used to bring the voltages down to
and not with a constant direct current (DC). various other levels (240 V for houses).

Faraday noticed another very interesting

thing with his experiment. If the number
of turns on the RHS coil is half the number
of turns on the LHS coil, then the current in
the RHS coil doubles and the voltage in the
RHS coil halves!

transformer Modern transformers take advantage

a device that changes the AC
voltage as it moves from one of this particular discovery of
circuit to another Faraday’s set-up. A transformer is
a device that increases or decreases AC
voltage. You can transform voltages up or
down simply by adjusting the ratio of the
turns of the two coils. For example, you may
have a smartphone that only requires 18 V
to operate, but 240 V comes out of the wall
socket. So a transformer usually comes as a
part of the power cord and it converts the
240 V down to 18 V so you can safely charge Figure 9.43 You may have seen transformers on
your phone. power poles in the street.

Section 9.3 questions

Remembering QUIZ
1 What are the energy changes associated with an electric generator?
2 Consider if it is possible to have a device which is both an electric motor and electric
generator. Give an example.

Understanding
3 Faraday passed a magnet through a coil to generate electricity. Is it possible to have the
magnet stationary and have the coil move to make electricity? Explain.
4 Explain where or how a turbine can be made to rotate.
5 Explain how the rotation of a turbine produces electricity.

Applying
6 Explain how electric guitars are mini-generators of electricity.
7 Identify what happens to the current and voltage in the LHS coil in Figure 9.41, if the
number of turns on the RHS coil is half the number of turns on the LHS coil.

Analysing
8 Discuss how the energy of waves can be harnessed.

9 In Australia about 60% of our electrical energy is generated by coal-fired power stations.
Describe how coal-fired power stations transform the chemical energy stored in coal into
electrical energy.

Evaluating
10 Evaluate the level of take up of solar and wind power generation given our considerable
solar and wind power potential.
11 Evaluate whether hydroelectric power is renewable and list the advantages and
disadvantages of creating and using hydroelectric power.

Review questions

Remembering
1 a Define the term ‘magnetic induction’.
SCORCHER
b Describe one practical use of magnetic induction.
2 Discuss the difference between a solenoid and an electromagnet.
3 a Identify and label each of the components of the DC motor below from the following list:
permanent magnets, armatures, armature windings, shaft, split-ring commutator, brushes.

Current out
Current in

b Complete the table below to indicate the role of these parts of a DC motor.

Component Purpose
Permanent magnets
Armature windings
Brushes
Split-ring commutator
Shaft

Understanding
4 Magnets are said to be dipolar. Explain what this means.
5 Many electrical devices use electromagnets.
a Name three devices that use electromagnets.
b Are electromagnets permanent or temporary magnets? Explain your answer.
c Explain the roles of the solenoid and the iron core in an electromagnet.

Applying
6 Explain how a magnetic wand works in cleaning up oil spills.
7 Why do commercial DC motors have multiple split rings and multiple armature windings?
8 What is the function of the solenoid on the cone of a loudspeaker?

9 The extra energy demand when two million households on the eastern states turn on their
air-conditioning units, each of which uses 2.5 kW of power, is 5000 MW.
a Suggest what may happen if this occurred.
b What measures could householders take as a group to prevent blackouts on very hot days?
10 Explain how an electric guitar does not use electricity but actually makes electricity.

Analysing
11 Electric generators are sometimes described as electric motors in reverse. Explain what
this means.
12 Explain why AC power has become the mainstay of electrical transmission and distribution
systems. Refer to how transformers work and the role of high-voltage transmission in reducing
power losses over long distances.

Evaluating
13 Evaluate the level of Australian government action on the development of renewable energy
sources such as domestic solar electrical energy and commercial wind farms.
14 Amitermes meridionalis is a species of termite found in northern Australia. It is also known as
the ‘compass termite’ or ‘magnetic termite’ because their wedge-shaped mounds are aligned
north–south to control and stabilise temperature and humidity inside the towers as shown
below. Predict what would happen if a colony of these termites was to start building a mound
next to a current-carrying wire, as shown on the right, along with the repercussions.

Site of
mound to
be built

STEM activity: The simplest maglev system

Background information VCSSU131 VCSSU131 VCDSCD062 VCSIS139 VCSIS140

The magnetic train does not use wheels, axles or

mechanical transmissions, but a magnetic levitation to give you the opportunity to investigate how
system on a special rail. That is, without there being a number of important concepts on magnetism
contact with the rails, the train floats and moves. combine to allow engineers to create very fast trains
Maglev (abbreviation for magnetic levitation) that levitate above the rail! Ideally, you should work
is used in trains that operate in countries such in pairs, get a set of materials listed below and follow
as Japan and South Korea with trains that can the step-by-step guide. Have fun! Once you have
exceed 500 km/h! They have many advantages, a working model, evaluate its function and modify
for example: the trains do not experience any your model to achieve the fastest possible speed.
friction with the ground, they need less energy,
are quieter and do not require much maintenance. Materials required
Although advantageous in many fronts, maglevs are
• 2 strong N35 neodymium magnets (11 mm
expensive to build, require an expert skilled labour
diameter × 2 mm thick)
force to operate and considerably large investment
• Cu wire or tin solder wire – 1 mm diameter
needed to install brand new lines, while regular
• cylinder to coil wire (11.5–12 mm outside diameter)
trains can take advantage of existing railways.
• AAA battery (10.5 mm in diameter and
44.5 mm long)
Design brief: Construct the fastest model
maglev system.
Procedure
1 First, you should coil some tin solder wire to
Activity instructions
create the track for your train. The process of
In this task, you will use all the knowledge coiling is simple, as shown in Figure 9.44a. You
constructed on magnetism to construct a simple should aim to create a coil (track) around 20 cm
(and inexpensive) magnetic levitation (maglev) train long that remains in a straight line, as shown in
system model. This activity has been developed Figure 9.44b.

Figure 9.44 (a) Coiling the copper wire. (b) Finished result.

The second step is the most straightforward (and 3 Reflection on your project is integral and vital for
important) of them all. problem-solving in the real world. Create a list of
2 Take your AAA battery, two strong N35 suggested improvements that could be applied
neodymium magnets and place the magnets on to this project.
either end of the battery as shown in Figure 9.45, 4 Time to explore! List your predictions and
making sure that the magnets are repelling. In observations for the following scenarios.
other words, both magnets must be facing out a Predict how your train would behave if you
(north). decided not to follow the instruction to place
the magnets on the battery as suggested.
b Predict what would happen to your train if
you decided to place both batteries repelling
as requested but facing south instead.
North 5 You know that trains can move long distances,
however, your group has only a little 20 cm strip
North of track. How could you create a closed looped
circuit (look around) that is around 1 m long and
Figure 9.45 Magnets placed and ready to go (repelling!)
capable of moving constantly?
3 Place your battery (train) inside the copper Scientists can use extensive testing to improve
wire as shown in Figure 9.46 and observe what the efficiency of products, machines and so on.
happens. Now, it is time to measure the efficiency (speed)
of our mini maglev!
6 List your data and observations for the following.
a Record five measurements of the time taken
for a train to travel 1 metre.
b List your data using a table and determine
the average time for a train using two
magnets.
c Determine the group that has the fastest
model.
Figure 9.46 Your small train system is ready to go. 7 Now, it is time to investigate the efficiency of a
train that uses four magnets.
Evaluate and modify a Add two magnets to each side of a battery,
with north facing out on each pair, and
1 How would you estimate the length of copper
repeat steps 6a and b above.
wire required to create a train track measuring
b Present your data and explain to your peers
around 50 cm in length?
whether adding two extra magnets improves
2 Discuss with at least three of your peers the
the efficiency of your train.
challenges you have encountered throughout
this project. Identify ways of increasing the
speed of the model. List the strategies or actions
that allowed you to overcome the challenges.

Glossary
Chapter 1 objective data data that can be directly observed or
continuous data quantitative data that can be measured measured, not open to interpretation
control condition the condition where the independent observational the skill of closely watching an
variable is absent, used as a baseline to measure experiment, using all five senses or specialised tools
results against to detect changes
controlled variable any variables that may influence the outlier an extreme data point
outcome of an experiment, that are kept constant potable clean and safe to drink
dependent variable (DV) the variable that is measured primary data data that is sourced for/during the
during the experiment to see if the independent experiment
variable has had an effect p-value a statistic that gauges the level of
descriptive statistics tools used to summarise and probability that the difference between the control
describe data sets, e.g. measures of centre and spread and experimental groups are due to chance factors,
discrete data quantitative data that can be counted and determines the statistical significance of the
results
experiment a scientific procedure used to test a
hypothesis or test a cause-and-effect relationship range a measure of spread, found by subtracting the
between two variables minimum value from the maximum value
experimental condition the different conditions where reliability the consistency, stability or dependability of
the independent variable changes data or results
extraneous variable any variable that may influence the secondary data data that is sourced from someone
outcome of an experiment that has been failed to be else’s research or a database
controlled for standard deviation a measure of spread that shows, on
hypothesis a prediction or explanation for something average, how far the scores differ from the mean
that is based on known facts, but has not yet been subjective data data that relies on personal
proved experiences, interpretation or responses
independent variable (IV) the variable that is trend the overall pattern of movement in the data, e.g.
systematically manipulated or changed during an increasing or decreasing
experiment validity a valid experiment or procedure measures
inferential statistics tool that allows scientists to what is intended to be measured; when extraneous
establish cause and effect relationships between variables are not recognised and controlled this may
variables by analysing the changes in data sets not be the case.
line graph a type of graph with x and y axes, used to variable any factor that can change during an experiment
display numerical data
Chapter 2
line of best fit a line through a scatter plot of data
points that best expresses the relationship between alveoli (singular: alveolus) tiny air sacs found within
those points the lungs, which are the site of gaseous exchange

mean often referred to as the ‘average’, this measure amino acid an organic molecule that forms the basic
of centre is found by adding all the values and then building block of a protein
dividing this sum by the number of values antibiotic inhibits the growth of bacteria inside the body
measure of variability the use of mathematical antibody also called immunoglobulin; a protective
calculations that describes how spread the set of data protein produced by the immune system in response to
or scores are from each other; for example, range or the presence of a foreign substance, called an antigen.
standard deviation antigen a substance that induces an immune response
median a measure of centre of a data set, found by in the body, can be foreign or a self-antigen
ordering the values from smallest to largest and antiseptic a substance that stops or slows down the
finding the middle point growth of microorganisms, used externally on skin
mode a measure of centre of a data set, found by bacteria (singular: bacterium) microscopic, unicellular
identifying the most frequently occurring data value (single-celled) organisms

binary fission a form of asexual reproduction; the most osmoregulation the regulation of water levels in the
common form of reproduction in prokaryotes, such as blood/body
bacteria, and occurs when the cell divides, giving rise pathogen a small organism, such as a bacterium, virus,
to two identical cells prion or parasite that can cause disease
budding an asexual reproduction process where the phagocytosis a cellular process where a white cell
new individual is a clone of the parent organism wraps around and ingests a cell or large particle to
capillary the smallest vessels which contain break it down using enzymes
oxygenated blood and enable red blood cells to deliver prokaryote a single-celled organism with no
oxygen to the tissues on a cellular level membrane-bound organelles (such as a nucleus),
carbohydrate biological molecules made of carbon, e.g. a bacterial cell
with hydrogen and oxygen in the same ratio as in protein a chemical substance composed of amino
water, and which can be broken down with the release acids, with structural and regulatory functions, and
of energy in the body can also be used as an energy source. Food sources of
effector a muscle, gland or organ capable of responding protein include meat, legumes, dairy, eggs
to a response signal from the control centre receptor a sense organ (or cell/group of cells) that
enzyme a biological catalyst that increases the rate of detects stimulus
a chemical reaction without itself being changed by septic describes a wound infected with bacteria
the reaction
stimulus any object or event that elicits a sensory or
fermentation a chemical process by which energy is behavioural response in an organism
produced in the absence of oxygen
unicellular a single-celled organism
fungus (plural: fungi) single-celled or multicellular
vaccine a chemical substance composed of a dead
organisms which contain a nucleus and a cell wall
or weakened version of a pathogen that is injected
made of chitin
or ingested to make a person immune against that
glucagon a hormone secreted by the pancreas that pathogen
triggers the liver and muscle cells to release glucose
virus an extremely small non-celullar pathogen
into the bloodstream, raising the blood glucose levels
comprised of infectious particles that are inactive
homeostasis the maintenance of a relatively stable outside a living host cell
internal body environment, despite changes in the
external environment Chapter 3
immune system the system (cells and tissues) that action potential the electrical impulse (message) that
enables the body to protect itself against disease is transmitted along a neuron
immunise the injection of a weakened or dead version cerebral cortex outer layer of the brain
of a pathogen to trigger the production of antibodies; contralateral organisation each hemisphere of the brain
provides protection against that pathogen in the future is responsible for the motor function and sensation in
insulin a hormone secreted by the pancreas that the opposite side of the body
triggers the liver and muscle cells to take up glucose corpus callosum a bundle of nerve fibres connecting
from the bloodstream, lowering the blood glucose levels the left and right hemispheres of the brain
lipid a chemical substance such as a fat or oil that can endocrine system the system of glands that controls
be used as an energy source hormones in the body
lymphocyte white blood cell that is involved with hemispheric specialisation each hemisphere of
flighting disease. Some produce antibodies the brain can exert greater control over specific
memory cell a type of white blood cell that is formed functions
after exposure to a pathogen, and remembers that homeostasis the maintenance of a relatively stable
pathogen in the future internal body environment, despite changes in the
multicellular an organism that is composed of more external environment
than one cell homunculus a representation of the body parts in the
nephron the functional unit of the kidney, involved in brain where size shows level of sensitivity
filtering the blood to produce urine hormone a chemical messenger that is secreted by
non-specific immunity the branch of the immune endocrine glands and circulated in the bloodstream to
system that does not depend recognition of the act on a target cell
pathogen, includes the first and second lines of interneuron a nerve cell that transmits information
defence such as physical barriers, inflammation within the brain and spinal cord (central nervous
and fever system)

motor neuron a nerve cell that transmits messages ecosystem a biological unit made up of the community
from the central nervous system to the effectors of living organisms, the non-living components and the
nervous system consists of the brain, spinal cord and interactions between them
peripheral nerves and receptors that communicate emigration the movement of individuals out of the
fast messages within the body population
neuron a specialised nerve cell eutrophication killing of life in a lake as a result of
neurotransmitter the chemical messenger that is excessive growth of algae
released from one neuron and travels across the exponential growth a rapidly accelerating increase in
synapse to bind to the next neuron population size
plasticity the ability of the brain to change its neuron food chain the flow of energy from organism to
structure and function over time, in response to organism, in an ecosystem
experiences habitat the environment an organism lives within
reflex action a fast, involuntary motor action that heterotroph also known as a consumer; an organism
protects the body from harm that must eat or consume plants or animals as a
sensory neuron a nerve cell that transmits messages source of energy
from the sensory receptors to the central nervous immigration the movement of individuals into the
system population
synapse the gap between two neurons interspecific competition competition for food or
target cell a cell affected by a specific hormone resources between members of different species
intraspecific competition competition for food or
Chapter 4
resources between members of the same species
abiotic non-living factors, such as temperature, pH,
limiting factor biotic or abiotic factor that prevent a
salinity, rocks, water
population from growing
apex predator the highest level consumer in a food chain
logistic growth population growth that increases
autotroph otherwise known as a producer, an organism initially, but then plateaus (flattens out) once it
capable of making its own food reached a certain point
biome a region of Earth’s surface and the particular mutualism a symbiotic relationship where both
combination of climate, plants and animals that are organisms benefit
found within it
parasitism a symbiotic relationship where a parasite
biotic living factors, such as plants, animals and benefits from living on or in a host (which is harmed)
bacteria
photosynthesis the chemical reaction by which
capture–mark–recapture method a method for organisms make their own food
estimating animal population sizes that involves
pollinator an organism, such as an insect, that carries
capturing, tagging, releasing and recapturing a sample
pollen from one plant, or part of a plant, to another
of the animal
population members of one species living in a
carrying capacity the maximum population size a
particular area at a given time
particular environment can support
predator an animal that hunts other animals as its
cellular respiration a chemical process where glucose
source of food
is burnt with oxygen, producing carbon dioxide and
water and releasing energy prey living animal that is captured and eaten by a
predator
commensalism a symbiotic relationship where one
organism benefits, and the other neither benefits nor primary consumer the first consumer who eats the
is harmed producer in a food chain
community all the populations of different species producer otherwise known as an autotroph, an
living in a particular area at a given time organism capable of making its own food
consumer also known as a heterotroph, an organism quadrat a tool used to measure species abundance
that must eat or consume other plants or animals as a secondary consumer the consumer who eats the
source of energy primary consumer
ecologic niche the role an organism fulfils in an symbiotic relationship a relationship between two types
ecosystem, e.g. its habitat, nutrition, interactions with of living things that help at least one of them survive
other organisms

tertiary consumer the consumer who eats the Chapter 6

secondary consumer acid a substance that has a pH of less than 7
trophic level the feeding level of an organism within a activation energy energy required for a non-
food chain spontaneous chemical reaction to occur
vector an agent (either a human, animal or base a substance that has a pH greater than 7
microorganism) that carries and transmits a pathogen
chemical change a rearrangement of atoms which is
(disease-causing agent) from an infected organism to
often irreversible
a non-infected organism
combustion the reaction of a fuel with oxygen usually
Chapter 5 producing heat and light
alpha particle a positively charged particle ejected conservation of mass a law that states that matter and
spontaneously from the nuclei of some radioactive energy can neither be created nor destroyed
elements endothermic an absorption of heat characterised by a
atom the building block of matter decrease in surrounding temperature
atomic number the number that denotes the number of exothermic heat is released from a reaction
protons in an atom of an element characterised by an increase in surrounding
beta particles a charged particle that is emitted temperature
from the nucleus of a radioactive element during neutralisation a reaction between an acid and a base,
radioactive decay (or disintegration) of an unstable forming a solution that has a neutral pH
atom. photosynthesis the chemical reaction by which
compounds chemical combination of two or more organisms make their own food
elements combined in a fixed and definite proportion product substance formed in a chemical reaction
by weight.
reactant substance that is reacting in a chemical
electromagnetic spectrum the range of all possible reaction
forms that light can take, plotted out in terms of
reaction conditions conditions required for a chemical
lowest to highest frequency of the light wave
reaction to proceed
electron a subatomic particle with a negative charge
rearranged the process of moving things into a
found in all atoms
different order
gamma rays are electromagnetic radiation with an
respiration a chemical reaction which converts
energy level above a specified amount / wavelength
glucose and oxygen into carbon dioxide and water as
shorter than a specified amount
well as energy
ion a charged version of an atom that has either
salt a product formed when an acid reacts with a
gained or lost electrons
metal, base or carbonate and comprises of a metal
isotope form of the same element with the same and a non-metal
number of protons but different number of neutrons
spontaneous reaction reaction that does not require any
mass number also known as relative atomic mass; it energy input to get started
gives the mass of the atom (usually thought of as the
number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus) Chapter 7
molecule a group of two or more atoms constructive (divergent) a type of plate boundary that
neutron a subatomic particle with a neutral charge in occurs when plates move away from one another
the nucleus of an atom continental drift the theory of how the continents on
nucleus the central part of the atom containing its Earth have moved over millions of years
protons and neutrons (nuclei is the plural) convection currents a form of heat transfer which
proton a subatomic particle with a positive charge in works due to different densities of materials
the nucleus of an atom core the inner part of Earth’s structure
radioactive decay when an unstable nucleus emits crust the top layer of the Earth which supports all
radiation (alpha and beta particles or gamma waves) of life on Earth and is split into giant slabs called
and breaks down to form another element tectonic plates
subatomic particles the particles that make up an atom destructive (convergent) a type of plate boundary that
occurs when plates move towards one another

epicentre the part of Earth’s surface directly above the Chapter 8

focus of an earthquake alternating current a form of electricity where the
focus the exact point under Earth where the current reverses direction in regular cycles
earthquake occurs ammeter a device for measuring the strength of an
geoid a model of the Earth surface which defines zero electric current
elevation ampere one coulomb per second
GPS a radio navigation system that allows land, sea, battery a portable source of power
and airborne users to determine their exact location,
circuit structure through which charges can move
velocity, and time
circuit breaker carries out the same function as a fuse
hotspot a pocket of magma that sits just underneath
by breaking the circuit when the current through it
the crust
exceeds a certain threshold
lag time the time between the arrival of the P and S
component part of a circuit
waves
conductor a material that allows electric current to
lava molten rock that has reached the surface
flow easily
lithosphere the solid outer layer of Earth consisting of
coulomb the amount of charge transferred in one
the crust and upper mantle
second with a current of one amp
magma molten rock below the surface of Earth
current the flow of electric charge which may continue
mantle the layer of the Earth underneath the in a steady manner for a period of time
crust which is made up of solid rock and is where
direct current a form of electricity when the current
convection currents take place
flows in one direction
Pangaea the supercontinent which has since broken
double-insulated appliances that have two levels of
into pieces and drifted apart
insulating materials between the electrical parts of
plate boundaries three types: divergent, convergent, the appliance and any parts on the outside that you
and transform. touch
plate tectonics the theory that the Earth’s crust is broken dry cell a battery in which the electrolyte is absorbed
up into many pieces called tectonic plates and that they in a solid to form a paste
are moved by convection currents in the mantle
earthed a pin in a plug through which the electric
pyroclastic consisting of or relating to small pieces of current will flow via the earth pin to the ground in the
rock from a volcano case of a fault
Richter scale a system used to measure the strength of electricity a form of energy that results from either the
an earthquake accumulation of charge or the flow of charge
seafloor spreading a process by which new oceanic crust electrocution electric current passing through the body
is produced as sea floor moves away from ocean ridges
electrostatic charge that stays on an object
seismic wave wave that moves through Earth during an
fuse a short length of conducting wire or strip of metal
earthquake
that melts when the current through it reaches a
seismogram the pattern produced when seismic certain value, breaking the circuit
activity is recorded by a seismometer
insulator a material through which current cannot
seismometer an instrument that measures the intensity flow easily
and duration of seismic waves during an earthquake
load something that uses energy in a circuit
subduction when the denser oceanic crust sinks
mains electricity the electricity that is supplied to homes
underneath less dense continental crust
ohm the unit of resistance
tectonic plates Earth’s crust is split into gigantic slabs
of rigid rock which float on top of Earth’s mantle Ohm’s law the law that states: There is a direct
proportionality between the voltage applied across
transform a type of plate boundary that occurs when
some conductors and the resultant electric current
plates move parallel to one another
parallel circuit a circuit in which each component is
tsunami a great wave produced by earthquakes in
connected in a separate conducting path
the ocean

resistance the degree to which a substance resists the generator a device that converts mechanical
flow of an electric current through it (movement) energy into electricity
series circuit a circuit in which the batteries and other kinetic energy the energy of an object in motion
components are all connected one after the other magnet a material that attracts other iron-containing
short circuit when the current is allowed to flow from materials or aligns with an external magnetic field
one conductor to another with little or no resistance magnetic field the region in which a magnet or
static electricity an imbalance of charge on objects electromagnet can exert a force on other magnets
voltage a measurement of how much energy each magnetic field line a visual tool to represent the
charge is given direction of magnetic fields
voltage drop the difference in energy the charges carry magnetic induction the process by which an object is
before and after the load magnetised by an external magnetic field
voltmeter a device for measuring voltage between two magnetism the ability to attract or repel objects that
points on an electric circuit are magnetic
nuclear fission reaction the process by which an atom
Chapter 9
splits into two parts
armature the rotating coil which is part of an electric
permanent magnet a magnet that retains its magnetic
motor
properties outside of a magnetic field
brush the part of a motor that conducts current
pole the end point of a magnet; also the points near the
between stationary and moving parts
ends of Earth’s axis of rotation.
commutator a split ring that reverses current at a point
right-hand grip rule shows the direction of the
in a motor
magnetic field of a current-carrying wire
conductor a material that allows electric current to
right-hand slap rule shows the direction of the force
flow easily
when a conductor moves in a magnetic field
current the flow of electric charge
solenoid a wire wrapped in the shape of a cylinder
electric motor a device that converts electrical energy
temporary magnet magnet that does not retain its
to mechanical (movement) energy
magnetism outside of an external magnetic field
electricity a form of energy that results from either the
torque a force that causes something to rotate
accumulation of charge or the flow of charge
transformer a device that changes the AC voltage as it
electromagnet a magnet consisting of a current-
moves from one circuit to another
carrying coil surrounding a piece of iron
turbine a type of machine that turns wheel with blades
electromagnetism the interaction between magnetic
to produce power
fields and electric currents

Index
abiotic factors 128, 130, 141, 145, 153 amyloid plaques 115 axons 89–90
interdependence with biotic 129 anaerobic respiration 228 unmyelinated 91
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander analysis of data see data analysis
peoples 141 Andes 286 B cells 68–9
acceleration 39 animals 128, 166 bacillus 59
accuracy 9 navigation by Earth’s magnetic field bacteria 58–63, 128, 153, 207
acid rain 231 332 diseases caused by 58
acid reactions 230–8 respiration 227 types of 59
acid–base reactions 233–5 smaller body size 160–1 balance 91, 118
word equations for 234 Antarctica 127 bar charts 17
acid–carbonate reactions 236–8 antibiotic resistance 70 bar magnets 332
acidic conditions 130, 242 antibiotics 70–2 base isolation 281
see also basic conditions versus antiseptics 70–1 bases 222, 233–5
acid–metal reactions 231–3 unnecessary 70 basic conditions 130, 207
word equations for 231 antibodies 33, 68–9 see also acidic conditions
acids 222, 233–5 binding sites 68 batteries 294, 297, 300, 354, 359
defined 230 antidiuretic hormone (ADH) 50 used 295
explosive? 230 antigens 68–9 beats per minute (bpm) 53
action potential 91–3 antimicrobial resistance (AMR) 70 behaviour 84, 92
activation energy 218–19 antiseptics 70–2 risk-taking 117
active sockets 316, 319 anxiety 92 beliefs 9
addiction, adolescent brain and 117–18 apex predators 132 bell-shaped curves 21
adenosine triphosphate (ATP) 138 Aristotle 185 best fit, line of 17
adolescent brain addiction and 117–18 armatures 344 beta decay 195
adolescents arrow convention 336 beta radiation 196–8
addiction and the brain 117–18 arrows in chemical reactions–‘yields’ bias 9–10
sleep patterns 86 205 unbiased data 8
adrenal gland 84–5 assumptions 115 bile 65
aerobic respiration 227–8 Athel pine 159 binary fission 58, 153
agar plates 60, 70–2 atomic mass units (amu) 179 biodegradation 200, 207
age 37 atomic models biodiversity 148
air 31–2, 127, 185 comparison between 187 bioluminescence 252
air chamber levitating houses 281 development 184–91 biomes 127
see also oxygen modern 176–7, 191 bioplastics 200–1
air pollution 296 atomic number 180–2, 192 bioprinting (3D) 56
airborne 64 atomic theory, modern 185 biotic factors 128–9, 141, 153
alcohol 62–3, 117 atoms 173–98, 200 interdependence with abiotic 129
algae 147 balanced equations 214–15 birth rates 152
overgrowth 138–9 defined 171–2 ‘black lights’ 196
alkali metals 182 mostly empty space? 187–8 Black Plague 64
alkaline conditions see basic conditions rearrangement 205 ‘Black Saturday’ 141–2
alkaline earth metals 182 structure of 175–9 bladder 49
‘all or none’ principle 91 attitudes 9 blood 52–3, 64–5
alpha decay 194–5 attraction 178, 330–2, 340, 342, 344, flow of 52
alpha radiation 196–8 346 blood glucose levels
alternating current (AC) 296, 354 Aurora Australis/Borealis 332 insulin and glucagon release 48
alternating current (AC) generators Australasia ‘ecozone’ 286–7 regulating 47–8
348 Australian plate 277 blood pressure 39, 84
aluminium 172 automatic involuntary action 97 maintaining 53
alveoli 51–2 autotrophs (self-feeding) 132 blood sugar 47
Alzheimer’s disease 114–15 average(s) 16 blood vessels 53
ambient temperature 33, 205 ‘finding the average’ 20 bloodletting 64
amino acids 34, 43 significance of difference between bloodstream 49, 52, 68
ammeters 304 two average scores see bodily functions, self-regulating 83
amperes 303 statistical significance body cells 47
amygdala 109, 117 axon terminals 89–91, 93 body parts

brain, communication with 83–7 cause-and-effect relationships 5, 19 chlorides 230

sensitivity of 112–13 spinal cord damage, causes and chlorophyll 136, 225
see also human body, the effects 101–5 chloroplasts 135–6, 225
body systems 43–56 cell body (neuron) 89–90 circuit breakers 319–20
body temperature 52, 67 cells 31, 138 circuit diagrams 299–303
Bohr, Niels 189 body 47 drawing 302–3
Bohr atomic model 291 chemical instructions to 68–9 circuits 294–6, 324–5, 345
Bohr diagrams 177 diffusion across membranes 45 applications 313–20
bonds/bonding 205, 219 specialised 45, 83, 88 circuit symbols 295–6
bone marrow 68 cellular pathogens 58 closed 354
bones 116 cellular respiration 31–2, 43, 45, 51–2, components 294
brain, the 50, 88, 106–18, 122 138 simple 299–311
of the adolescent 117–18 process 138 symbols 300–1
communication with and control of central nervous system (CNS) 50, 83, circulatory system 43
body 83–7 88, 91–2 climate change 351
cross-sectional view 84 integration 99 climatic features 127
functioning 93 central tendency, measures of 20 closed circuits 354
plasticity of 115–16 cerebellum 109, 118 closed systems 213
structures within 109–11 cerebral cortex 106–8 clownfish 147
‘brain freeze’ 110 cerebrum 106 coagulation 242
brain imaging 95 cervical cancer 69 coal-fired power stations 350–1
brain shrinkage 114–15 cervical spine 102 cobalt 330
brain stem 109, 118 Chadwick, James 189–90, 192 Cobalt-60 (Co-60) 197
branchings (circuit) 314 chance 19–20 coccus 59
breathing 31–2, 38–9, 51 charge 177–8 coccyx 102
breathing rate 54–5, 227 accumulation or flow 291, 296 coffee 242–3
Broca’s area 108 build-up 291 coils 348, 350, 354
brushes 344 static electricity and 291–3 colour 207
budding 62–3 see also negative charge; positive columns 14–15
Bunsen burners 219 charge combustion reactions 223–4
burns 237 charged particles 182 commensalism 145, 147
bushfires 141 charts/charting 17 communication 118
see also fire also under specific charts wireless 196
see also graphs/graphing within and between neurons 91–7
calories (Cal) 37 chemical change community 127
camels 159–60 indicators 207–9 inter-organism relationships
capillaries 52 irreversible 209 benefiting 129
capture–mark–recapture method 157 chemical energy 225, 350 plus habitat see ecosystems
carbohydrates 32–4, 37, 43, 47 chemical equations 209–11 commutators 344–5
break-down of 34, 45 law of conservation of mass relation comparison 10
types of 33 to 214–15 between atomic models 187
carbon 32, 181–2, 200, 205, 223–4 types of 211 of experimental and control groups
isotopes of 192 chemical messengers 86–7, 91 19
carbon dioxide 32, 43, 49, 51–2, 62–3, see also hormones of liquid’s viscosity 272–3
135–6, 138, 205, 225, 227–8 chemical properties 33 of photosynthesis and respiration
conversion from fat 38 chemical reactions 33, 135, 138, 229
emissions 201 205–38 of rock density 265–6
carbon emissions 324–5 in the body 31, 34–5 of values across series/parallel
carbon monoxide 223–4, 259 defined 205 circuits 315–16
carbon-14 (C-14) 197 energy and 218–24 compasses 254–5, 329–30
carbonates 236–8 exothermic and endothermic competition 145–6, 150, 153
explosive? 230 reactions 219–23 complex carbohydrates 33
cardiovascular system 52–3 spontaneous versus non- components (circuits) 293–4
carelessness 319 spontaneous reactions 218–19 symbols of 300–1
carotid artery 53 chemical secretions 67 troubleshooting 313
carrying capacity 153 chemicals compounds 173, 205–6
versus limiting factors 154 endocrine disrupting 85 defined 172–3
categories 10 see also hormones forming from elements 174–5, 206
cathode ray tubes 185–6 Chile Triple Junction 263 computer modelling 279–80
causal relationships 8, 19 chitin 62 concentration 39, 92

conclusions 10 current 303–5, 320, 338, 342, 354 digestion 31, 34, 84
drawing 4, 19–20 current–resistance relationship 310 digestive system 32–4, 43, 45–8
drawing from 22 direction–from positive to negative digital multimeters 306
observations to 12–22 terminals 334–5 direct contact 64
valid 4, 19, 22 effect on body 319 direct current (DC) 296, 339, 354
concrete 207 generation 349 direct current (DC) motors 344–5
conductors 305–6, 342 proportionality with applied voltage disasters, natural 141–2, 279–82
connecting wires 294, 296 307–8 discrete data 9–10
conscious responses 101 split current at branchings 314 disease
consciousness, loss of 53 current carrying wires 342 disease-causing bacteria 59
conservation of mass 212–17 current electricity 293–7 infectious 78–9
conservation of matter law 38 vectors 148–9
conservative plate boundaries 267 dairy legumes 34 from vitamin deficiency 34
constancy 6 Dalton, John 185 disease transmission 64–6
body’s constant internal data 17 simulating 78–9
environment maintenance see central points 20 dissection 104–5, 109–10
homeostasis describing 19 diuretics 50–1
variables, keeping constant 8 gathering see data collection divergent plate boundaries 266
constructive (divergent) boundary organising/summarising 4, 19, 78 DIY (Do It Yourself ) electrical work
262–3, 266–8 primary–secondary comparison 9 319
on land 267 raw 19 documentation
in the ocean 267 recording 243 reporting results see scientific
consumers 132, 135, 138 representing on graphs 4, 17–18, reporting
continent movement theories 247–55 123 dopamine 92, 95, 117
continental crust 264 tabulated 4, 14–16 double insulation 316–18
two continental plates meeting 265 types of 8–10, 17 double-insulated plugs 316–17
continental drift 247–50 used for experiments see drones 158–9, 280
evidentiary support 248–50 experimental data droughts 141, 143–4
continental outlines (match) 248 data analysis 4, 19–22 drug-resistant bacteria 70
continuous data 9–10, 17 outlier exclusion from 21 drugs 50, 94, 117
contralateral organisation 107 data collection 4, 158–9 dry cells 295
control centre 44 during experiments 8–11
control condition 6, 22 data points 20–1 ear wax 67
control groups 19–20 extreme see outliers Earth 351
controlled variables 6–7 data sets 20 four elements 185
that haven’t been controlled for see DC electric motors 344–5 grounding to 292
extraneous variables death rates 141–2, 152 layers 257
convection currents 259–62, 267 defibrillators 306 magnetic field of 332
conventional current 342 deforestation 148 our changing Earth 247–82
conventions degradation (land) 143, 150 polarity 253
arrow convention 336 dehydration 39, 53 structure of 276
of current 296 Democritus 185 surface gravity 279
for current direction 334–6 demography 152 see also plate tectonics; tectonic plate
for writing mass number 193 dendrites 89–90, 93 movement
coordinates 17 dependent variables (DVs) 6–7, 17–19 earth sockets 316, 319
coordination 39, 83–118 depression 92 earthing 292, 316–18
of body systems 86–7 descriptive statistics 4 earthquake-proof buildings 281, 286–7
see also response and coordination versus inferential 19–20 designing 282
copper wire 339 destructive (convergent) boundary earthquakes 264, 268, 274–7
cores, outer and inner 257 262–6, 268 Australia at risk? 277
corpus callosum 106 detergents 139–40 detection means 274–5
correlation 19 diabetes 48 effects of 276–7
correspondence 18 diagrams 177, 220–1, 299–303, 331 occurence, sites of 274
coulombs 303 diaphragm 51 ecological niche 145
cows moo softly (Change, Measure, diet 31–2 ecosystems 127–61
keep the Same) 6 fad 38 clumped patterns in 128
crude oil 200 healthy and varied 35 components 128–30
crust 257 see also food defined 127–44
crystal circuits 300 diffusion 45–7, 52 energy flow within 13–40

environmental changes affecting ‘endothermic’ = internal heat 221 exercise 37–41, 54–5, 227
141–4 energy 10–11, 31–2, 54–5 hydration and 39
living and non-living components chemical reactions and 218–24 exhalation 38, 52
127–8 conservation of 83 exothermic reactions 219–23
population dynamics within 152–61 conversion/transfer 293–5 ‘exothermic’ = external heat 220
seasonal changes, effects on 141–4 cycling of 135 experimental data 4, 19–21
self-designed 134 expenditure–‘burning off ’ 37, 39 during experiments 8–11
size 127–8 flow through ecosystems 131–4 experimental groups 19–20
ectoparasites 148 food energy 36–7 experiments 4, 186, 219, 353–4
effectors 44, 94, 99 forms of 291–7, 316 defining experimental variables 5–6
Einstein, Albert 329 levels 177, 189 designing a sound experiment 5–8
electric cars 296–7 non-destruction 213 experimental errors 21
electric current see current production 51–2 replicating 5, 16
electric motors 342–3, 345 release in body 32 see also Practicals
electric shock 320 requirements and pathways 132 exploitation 166
electrical circuits 302 shared across load 313 exponential growth 153
electrical energy 350 useable 32 extinction 161, 166–7
transforming 316 wind energy 351–3 extraneous variables (EVs) 8
electrical engineering 307 within ecosystems 135–40 Eyjafjallajökull volcanic eruption 274
electrical hazards 319 see also kinetic energy
electrical impulses 91 energy level diagrams 220–1 faeces 128, 133
electrical shocks 339 energy pyramid 133 fairness 6
electrical signals 83 energy sources 32–4, 36–7, 352 Faraday, Michael 330, 342, 348, 353–4
electricity 293–320, 324–5, 329–40 renewable and sustainable 324–5 fats
defined 291–7 energy storage 33, 45 conversion to carbon dioxide and
generating 348–54 as fat 37 water 38
generating large amounts of 348–53 engineers 166–7 energy storage as 37
electrochemical messengers 87 environment fat (protective) layers and deposits
electrocution 319 effect on photosynthesis 136 33
electroencephalograms (EEG) 115 organisms, interactions with see also lipids
electromagnetic induction 348 145–51 feedback 167
electromagnetic radiation 195–6 problems 143 feral camels 159–60
electromagnetic spectrum 195 environmental change 43–4, 324 feral rabbits 150–1
electromagnetism 329–36, 353 affecting ecosystems 141–4 fermentation 62–3
electromagnets 337–40 environmental protection 158 fertilisers 139–40
versus permanent magnets 338 enzymes 33–4, 45 fever 67
electron cloud model 177, 189 digestive 46 fight–flight response 83–4
electrons 176, 178, 186, 291, 294 epicentre (of earthquake) 274 fire 141–3, 185, 206, 320
fast-moving 195 epidemics 64–5 fish/fishing 34, 160
flow (neg to pos) on imbalances 294 equations 225 flash floods 143
number of 181–2 balanced 214–15, 225 fleas 148
relative mass 179 word equations 231, 234 floods 141, 143–4, 159
in shells 189 worded equation for cellular fluorine 182, 200
electrostatic charge 291–2 respiration 32 focus (of earthquake) 274
elements 173, 180, 192, 197 see also chemical equations fontanelles 116
defined 172 equipment food 31, 37–41, 154, 227
formation of 194 failure 21 packaged food nutritional labels 37
forming compounds from 174–5, protective 206, 230 sources 142
206 Ernest Rutherford 186–7 for vitamins 35
on periodic table 171–2 erosion 159 food chains 131–2, 135
elimination (of waste) 45 error 21 land-based 132
emigration rates 152 estimation 5, 18, 157 food webs 132
emotions 84, 92, 117–18 formulas 155, 157 force 330–1, 344, 351
endangered species 166–7 see also prediction sideways or horizontal 281
endocrine glands 84–5 Eurasian plate 277 fossil fuels 353
endocrine system 43–4, 48, 83–5 European settlement 159 fossils 248–9
actions 86–7 eutrophication 138–9 fourth order consumers 132
see also homeostasis evaluation, of hypotheses 4 Fracastoro, Girolamo 65
endoparasites 148 excretion 49 frequency 21, 195
endothermic reactions 219–23 excretory system 43, 49–50 friction 267, 270

frontal lobe 107–8, 118 habitats 127, 142, 145 hydrochloric acid 230–1
fuels 223 destruction 166 hydroelectricity 349–50
functional proteins 34 plus community see ecosystems hydrogen 32, 171, 173, 176, 187–8,
fungi 62, 128 habits 117 200, 210, 223, 231
diseases caused by 58 halogens 182 isotopes of 193
fuses 319–20 handwashing 60 hypothalamus 50, 84–5, 109, 117
hazards 319 hypothermia 333
galvanometers 348 hearing 88 hypotheses 4, 71, 78, 112–13
gamma decay 195 heart 52 constructing 7
gamma radiation 196–8 heart rate 39, 53–5 supporting 20
gamma rays 195 heat 33, 133, 258, 270, 293 template 7
gaseous exchange 51–2 cautions 201–2, 206
gases 181–2, 205, 273, 296, 351 external 220 igneous rock 267
gender 37 heat loss 295 illness 37, 58
generalising 22 heavy metals 257 immigration rates 152
generators 348–51, 353 height 37 immune response 68–9
genes 33 helium 171, 194–5 faster, stronger second response 69
genetic material 63 helper T cells 68 immune system 43
geoids 279 hemispheres (brain) 106–7 lines of defence in 67–9
geological patterns 280 hemispheric specialisation 107 immunisation 69
germ theory 65–6 herbivores 132 immunity–specific and non-specific 67
germination (seeds) 142–3 Hess, Harry 250–1, 257 inaccuracy 9
glaciers 249 heterotrophs (varied feeding) 132 independent variables (IVs) 6–7, 17–19
glands 84 Higgs boson 190 Industrial Revolution 353
global positioning satellites/system high-energy waves 195 infection 69, 78–9
(GPS) 262, 279 Himalayas 265 infectious disease transmission 64
global warming 160, 166 hippocampus 109, 117–18 inference 19
glucagon 47–8 Hippocrates 65 inferential statistics 4
glucose 31–2, 43, 45, 132, 135–7, 225, homeostasis 31–72, 78–9, 83, 86–7 versus descriptive 19–20
227–8 homunculus 112 inflammatory response 67
blood concentration see blood hormones 43, 51–2, 83–5, 92 infographics 243
glucose levels release in body 84 infomercial 325
glutamate 92 host cells 64 information
gold foil experiment 186–7 hotspots 271 interpretation of 9
government household electricity 316–17 processing 320
natural disaster response 279 devices and appliances 318 infrared (IR) radiation 195
renewable and sustainable energy human body, the 31 inhalation 52
sources 324–5 biological clock 86 injury 319
graphs/graphing 78, 123 bodily functions 83 see also spinal cord injury
reading values from 18 body systems 43–56 inquiry
representing data on 4, 17–18 brain, role of controlling 83–7 see also scientific method
also under specific graph chemical reactions in 31, 33 insulation 316–18
see also charts/charting current sensitivity 319 insulators 306–7
gravitational forces 351 energy source see food insulin 47–8
gravity 279 first line of defence 67 integumentary system 43
gravity mapping 279 the fuel source for organs 32–3 interactions
Great Barrier Reef 147 hormone-production sites 85 among organisms 145
greenhouse gases 166, 351 interactions 31–44, 78–9, 86–7 biotic–abiotic surroundings 128
grey matter 101 longest neuron 93 body systems interactions 31–44,
grounding (to Earth) 292 neurotransmitter production 93 78–9, 86–7
groups receptor site responses to change 44 community–surroundings 127, 129
experimental/control groups reflex action protection 97 interdependence 129
comparisons 19–20 systems interaction see homeostasis internal combustion engines 224
of nutrients 32–6 see also body parts internet 196
of organism populations see human error 21 interneurons 88–9, 96, 99
community human impact 159–61, 166–7 intraspecific/interspecific competition
growth 31, 84, 118 human papillomavirus (HPV) 69 146
exponential 153 humidity 127–8 invasive organisms 159
logistic 153–4 hunting 160 investigations 40–1
population’s growth rate 153 hydration 39 planning and conducting 4–12
growth models, for population 153–4 see also dehydration; water see also Practicals

ionisation 196 lipids 33–4, 37, 43 Matthews, Drummond 253–5, 257

ions 49, 181–2 liquids 33 mean 20
formation 181–2 viscosity of 272–3 measures/measurements 219
iron 330, 332, 338 literature (scientific) 4 of central tendency 20
filings 331 lithosphere 257 equipment/tool failure leading to
oxides of 329 liver 47, 49 error 21
island arcs 270 load 294–5, 313–14 gravitational measurements–geoids
isotopes 182, 192–4 lobes 107–8 279
discovery and definition 192 lodestone 329–30 measurement of food energy
naming 192–3 logistic growth 153–4 content 36
stable and unstable 194 loudspeakers 346–7 plate movement measuring and
uses for 197–8 lumbar spine 102 mapping 279–80
lymphocytes 68–9 unit symbols 15
Juan de Fuca plate 258 of variability 20–1
macrophages 67–8 meat 34
kidneys 49, 53, 85 maglev system, simplest 358–9 median 20
killer T cells 68 maglev trains 340 medulla 109
kilojoules (kJ) 37 magma 258, 264, 267, 270–1 melatonin 86
kinetic energy 10–11, 219, 342 magnesium 174–5, 210, 231 melting points 33
knee jerk reflex 99 magnetic field lines 330–1, 334, 337 memory 92, 107, 118, 122
Koch, Robert 66 Faraday’s rules for 331 memory cells 69
‘Koch’s postulates’ 66 see also current memory loss 91
magnetic fields 329, 342, 346 Mendeleev, Dmitri 175
labelling (food) 37 attraction and repulsion forces in messages 97
land bridges 249 330–2 metabolic rate 38
landfill 22, 295 concentrated 338 metabolism 38, 84
landmass 247–50 diagrams 331 metals 231–3
language 107, 116, 118 direction of see magnetic field lines Metchnikoff, Elie 66
formal language for reporting 7 of Earth 253–4, 332 method/methodology 5–8
Large Hadron Collider (CERN) 176 going into/coming out of page 336 missing steps leading to error 21
large intestine 49 three-dimensional nature of 331 see also scientific method
lava 272 magnetic forces 330–1, 344 microbiology 66
Lavoisier’s law see law of conservation magnetic induction 330 microgeneration technologies 353
of mass magnetic properties 338 microorganisms 65
law of conservation of mass 212–17 magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) response to 58–72
observing 214–17 117 microscopes 58, 60, 63–4, 171–2, 225
in practice 213–14 erasable 335–6 microwaves 195–6
relation to chemical equations magnetic striping 253–5 Mid-Atlantic Ridge 267
214–15 magnetism 253, 329, 334 milk curdling 242–3
law of conservation of matter 38 magnetite 253, 329 minerals 31, 34–5, 43
learning 92, 107, 115 magnets 329–34, 348, 359 absorption 45
left-hand side (LHS) coil 354 current generation 349 mitochondria 31, 62, 138, 227
lemon batteries 297 Maillard reaction 210 mode 20
letters 10 malaria 148 models/modelling 46–7, 90, 153–4
life mantle 257 atomic models 176–7, 184–91, 291
building blocks of see cells mapping 112, 262, 279–80 computer modelling 279–80
reactions of 225–9 ocean floor 251 predator–prey cycle 150–1
requirements 31–2 using gravitational measurements stimulus–response model 44
light 189, 196, 208, 293, 295 279 see also simulation
forms of 195 Marina Trench 252 molecules 171, 173, 200
speed of 176 mass 179 splitting into atoms 173–4
light emitting diodes (LEDs) 295–6 conservation of 212–17 Moon 351
light energy 225 history 212–13 Morley, Lawrence 253–5
light intensity 128 non-destruction 213 mosquitoes 148–9
lightning 141, 291 the universe and 212–13 factories 149
limiting factors 154 mass number 182–3, 192 motor function 102
line graphs 17 in brackets 194 motor neurons 83, 88–9
features 18 unusual 193 motors
lines of defence – first, second, third materials 4 DC electric 344–5
67–9 matter 38, 185 ‘dead spots’ 345

electric 342–3 types of 93 of data 4, 19

moulds 62, 70 neutral sockets 316, 319 ecosystem levels 127
Mount Everest 266 neutralisation reactions 234 organisms 70, 159
mountain ranges 251 neutrons 176, 178–9, 190, 192 abundance of 145
mountains 264 calculating number of 182 in a community see ecosystems
movement 31, 92, 118, 219, 293, 342 relative mass 179 complex 31
of Earth 286–7 neutrons, number of 182–3 energy flow of see food chains
generating 342–7 neutrophils 67 hormone coordination of 85
of negatively charged electrons 291 nickel 330, 332 individual 129
tectonic plate movement 257–68 nitrates 230 interactions with environment 129,
voluntary muscle movements 83 nitric acid 230 145–51
mucous membranes 67 nitrogen 181, 200 multicellular versus unicellular 31
mucus 67 nitrogen-14 (N-14) 197 see also microorganisms
multicellular organisms 31, 43 noble gases 182 organs 56
multimeters 306 nomenclature 192–3, 231, 234 fuel source for 32–3, 37
multiple sclerosis 91 non-cellular pathogens 58 protection by fat layers 33
muscle system 43 non-spontaneous reactions 218–19 osmoregulation 50
muscles 38, 47 north pole 253, 330–2, 338 outliers 21
contractions 319 northern hairy-nosed wombat 158 ovaries 84–5
voluntary muscle movements 83 nuclear energy 350 overhunting/overfishing 160
mushrooms 62 nuclear fission reactions 350 oxygen 31–3, 43, 51–2, 135, 172,
music 346, 348 nucleus 177, 182 174–5, 200, 205, 225, 227
mutualism 145–7 splitting of see radioactive decay oxygen demand 54–5
myelin sheaths 89–91 numbers 10, 16
myelinated nerve fibre bundles/ nutrient agar plates 60, 70–2 Pacific ring of fire 286
tracts 101 nutrients 32–6, 51–2, 130–1 pain 118
myrtle rust 159 absorption 45 pancreas 84–5
essential micronutrients 34–5 Pangaea 247–50
NASA Volcanobots 280 groups 32–6 parallax error 21
natural disasters 279–82 overabundance of 138 parallel circuits 314–16
predicting and responding to in soil 166 split current at branchings 314
279–81 nutrition 145 paraplegia 102
natural pest control 159 nutritional labels 37 parasites 58
negative charge 178, 181, 186–7, nuts 34 parasitism 145, 148
291–2, 296 parathyroid gland 85
negative terminals 294 obesity 39 parentheses 194
negligence 319 objective data 8 parietal lobe 107–8, 118
nephrons 49 observation 4, 12–18, 109–10 Parkinson’s disease 92, 94
nerves 89, 101–2, 106 to conclusions 12–22 participants 4
nervous system 43–4, 83, 88–97, 122 of convection currents 260–1 particles 182
actions 86–7 recording rules 13 Pasteur, Louis 65
see also homeostasis of tectonic plate boundary 279 pathogens 58–64, 67
neural impulses 91 see also recording clumping 69
neurodegenerative disease 114–15 occipital lobe 107–8, 118 patterns 4
neurofibrillary tangles 115 oceanic crust 264, 267 of data movement see trends
neurons 88–97, 106, 115–16 oceanic meets continental plate 264 geological patterns 280
brain shrinkage and 114–15 two oceanic plates meeting 265 ‘pyramid of energy’ pattern 133
communication within and between oceanography 252 sleep patterns 86
91–7 Øersted, Hans Christian 334 spaced, clumped or random
networks of see nervous system ohms 305 (population) 128
pre- and post-synaptic 92 Ohm’s law 307–11 see also relationships; trends
reflex action involvement 97 oil spills 333 penetration (of radiation) 196
‘at rest’ 91 oils see lipids people 128
structures of 89–90 open systems 213 energy requirement differences 37
threshold 91 opinion 9–10 human impact on population
types of 86–9 orbits 177 dynamics 159–61
neurotransmitters 83, 89, 92–4 organ transplant 56 right-handedness 111
excitatory or inhibitory 94 organelles 62 periodic table 171–2, 180, 192–3
naturally occurring 94 organic matter 128 peripheral nervous system (PNS) 83,
roles of 92–3 organisation 88

permanent magnets 330–1, 346 power sources 294, 302, 313 pyramid of energy pattern 133
versus electromagnets 338 Practicals pyroclastic flows 273
personality 118 comparison 265–6, 272–3, 315–16
personality traits 107 demonstrations 60, 174–5, 183, quadrats 154–5
pH 128, 130, 233, 242–3 197–8, 206, 221–2, 259–60 quadriplegia 102
phagocytosis 67, 69 design/self-design 134, 197–8, qualitative data 9–10
phlegm 65 216–17, 254–5, 275, 282, quantitative data 9–10
phlogiston 213 343, 349 quaternary ammonium compounds
phosphorus 200 experiments 10–11, 142–3, 187–8 (QACs) 71
photosynthesis 132, 135–7, 220, 225–7 investigations 40–1, 54–5, 104–5, questioning 4
chemical and word equations for 111, 136–7, 139–40, 156–7,
135 178, 183, 193–4, 197–8, rabbit control 150
comparison with respiration 229 226–7, 297, 308–10, 334, rabbits 150–1
relationship with respiration 138 339–40 radial artery 53
word and formula equations for 225 measuring 36, 304–5 radiant energy 132, 135
physical activity 37 modelling 46–7 radiation 196
physical properties 208, 280 observation 13–14, 109–10, 173–4, dangerous space radiation 332
pictures 10 215–17, 232–3, 235, 237–8, ionising versus penetrating 196
pie charts 17 315–16 radio signals 279
pineal gland 84–5 testing 60–3, 71–2, 100–1, 112–13, radio waves 195
pituitary gland 50, 84–5 130, 222–3 radioactive decay 194–6
planetary model 189 predator–prey cycle 150–1 radioisotopes 194, 197
plants 128, 132, 166 modelling cycle using feral rabbit radiotherapy 197
effect of light on 136–7 150–1 rainfall 128
effects of detergent on 139–40 predators 132, 159–60 random sampling 155
respiration 227 prediction 4–5 range 20
plasticity 115–16 of electron location 189 rational thought process 118
plastics 22, 85, 200–1 of natural disasters 280–1 ‘rays’ 185–6
plate tectonics 257–68 see also estimation reactants 209–10, 214
plotting 17 pre-frontal cortex 118 reaction conditions 210
plum pudding model 186 pressure 267, 272 receptor sites 44
poles/polarity 253, 330–2, 338, 340 pre-synaptic neurons 92 receptors 44, 92–3, 99
pollinators 146–7 prey 150–1 neurotransmitter ‘key–lock’ binding
pollution 296 primary (P) waves 275–6 93
polyethylene 200 primary consumers 132 recording 12–18
polymers 200 primary versus secondary data 9 of data 14–16, 243
pons 109 prions 58 in tables 14–16
population 128, 141–2, 152 probability 19–20 see also observation
generalised conclusions application problem solving 107 recycling 22
22 procedural error 21 reflex actions 97–101, 122–3
as group of individuals 129 procedure 4 reflex arcs 97–8
growth models 153–4 appropriateness of 22 regeneration (land) 150
growth rate 153 producers 132, 138 ‘regenerative’ braking system 296–7
size changes 152–3 products 209–10, 214 regulatory proteins 33
size determination methods 154–9 prokaryotes 58 rehabilitation 103–4
S-shaped curve (growth versus time) properties 33, 78–9, 177–9, 181, 205, relationships
153 207, 338 among organisms 129, 145
population dynamics protective equipment 206 current–resistance relationship 310
human impact on 159–61 proteins 33–4, 37, 49 between photosynthesis and
within ecosystems 152–61 to amino acids 34 respiration 138
positive charge 177–8, 181, 186–7, break-down of 34 types of 5, 8, 101–5, 146–8
291–2, 296 building 43 between variables 4
positive terminals 294 coagulation 242 see also Ohm’s law; patterns; trends
positron emission tomography (PET) protons 176, 178–9, 187, 192, 291 release energy 219
scans 114–15 number of 180–1 reliability (of data) 5, 16
post-synaptic neurons 92 relative mass 179 renewable resources 296–7, 324–5, 353
potential energy 10–11, 219 puberty 87 replication 2, 5, 16
power points 316 pulse 53 of bacterium 58
power poles 354 p-value 19–20 of T and B cells 69

of viruses 64 salamanders 147 simple circuits 299–311

reporting (scientifically) see scientific salinity 127–8 simulation 78–9, 280
reporting salts 49, 230–1 single-organisms 31
reproductive processes 84, 151, 154 excess salts in soil 144 skeletal system 43
reproductive system 43 sampling 154–9 skin 49, 67
repulsion 178, 292, 330–1, 340, 342, San Andreas Fault 267–8 fat deposits under 33
344, 346 sand 128 skull 116
research, reliability of 5 satellites 279 sleep 47, 84, 86
research hypotheses see hypotheses scanning electron microscopes 225 smartphones 347, 354
research questions 4–8 scanning tunnelling microscopes 171–2 smell 12, 88
research statistics 4, 22 scatterplots 17 Snowy Mountains hydroelectric
drawing valid conclusions from 22 Schrödinger, Erwin 189 scheme 350
resistance 305–9 sciatic nerve 93 social media 122–3
current–resistance relationship 310 science (as human endeavour) 56, sockets 316
resources 94–5, 114–15, 147, 158–61, 172, Soddy, Fredrick 192
infinite 153 190, 207, 252, 281, 296–7, 300, sodium-24 (Na-24) 197
limited/finite 146, 200, 324 320, 333, 335–6, 346–7, 353 soil 166
renewable 296–7 science applications 242 bacteria in 71–2
respiration 138, 225, 227–8 scientific method soil pH 130
comparison with photosynthesis rigorous 22 solar energy 296–7, 325
229 steps 4–5 solar system 176–7
respiratory system 43, 51–2 scientific reporting 4 solenoids 338
response 99 formal write-up 7 solids 33, 172, 181, 205
conscious and unconscious 101 scientific thinking 4–22 somatosensory cortex 112
immune response 68–9 scores 20–1 sonar 250
of neurotransmitters at effector average scores 19 sound 12, 118, 208, 250, 346, 348
sites 94 scurvy 35 south pole 330–2, 338
predicting/responding to natural seafloor spreading 250–1, 254 speakers 346–7
disasters 279–81 seasonal change 65, 141–4 species 128, 145, 166
response times 100–1 secondary (S) waves 275–6 dominant 146
response and coordination 44, 83–118 secondary consumers 132 sampling 154–5
results secondary data versus primary 9 speech 118
raw 16 seeds 34, 150 speed 345
reliability of 5, 16 post-fire germination 142–3 of action potential 91
replicable 22 seismic resistance 281 of light 176
reporting see scientific reporting seismic waves 274 spheres 59
valid and consistent 5 types of 275–6 spinal cord 83, 88, 97–105
see also scores seismograms 275 CNS integration 99
Richter scale 276–7 seismometers 274–5 spinal cord damage 101–5
rift zone 267 seizure 116 spinal cord injury
right-hand grip rule 335–6 sensations 118 prognosis 103–4
right-hand side (RHS) coil 354 senses 12, 88 rehabilitation potential 103–4
right-hand slap rule 342 also under specific sense symptoms 103
right-handedness 111 sensitivity of body parts 112–13 spinal reflex 97
robotic sensors 311 sensors 95, 122, 311 spirals 59
robots 280 sensory function 102 spirillum 59
rocks 127–8 sensory neurons 83, 87–9 ‘spontaneous generation’ 65
density comparison 265–6 sensory receptors 87–8 spontaneous reactions 218–19
matching types across continents septic (tissue) 71 standard deviation 20–1
248 series circuits 313, 315–16 starch 135
molten 251, 253 shock 320 ‘starstuff ’ 212–13
rods 59 see also electric shock starvation 154
rotation 344, 350 short circuit condition 320 static electricity
rotational kinetic energy see movement sight 12 charge and 291–3
signals 122, 279 history 292
sacrum 102 significance see statistical significance statistical significance 19–20, 22
safety precautions 60, 71, 105, 142, silica 272 steam 213, 350
157, 173–4, 197, 201–2, 206, silicon 200 steam-driven turbines 349–50, 352
221–2, 235, 237, 259, 304, 310, SIM (Sensory, Inter, Motor) [neuron STEM 78–9, 122–3, 166–7, 200–1,
315, 317–20, 339, 343, 345 mnemonic] 89 242–3, 286–7, 324–5, 358–9
Sagan, Carl 212–13 simple carbohydrates 33 stem cells 104

stimuli/stimulus 44, 87, 89, 97, 99 temporary magnets 330 variability, measures of 20–1
reaction times 122–3 tendency see trends variable resistors 309–10
stimulus–response model 44, 48, 50, tertiary consumers 132 variables 9–10
53, 96, 98 testes 84–5 changes to 5–6
stomach acid 67 testing correlation between 19
storytelling 324 fair 6 defining experimental variables 5–6
stress 84 soil pH 130 relationships between 4
structural proteins 33–4 testable hypotheses 7, 78 types of 6–8
subatomic particles 175–6, 193–4 trials 243 see also hypotheses
properties of 177–9 testosterone 87 vectors 64, 148–9
subduction 251, 264–5 thalamus 117 vegetation 127, 141, 150
subduction zones 270 thermal insulation 33 vertebrae 102
subjective data 8–9 thinking 107, 118 vesicles 92–3
sugar(s) 39–41, 45, 132 Thomson, Joseph John 185–6 vibration control 281
blood sugar 47 thoracic spine 102 Vine, Frederick 257
break-down of 62–3 thymus 68, 84–5 Vine, Fredrick 253–5
sulfates 231 thyroid 84–5 viroids 58
sulfur 200 ticks 148 viruses 63–4
sulfuric acid 230 tidal energy 351 diseases caused by 58
summary/summarising 4, 19 tide pools 127–8 viscosity 272–3
Sun 131–2, 135, 176–7, 351 toadstools 62 visible light 195–6
sunlight 135–6, 225 torch circuits 313 vision 88, 118
‘superbugs’ 70 torque 342, 344 vitamins 31, 34–5, 43
supernova 171 touch 12, 88, 112, 118 absorption 45
superplume 267 toxic substances 35, 58, 92, 200, 232, wheel 35
sustainability, sustainable practices 324 295 volcanoes 251, 264, 267, 280
sutures 116 transform boundary 262–3, 267–8 eruption events 272–4
sweat 38–9, 49, 67 transformers 353–4 formation sites 270–1
symbiotic relationships 145–8 trenches 264 voltage 291–2, 303, 350
symbols 180, 214, 295–6, 300–2 trenches (ocean) 251–2 AC 354
Latin names for 172 trends 4, 14–15, 17, 19 output not exceeded 339, 345
synapses 89–90, 92–4, 116 see also patterns; relationships proportionality with current 307–8
synaptic gap 92 trepanning 64 shared across load 313
‘synaptic pruning’ 117 triplegia 102 transforming 354
trophic levels 132–3 voltage drop 303, 314
T cells 68–9 tropics 249
tables tsunamis 264, 274–7 waste products 32, 38, 43, 45, 49, 51,
recording data in 4, 14–16 turbines 349–52 133, 135, 138
set-up rules 14–16 waste systems 148
Taipei World Financial Centre 281 ultraviolet (UV) radiation 195–6 water 31–2, 39, 43, 49, 51–2, 135–6,
target cells 84, 87 unconscious responses 101 173, 185, 227–8, 233
tasers 320 unicellular organisms 31 absorption 45
Tasmanian tigers 161 units/unit symbols 15 conversion from fat 38
taste 12, 88 for energy measurement 37 diffusion of 46–7
tears 67 energy units 133 invisible spaces in 183
technology 56, 166, 287, 324–5, 353 ureter 49 losses 39
natural disasters and 279–82 urine 38–9, 49 regulating levels 50
tectonic plate movement 257–9, production, storage and excretion water systems 148
279–80 by organs 50 water vapour 49
Australia’s movement 262 waterborne 64
effects of movement 270–7 vaccines 69 water-driven turbines 350–1
tectonic plates 257–8 validity waterways 22, 200
plate boundaries 262 valid and consistent results 5 wavelengths 195
temperature 44, 127–8, 209, 222–3, valid conclusions 4, 19, 22 waves 351
242, 258 values 9 of energy see seismic waves
body 39 place values 15 sound waves 250
control 49 reading from graphs 18 weathering 238
room see ambient temperature shown in columns 14–16 Wegener, Alfred 247–51
of surroundings 220 Van de Graaff generators 291–2 weight 37
temporal lobe 107–8, 118 vapours 49, 65 weight loss 38–9

Wernicke’s area 108 wires/wiring 359 X-rays 195–6

wetlands 127 coiled with loops see solenoids
white blood cells 67–8 copper wire 339 yeasts 62–3
white matter 101 current carrying 342 yields 205
wildlife 141, 333 going into/coming out of page–
wind energy 351–3 arrow convention 336 zero charge 181
wind farms 349, 351 words 10 zero error 21
wind speed 128 World Health Organization (WHO) Zika virus 78, 148
wind turbines 352 149
windings 345

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ScienceVIC9 Full

Uploaded by

ScienceVIC9 Full

Uploaded by

9

for the Victorian Curriculum

Response and coordination

3 3.2 Neurons and the nervous system

Our changing Earth

7 7.2 Plate tectonics and plate movement

Authors and contributors

Dr. Eddy de Jong

How to use this book

Overview of the print book

Students are encouraged to Explore! Short activities to explore Try this

Overview of the Interactive Textbook (ITB)

Widgets are accompanied

10 Chapter 1 SCIENCE SKILLS

Practical 1.1: Self-design

guides for teachers in the Redesign

Figure 1.9 The engineering design loop

When brainstorming, remember these rules.

Focus on quantity – come up with as many ideas as you can.

Design a hand-washing station

Workspaces enable students

Self-assessment tools enable

Overview of the Online Teaching Suite (OTS)

Chapter 1 Thinking like a

Victorian Curriculum F–10 © VCAA (2016)

1.1 Planning and conducting

Steps in the scientific method and report on any scientific investigation.

STEP 1: OBSERVE AND ASK QUESTIONS

STEP 2: DO BACKGROUND RESEARCH

STEP 3: CONSTRUCT A HYPOTHESIS

STEP 4: TEST BY CONDUCTING AN EXPERIMENT

STEP 5: GATHER DATA

STEP 6: ANALYSE THE DATA

STEP 7: EVALUATE THE HYPOTHESIS

STEP 8: REPORT THE RESULTS

While it is not a formal step in the

The independent variable (IV) in a provided of testing the amount of coffee

The example experiment given earlier

Problem: You want to

‘It is hypothesised that _______________ will _______________ the _______________ .’

Insert IV here Insert predicted effect Insert DV here

For example, DV, showing a clear direction within the

Experimental variables Independent variable Dependent variable Controlled variable

primary data Comparison of primary Different types of data

Data Description Example Advantages Disadvantages

Table 1.1 Differences between primary and secondary data

Qualitative data Quantitative data

Figure 1.5 Different types of data

Quantitative data Qualitative data

Table 1.2 Key differences between quantitative and qualitative data

Experimental results Qualitative or Reason

How effectively can an elastic band knock over a tin can?

Figure 1.6 Experimental set-up

Controlled variables – what Independent variable – Dependent variable – what will

Section 1.1 questions

1.2 Observations to conclusions

Observing and recording

on equipment from experiments. There The ability to record accurate observations

Joshua’s observations Sophie’s observations Laura’s observations

Figure 1.7 It is important to

Utilising the art of observation

Method and results

Experiment Instructions Observations

Results are shown below:

temperature mass of powder dissolved (g)

Figure 1.8 Some of the equipment used in your science laboratory

3 grams 6g 9 grams 0.012 kg 0.015 kilograms 18 g

Representing data on a graph Line graphs can be used to display data

For example, pie charts and bar charts can others.

Effect of food brand on final size of fish

Time required for water to reach boiling point

Time to reach boiling (s)

Figure 1.10 Example of a line graph

Reading values from a graph Try this 1.4

Time required for water to reach boiling point

150 The estimated time

‘It is hypothesised that _______ will _ the _________ .’

mass of the sugar solution C