Education for the GIFTED

Myth OR Fact

1. Gifted have a smoother/easier life than others.

2. Gifted excel in everything.
3. Gifted are born with natural abilities.
4. The gifted brain is different to the brain of non-gifted children.
5. A high IQ score or a single indicator can be used to identify the gifted.
6. Everyone has some “gift”.

Why Gifted Education?

“Boy, age 6, head larger at birth. Though to have a brain fever. Three siblings died before his
birth, Mother does not agree with relatives and neighbors that child is probably abnormal. Child
sent to school- diagnosed as mentally ill by teacher. Mother is angry- withdrawn child from
school, says she will teach him herself.”

Goertzel and Gertzel, 1962, p XIII

Postscript: The child grew up to invent the incandescent lamp, the phonograph and the
microphone. His name was Thomas Alva Edison

So we don’t miss out on these remarkable individuals!

Agenda

Identification

Education Program and strategies

Giftedness and Domains

Characteristics

Definition
There are many definitions for giftedness; however, they all have one element in common. A
gifted person is “someone who shows, or has the potential for showing, an exceptional level
of performance in one or more areas of expression.” In general, three to five percent of the
student population is considered gifted.

Definition

​ ● Nature vs Nurture: An ability- or intelligence-based conception of giftedness diers

from an achievement-based conception of giftedness
​ ● Nature- emphasizes vast dierences in native abilities, developmental milestones.
​ ● Nurture- emphasizes eort, environmental stimulation-you are not born gifted;
giftedness is accomplished through eort
​ ● Nature and Nurture-Gene eects can be moderated by the environment. Intelligence
levels can be inherited, but the idea that we are born with a few genes that set forever
how intelligent a person is going to be is flawed (Zimmer, 2008). Nature and nurture
work together.

Neuroscience of Giftedness

More myelination and more integrated networks

Faster to process information

Neural Efficiency

Require less eort to complete task as they use their brain more eiciently

Greater Volume

Pre-frontal and parietal cortices, explicit memory systems

Gifted vs Talented Emerging Paradigms in Gifted Education

Gifted Talented
 Exclusive, permanent, no specific Talent diversity, aptitude for a particular domain,
context, general ability performance measure

Need psychometric measures of mental Selection based on aptitude in a particular domain

ability

Characteristics of the gifted

Asynchronous Development

​ ● Different parts of the brain develop at different rates

​ ● Gifted children show different levels of development across various
domains- cognitive, emotional, physical
“Giftedness is asynchronous development in which advanced cognitive abilities and
heightened intensity combine to create inner experiences and awareness that are
qualitatively different from the norm. This asynchrony increases with higher
intellectual capacity. The uniqueness of the gifted renders them particularly
vulnerable and requires modifications in parenting, teaching, and counseling in
order for them to develop optimally.” (Columbus Group)

Characteristics of the gifted

Overexcitabilities

Proposed by Dabrowski (1972) it is the increased response to a stimuli in the form of increased
awareness, sensitivity and intensity; a heightened ability to respond to stimuli.

EMOTIONAL- Deep emotional responses and a heightened capacity for empathy.

IMAGINATIONAL- Vivid imagination, daydreaming, and creative expression.
INTELLECTUAL- A strong desire to understand and explore complex ideas and ask deep
questions.SENSUAL- This is an increased sensitivity to sensory stimuli such as lights, sounds,
or textures.

PSYCHOMOTOR- A child with psychomotor OE may display high energy, difficulty sitting
still, and a need for physical activity.
Domains of Gifted

Academic

High motivation, concentration, persistent, goal directed

Creative

Inquisitive, active imagination, non-conformity, original ideas, independent

Intellectual

Receptive to unusual, interest in prob solving, cause eect, analytic prowess

Psychomotor

Visual, performing arts, sports- ability to

regulate one’s movement

Interpersonal

Popular, ability to maintain relationships,

adaptability,good communication

Need for Identification?

​ ● Identify the ability level so as to provide appropriate learning opportunities (ZPD)

​ ● Justify the need for flexibility or accommodations (Advocacy)
​ ● Understand needs and concerns using the gifted and talented framework of
understanding (Nurturing)

Identification of Gifted and Talented Students

 ​ ● No single method of identification is appropriate for all types of gifted students. A
wide net should be cast by the use of multiple criteria, and as much information should be
gathered as resources will allow.
​ ● The identification of gifted and talented students is a part of whole-school planning for
meeting the needs of these students. Appropriate educational programs must be in place
to cater to the identified students.
​ ● The identification of gifted and talented students is a continuous process and should
not be viewed as a one-off procedure. Schools should be continually evaluating their
systems and making changes. It is important to monitor the progress of identified students
and to ensure that the program is meeting their educational needs.

Key points from studies of early development

​ ● Parents are excellent judges of giftedness in their pre-schoolers.

​ ● In the early years, children who are intellectually gifted tend to be
advanced in all areas of development.
​ ● In areas like speech, movement and reading these differences are strong predictors of
intellectual ability.
​ ● The intellectual and academic superiority of gifted students lasts from infancy right
through adolescence and into adult life.
​ ● Gifted children’s love of learning may be dimmed by schools that withhold appropriate
educational provisions but the capacity to learn does not ‘burn out’.
—

Identification

Formal Identification

Intelligence or ability tests

Achievement tests

Identification strategies

Nomination
Informal Identification

Student products/portfolio

Identification: Multidimensional screening

▪ Nominations – teachers, principal, psychologist, parent, peers, self ▪ Teacher report on student
functioning (recommendation leer)
▪ Family history and student background
▪ Student inventory of interests

▪ Student work and achievements

▪ Variety of achievement or ability tests ▪ Standardized intelligence tests

▪ Classroom behaviors of children-Cognitive, creative, academic, sensory sensitivity, leadership

Effects of Labelling

Negative Positive

The risk of separating individuals from their natural Access to gifted programs
peer groups.-physically and psychologically

Viewed by others as having been given this label, not Provides an understanding of their
earning it- may face hostility unique needs and characteristics

This may lead to excess pressure to outperform-

internal/external

Hickey & Toth, 1990

Gifted Girls and Gifted Boys

Is there a dierence in how giftedness is expressed in girls and boys?

How will their talent development across lifespan be aected if their gender is considered?

Gifted Girls and Gifted Boys

Independent thinking and intellectual rigor are not equally appreciated between boys and girls
due to prevailing social norms and gender roles.

Girls tend to mask their abilities and fit more often than boys
During late adolescence and the college years, a romantic orientation may detract

from academic / career goals.

Physical aractiveness becomes more important, and many girls may prioritise finding a
prestigious mate over their own educational and career goals.

Lack of women mentors

Is it possible for a child to be both gifted

and learning disabled?

Twice Exceptional (2E)

Needs and concerns of the Gifted

Due to their unique characteristics and abilities, the tend to face some typical challenges.

What’s wrong?
Saurabh is a third grader who seems bored and disinterested in all academics most of the time in
school. He fidgets constantly, is in trouble often for being “o-task” and has been referred for
assessment as having aention deficit/hyperactivity order (ADHD) for the last three years. His
teacher reports that he rarely finishes his seatwork, daydreams often, and is in danger of not
learning basic information required by the district and state curriculum standards. Saurabh’s
mother, a pediatrician, does not believe that he has ADHD, but rather, that he is not challenged
and is not provided enough opportunities for movement in his traditional school environment.
Saurabh and his father, who also has an extremely high energy level, frequently build intricate
rockets together. Saurabh can sit quietly for hours when he is engaged in challenging work of his
own selection. Saurabh tested at the 99th percentile in general aptitude but his work in school is
often below average. Is Saurabh failing school, or is the school failing Saurabh?

Gifted Underachievement

Who is a Gifted Underachiever?

1. Underachievement is a discrepancy between potential and performance.

1. Underachievement is a discrepancy between expected achievement and actual achievement.

1. The discrepancy between expected and actual achievement must not be the direct result of a
diagnosed learning disability and must persist over an extended period of time (Reis &
McCoach, 2002).

Causes of Underachievement

​ ● Purposeful underachievement in order to fit in socially-Masking

​ ● The underachievement is symptomatic of a mismatch between the student
and his or her school environment (Siegle &amp McCoach, 2001).
​ ● Underachievement results from a personal characteristic such as low self-motivation,
low self-regulation, or low self-efficacy (McCoach & Siegle, in press; Reis & McCoach,
2000).
​ ● An apparent underachievement problem masks more serious physical, cognitive, or
emotional issues.

Underachiever: Characteristics
 ​ ● Low self-concept
​ ● Often do not exhibit goal directed behavior
​ ● May avoid competition
​ ● May be passive-aggressive
​ ● May be rebellious or antisocial
​ ● May fear success
​ ● May have poor coping skills
​ ● May attribute successes or failures to outside forces
​ ● May be dependent
​ ● May develop coping mechanisms that reduce short term stress but inhibit
long term success
​ ● May be socially immature

Gifted Education Strategies

In 1998 an Australian study surveying literacy in primary school children found “a learning gap”
equivalent to at least five years of schooling between the top and bottom 10% of children in each
Year 3 class surveyed in the study (Coorey, 1998). Given that the reading achievement of only
the “middle” 80% of the class was reported by Coorey, we can only speculate how wide the
achievement span of the class would be if the reading ages of the lowest and highest 10% were
taken into consideration. These children may not have been reported in the study but they were
still in the classes!

Acceleration

​ ● Acceleration is a strategy that allows a student to progress through school at a faster

than usual rate and/or younger than typical age.
​ ● Children who have already mastered the material in one grade level and are capable of
handling the material at the next grade level are moved to the next grade level.
​ ● Subject acceleration, grade skipping, early entry
​ ● Curriculum Compacting
​ ● Acceleration does not mean that gifted students are being made to speed up and learn
faster than they are already willing to, but rather that schools are allowing students to
progress at something closer to their natural or preferred rate of learning.

Acceleration

Effects of Acceleration:
 ​ ● Grade skipping has been found to aid social relations (as well as academic
achievement), while concurrent enrolment has been found to enhance psychological
adjustment.
​ ● Students who were allowed early entrance to elementary school averaged six months
ahead in achievement when compared to their age peers during the same year.
Additionally, these students showed improvement in socialization and self-esteem.

Grouping: Ability Grouping

​ ● The practice of grouping suggests placing students with similar abilities and/or
performance together for instruction.
​ ● More appropriate, rapid, and advanced instruction, which matches the rapidly
developing skills and capabilities of gifted students.
Effects of Ability Grouping:
​ ● Bright, average, and struggling students all benefit from being grouped with
others in their ability/instructional groups when the curriculum is adjusted to the
aptitude levels of the group.
​ ● When gifted students are grouped together and receive advanced enrichment or
acceleration, they benefit the most because they outperform control group
students who are not grouped and do not receive enrichment or acceleration by
five months to a full year on achievement tests.

Grouping: Ability Grouping

Cluster grouping: A small group of gifted students (eg 5 to 10) is placed together within an
otherwise mixed ability class.

○ Teachers must be able to differentiate instruction for the different levels of ability in the
classroom.

●
Effects of Pull Out Program:

Pull Out program: To place this group of students in the regular classroom and pull them out at
regular intervals for special instruction.

​ ● Nine pull-out program research studies were examined for their effectiveness for gifted
students. The results indicate that pull-out models in gifted education have significant
positive effects for the variables of achievement, critical thinking, and creativity.
 ​ ● Talented students from enriched classes outperform initially equivalent students from
conventional classes by 4 to 5 months on grade equivalent scales.

Grouping: Mixed Grouping

​ ● Dierentiated instruction-One eective strategy for nurturing giftedness in education is

to dierentiate instruction. This means tailoring instruction to meet the unique learning
needs of each student, including providing more challenging and complex tasks for gifted
students.
​ ● A form of dierentiated instruction- enrichment activities: students are taught a normal
course but activities are added to enhance the understanding and application of what they
learned.
​ ● Renzulli and colleagues (Renzulli & Reis, 2003; Renzulli, Gentry, & Reis, 2003)
describe three types of enrichment:
​ ○ Type I, where teachers provide students with exploratory activities that are
aimed at stimulating new interests
​ ○ Type II, where teachers develop methods and materials that are aimed at
developing higher thinking skills such as creative and critical thinking; and
​ ○ Type III, where teachers provide students with inquiries that require students to
research a real-life issue and brainstorm solutions to the problem.

Other Programs

​ ➔ Enrichment programs are another eective strategy for nurturing giftedness in

education. These programs provide opportunities for gifted students to explore their
interests and develop their talents outside of the regular classroom seing.
​ ➔ Mentorship is a powerful tool for nurturing giftedness in education. By pairing gifted
students with mentors who share their interests and talents, students can receive guidance
and support as they develop their skills and pursue their passions.
​ ➔ Collaborative learning is a valuable strategy for nurturing giftedness in education.
By working with peers who share their interests and abilities, gifted students can develop
their teamwork and leadership skills, and learn from others who have dierent perspectives
and strengths.

Characteristics of Effective Teachers of Gifted Students

​ ❏ Passionate about the subject

​ ❏ Expertise in the content maer
​ ❏ Flexibility and openness
​ ❏ Ability to apply knowledge to solve real-life problems
 ​ ❏ High tolerance for ambiguity
(Desai & Joshi, 2019,Renzulli, 1992; Sisk, 1989; Whitlock & DuCee, 1989,)

Conclusion

In conclusion, nurturing giftedness in education is an important task that requires a collaborative

eort from educators, parents, and students. By identifying and supporting gifted students, we can
help them reach their full potential and make a positive impact on the world.

Special Education -

01

Types of Disabilities

Specific Learning Disabilities (SLD)

(Dyslexia, Dysgraphia & Dyscalculia)

Learning disabilities or learning disorders, are umbrella terms for a wide variety of learning
problems. They affect the brain’s ability to receive, process, store, respond to and
communicateinformation.

They are caused by the differences in brain structure and affect the way a person’s brain
processes information.

WHAT a LEARNING DISABILITy is not.....

​ ● A learning disability is not a problem with intelligence or motivation.

​ ● Kids with learning disabilities aren’t lazy or dumb.
​ ● A learning disability is not caused due to any environmental, cultural or economic
disadvantages.

In fact, persons with LD

.

Their brains are simply wired differently.

This difference affects how they receive and process information.

have

average to superior

intelligence

DYSLEXIA: learning disabilities in reading

Basic reading problems occur when there is:

• a difficulty with Reading Comprehension i.e. a difficulty in grasping the meaning of words,
phrases, and paragraphs.

• a difficulty understanding the relationship between sounds, letters and words.

Signs of reading difficulty include problems with:

● letter and word recognition

● understanding words and ideas
● reading speed and fluency
● general vocabulary skills

Dysgraphia: learning disabilities in writing

Symptoms of a written-language learning disability include problems with:

● physical difficulty in forming words and letters.

● expressive writing disability indicates a struggle to organize thoughts on paper.
● neatness and consistency of writing
● accurately copying letters and words
● writing organization and coherence
● spelling consistency

Dyscalculia: learning disabilities in Math

 ● understanding mathematical concepts
● decoding written problems into mathematical symbols
● following a sequence of steps
● difficulty in recalling and understanding basic facts and
remembering multiplication tables despite spending
hours trying to memorize them
● difficulty in reading mathematical signs and copying
numbers or figures correctly
● difficulties with direction and orientation

Task 4: Do the drill!

0.25- 1:00 mins

Let us try and understand what exactly is ADHD

Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)

is a neurological developmental disorder marked by an ongoing pattern of inattention and/or

hyperactivity-impulsivity that interferes with functioning or development.

The ADHD Song

https://www.instagram.com/reel/Cvu97wWMrID/

Symptoms of ADHD are grouped into three categories:

Inattention (not being able to keep focus), Hyperactivity (excess movement that is not fitting to
the setting) and Impulsivity (hasty acts that occur in the moment without thought)

Symptoms of inattention:

● Difficulty with giving close attention to detail or make mistakes ● Difficulty sustaining
attention
● Easily distracted
● Reluctant to engage in tasks that require
sustained mental effort ● Not seem to ‘listen’

● Follow through on instructions

● Difficulty organizing tasks and activities ● Might lose things
● Forgetful in daily activities

Symptoms of hyperactivity and impulsivity:

​ ● Fidgets or squirms in his seat

​ ● Difficulty staying seated
​ ● ‘On the go’
​ ● Talks excessively
​ ● Blurts out answers before question has been completed
​ ● Difficulty awaiting his turn

WHat are the possibilities?

Who are they?

Task 5: Guess the disability and its symptoms

Video

0:00- 2:42 mins

What is autism?

Three aspects of functioning affected

Social communication Social Interaction Sensory difficulties

Children with autism could seem
to have difficulties with the following:

Social Communication

Communication - Speech v/s language (developmental delays, directed speech, repetitive words,
echolalia)

Language - Receptive v/s expressive Grammar, syntax, Semantics v/s pragmatics

Implications: eg.Taking what is said too literally, missing humor, irony, and sarcasm

Scripted speech

Social Interaction

1. Difficulty in reading subtle aspects of body language, gestures, and facial expressions as
well as difficult for us to read
2. Finds it very tough to approach others or to pursue social interaction, therefore Difficulty
to make friends with children
3. Reciprocity of communication is difficult
4. Difficulty in reading and understanding subtle aspects of other people’s feelings,
reactions, and nonverbal cues
5. Perspective taking is tough

Sensory Difficulties

PERCEPTION

● underreact or overreact to sensory stimuli

● Could seem like they are ignoring people speaking to them, but it is actually them finding
it difficult to discriminate auditory stimuli (different from hearing impairment)
● differences in the way they tolerate sounds, touch, other surfaces, movement, tastes,
smells
● Self regulation: hand flapping, rocking, spinning etc. either own body or other objects for
some children
● The way body is regulated can be affected (Clumsiness, different posture, or odd ways of
moving for some children)
● Could lead to a lot of distress
Difficulties with emotional regulation

Children with autism spectrum disorders may have difficulty regulating their emotions or
expressing them appropriately. For instance, He/she may start to yell, cry, or laugh hysterically
for no apparent reason. When stressed, he or she may exhibit disruptive or even aggressive
behaviour (breaking things, hitting others, or harming him or herself).

activities , interests can seem restricted/repetitive

• Preoccupation with a specific topic of interest (maps, license plates, sports statistics).

• A strong need for sameness, order, and routines (e.g. lines up toys, follows a strict schedule).
Anxieties related to change

Implications in learning

● Academic profile - different for each child

● Visual perception better than verbal. will typically do well on tasks involving immediate
memory or visual skills, while tasks involving symbolic or abstract

thinking are more difficult.

​ ● Abstraction is very tough: concretion is stronger (implications?)

​ ● Discrimination of stimuli is tough: visual, auditory, words v/s images
​ ● Difficult to engage if you do not account for the profile of the child
​ ● Understanding difficulties can be tough so child can be labelled as obstinate, deviant,
weird, eccentric, misbehaving
​ ● Difficulty with lack of structure
​ ● Social interaction plays a big role

Strengths of children with asd

Importance of a Difference based view, not deficit based

​ ● Perseverant, accurate
​ ● When topic of interest can notice
very minute details
​ ● Honest
 ​ ● Every other strength that any other child could possibly have

Intellectual Disabilities

How to support these kids?

What is Global Developmental Delay (GDD)?

Global developmental delay is a term used to describe a generalized intellectual disability that
is usually characterized by lower than average intellectual functioning along with significant
limitations in at least two other areas of development.

Common signs of global developmental delay include:

​ ● delayed acquisition of milestones (e.g., sitting up, crawling, walking),

​ ● limited reasoning or conceptual abilities,
​ ● poor social skills and judgement,
​ ● coping skills manifest in different ways
​ ● communication difficulties

Who decides about the disability?

APA - DSM

Diagnostic & Statistical Manual by

American Psychological Association (6th Ed.)

The Rights of Persons with Disabilities (RPwD) Act, 2016

Comorbidities
Below 70

70-89

90-109

110-119

120-127

128 and above

Intellectual Disability

Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)

Attention Deficit Hyperactive Disorder (ADHD)

Learning Disabilities (LD)

04

Classroom Strategies

Minimum Support in the classroom

● Keep instructions brief and as simple as possible.

● Repeat directions when required.
● Use step-by-step instruction.
● Use more than one way to demonstrate or explain information.
● Simultaneously combine verbal and visual information.
● Break down material into smaller, more easily understood segments.
● Prompt students frequently.
● Use drills, repetition and continued practice.
● Combine individual instruction with instruction in small groups.

Minimum Support in the classroom

● Write key points or words on the chalkboard or chart.

● Use balanced presentations and activities.
 ● Maintain daily routines.
● Emphasize daily review.
● Clearly define task requirements, exam dates, and assignment due dates; provide advance
notice of any changes.
● Break information into small steps when teaching many new tasks in one lesson (state
objectives, review previous lesson, summarize periodically).
● Allow time for clarification of directions and essential information.

●●

Seating arrangement- beneficial for the child’s attention span

Ensuring structured activity/environment in times when there is change in regular school
schedule (during founders day, drill practice, etc)

Frequent timed breaks ●Instructions-one at a time and repetition

●Lessons need to be carefully structured and important points clearly identified.

●Use of a pointer or bookmark to track written words on a page. ●

This will help enhance student performance

● Change response mode.

● Encourage use of graphic organizers.
● Encourage use of assignment books or calendars.
● Reduce copying by including information or activities
on handouts or worksheets.
● Have students use square-lined books or turn lined paper vertically for math.
● Use cues to denote important items.

This will help enhance student performance

● Display work samples.

● Use peer-mediated learning.
● Use flexible work times.
● Provide the syllabus slightly in advance so that they have enough time for preparation.
● Stress organization and ideas rather than mechanics when grading in-class writing
assignments.
IN-SCHOOL SUPPORT

● Diluted spell well (Classes I to VIII)

● Marks not cut for incorrect spelling
● Photocopying of notes
● Regular follow-up with parents
● Buddy for assistance
● Material to be read out loud in class to be given in advance
● One-on-one support during tests
● Reader / Writer during tests
● Complimenting written assessment with oral component

EXEMPTIONS AS PER CBSE BOARD

● Spelling exemption
● Extra time - 20 minutes per hour
● Subject change
● Writer
● Reader
● No calculator allowed

Peer tutoring:

Peer tutoring/buddy system reduces the demands on teachers to provide one-on-one instruction
and it also gives students with different disabilities the

opportunity to get back to the tasks, practice and refine academic skills, as well as to enhance
peer social interactions, promoting self-esteem.

For social inclusion:

● A buddy system – make sure you rotate the buddies though

● Have the buddy accompany him/her for assembly / dance/ art
● Encourage peers to share their snacks with the child
● Make sure you make the child feel part of the class by ensuring he/she gets a worksheet
like all the rest (may be modified to suit the child’s abilities)
● In case the child spends time in the Resource Room/ remedial space/ wellness room as
well as mainstream class, make sure he feels part of the class by calling out his/ her name
during attendance
In other school activities

● Tailoring of movements/role to suit their abilities during Sports Day, Drill practice,
Concerts etc
● Make the most of Class Assembly Presentations and concert practices to aid integration
and social interaction

Productive physical movement:

​ ● The student with ADHD may have difficulty sitting still for long periods of time at a
stretch.
​ ● Opportunities for controlled movement - stretch breaks.
​ ● Trip to the school office/store room,a chance to sharpen a pencil,taking a note/books to
another teacher, role holder’s responsibility or simply standing at a
desk while completing classwork.

Novelty:

Presentation of novel,interesting,highly motivating material could improve attention eg

films,videos,flash cards,charts,colour coding notes

Structure in some guided daydreaming time :) Use of fidget toys- difficult concepts,restless.

Defining Educational Psychology

Educational psychology is the scientific discipline concerned with the development,

evaluation, and application of principles and theories of human learning (Wittrock &
Farley, 1989).

Educational psychology can provide teachers with the principles and theories they will
need to make good decisions in the classroom as well as with the concepts needed to discuss
and reflect on their decisions (Moreno, 2010).

Educational psychology can help policy makers, curriculum developers, institutions

envisioning social change and human development departments to apply effective strategies
for human learning.

WHAT DID YOU LEARN IN SCHOOL?

Does the current education
system fully prepare students to

be future ready??

IS TEACHING AN ART OR SCIENCE?

LIST 3 QUALITIES OF YOUR: LEAST FAVORITE TEACHER

LIST 3 QUALITIES OF YOUR: - MOST FAVORITE TEACHER

What makes a teacher effective?

Is it context dependent?

Note effective & ineffective teaching practices

Professional Skills

Planning, communication motivation, classroom management, assessment, technology skills

Professional Knowledge

Content, pedagogical knowledge, pedagogical content knowledge, knowledge about learners,

curriculum knowledge

Personal characteristics

Passionate for the profession Flexible,

Openness,
Fair,

Empathetic...........
Effective teaching requires

Pedagogical Content Knowledge

Professional Development of Teachers

Reflection as a thinking Tool

Workshops, Seminars

Peer Observations & sharing of evidence based practices

Putting it altogether: Case Study

​ 1 Educational Psychology- What and why?

​ 2 Contemporary Issues
​ 3 Teaching- Art and Science?

Summary

​ 4 Effective Teaching
​ 5 Reflective Teachin

Theory of

Cognitive Development

PSYC205

Jean Piaget (1896-1980)

Agenda

01 Cognitive Development

02 About Jean Piaget

03

Jean Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development

What is cognitive development?

Cognitive development refer to the changes and stability in mental abilities, such as learning,
attention, memory, language, thinking, reasoning, perception and creativity.

Cognitive Development is the process that helps individuals acquire knowledge, the ability to
learn and solve problems and think critically.

Cognitive development is affected by both: maturation processes i.e. nature

as well as the interaction with the physical and social environments i.e. nurture.

01

Jean Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development

Jean Piaget

Jean Piaget was born on the 9th of August 1896, in Switzerland.

Piaget held the position of:

~Director of the International Bureau for Education.

~Director of the Institute for Educational Sciences at the

University of

Geneva

~Professor of Psychology and Sociology at the University of

Lausanne

~Professor of Sociology at the University of Geneva

~Professor of Experimental Psychology at the University of Geneva

~Professor of Development Psychology at Sorbonne.

Background Work

Jean Piaget (1896–1980) earned his doctorate in biology in 1918 and began a program of
research that has been called “the master plan” to address the question, “How does knowledge
develop?” (Smith, 2002, p. 515).

Piaget used each of his children to investigate the development of thought processes. He spent
fifty years studying children.

Active participants in their own development children construct their own mental structures.

“What we see changes what we know. What we know changes what we see.”

—Jean Piaget

02

General Principles

General Principles

Schemas

→ organized patterns of behavior or thought.

→ Mental networks of organized information.

→ Building blocks of learning

Adaptation

The process of creating a good fit or match between one’s conception of reality (one’s schemes)
and the real-life experiences one encounters is called adaptation. According to Piaget, adaptation
is accomplished by two subprocesses: assimilation and accommodation.
General Principles

Assimilation

Assimilation as the “integration of external elements into evolving or completed structures.”

ASSIMILATION is when people understand an experience in terms of their current stage of
cognitive development and way of thinking.

New experience is fitted into existing scheme

Accomodation

ACCOMMODATION is change in existing ways of thinking that occur in response to

encounters with new stimuli or events.

Scheme is created or revised to fit new experience.

General Principles

Equilibration

Tendency to organize schemes to allow better understanding of experiences.

Intellectual processes seek a balance through the process of equilibration (a form of

self-regulation that all individuals use to bring coherence and stability to their conception of the
world).

Disequilibration

Disequilibrium, or a perceived discrepancy between an existing scheme and something new.

03

Stages of cognitive development

The Sensorimotor Stage (0-2 years)

Infants construct an understanding of the world by coordinating their sensory experiences (such
as seeing and hearing) with their motor actions (reaching, touching)

Substages: Primary, secondary and tertiary circular reactions.

Characteristic features: Object permanence and goal directed behaviours.

The Preoperational Stage (2-7 years)

Children use intuition and perception to make sense of the world around them as against logic.

Characteristic features: Conservation, Perceptual centration, symbolic thinking, mental

imagery, egocentrism.

(I) Egocentrism

Egocentrism, the inability to take the perspective of others.

EGOCENTRIC THOUGHT, thinking that does not take into account the viewpoint of others,
takes two forms:

​ 1) Lack of awareness that others see things from different physical perspectives.
​ 2) Failure to realize that others may hold thoughts, feelings, and points-of-view different
from one's own.

An experimental demonstration of egocentrism by Piaget and Inhelder (1967).

Three Mountains Study

Aim:

Piaget and Inhelder (1956) wanted to find out at what age children decenter - i.e. become no
longer egocentric.

Method:

The child sits at a table, presented in front are three mountains. The mountains were different,
with snow on top of one, a hut on another and a red cross on top of the other. The child was
allowed to walk round the model, to look at it, then sit down at one side. A doll is then placed at
various positions of the table.

The child is then shown 10 photographs of the mountains taken from different positions, and
asked to indicate which showed the dolls view. Piaget assumed that if the child correctly picked
out the card showing the doll's view, s/he was not egocentric. Egocentrism would be shown by
the child who picked out the card showing the view s/he saw.
Findings:

1. Four year-olds almost always chose a picture that represented what they could see and
showed no awareness that the doll’s view would be different from this.
2. Six year-olds frequently chose a picture different from their own view but rarely choose
the correct picture for the doll’s point of view.
3. Only seven- and eight-year-olds consistently chose the correct picture.

Conclusion:

At age 7, thinking is no longer egocentric as the child can see more than their own point of view.

(II) Centration: What You See is What You Think

CENTRATION - the process of concentrating on one limited aspect of a stimulus and ignoring
other aspects.
E.g. surface, height, length, width

Centration arises out of children’s inability to mentally perform transformation and reversibility.
The major limitation of this period because it leads to inaccuracy of thought.

(III) Transformation

Preschoolers are unable to understand the notion of TRANSFORMATION:

the process in which one state is changed into another - because they ignore the intermediate
steps (inability to understand/fill in sequences of change)
Thought is static, focusing on states rather than transformations or changes.

(IV) Functionality

Children begin to understand functionality - the concept that actions, events and outcomes are
related to one another in fixed patterns.

E.g. Pushing pedals moves bike faster, remote button changes channels on TV

(V) Conservation: Learning that Appearances are Deceiving

Preschoolers do not understand conservation - the knowledge that quantity is unrelated to the
arrangement and physical appearance of objects

(IV) Symbolic Thinking: The use of symbols to represent the actual objects and events around
them.

Can you think without words???

Significance of the Preoperational Stage & Language

For Piaget, language and thinking are interdependent (advances in language during the preschool
period = advances in thinking)

Language allows preschoolers to represent actions symbolically. Language allows children to

think beyond the present to the future.

The Concrete Operational Stage (7-12 years)

Active, appropriate use of logic.

Characteristic features: Able to solve conservation problems, Decentering, reversibility, Concept

formation e.g. relationship between speed & time, etc.
However, no in depth understanding of abstract/hypothetical thinking.

(I) Classification

The ability to group objects on the basis of common characteristics.

(II) Seriation

The ability to order objects on the basis of increasing or decreasing length, volume, or weight.

Once seriation is mastered, children will develop transitivity, the ability to infer a relationship
between two objects based on the known relationship of one of the objects with a third object.

The Formal Operational Stage (12 years+)

Begins when children develop the capacity of thinking that is abstract, systematic, and
hypothetical. These capabilities allow students to make abstract reasoning, sophisticated moral
judgments, and plan more realistically for the future.

Characteristic features: Reflective thinking, hypothetical-deductive reasoning, logical thinking,

cause-effect, abstract thinking

Characteristic Features

Reflective Thinking: Thinking about your own thinking.

Hypo-Deductive Reasoning: Piaget’s term

hypothetical-deductive reasoning embodies
the concept that adolescents can develop hypotheses (best hunches) about ways to solve
problems and systematically reach a conclusion.

Adolescent Egocentrism: adolescents preoccupied with their own view of the world and how
they appear to others (David Elkind (1968). Heightened self-consciousness reflected in
adolescents’ beliefs that others are as interested in them as they themselves are.

When it comes to social experiences, Piaget clearly believed that peer interactions do more to
spur cognitive development than do interactions with adults.

Reactions to Piaget’s Theory

Thousands of theorists provide support to his theory

Piaget’s Theory has a strong constructivist view

Overestimating adolescents’ capabilities

Some cognitive skills emerge earlier than Piaget suggested

Piaget is criticized for underestimating children's abilities and for exaggerating the universality
of the progression through the stages.

Some cognitive skills emerge according to a different timeline in non Western countries (Cultural
Diversity)

He based all his arguments in his theory by only observing his 3

children.

Food for Thought

Q. How can teachers/ parents use Piaget’s theory in the classrooms/in raising their kids? Q. How
can the teacher create disequilibrium to help children learn?

In your groups:

-Create a learning activity designed to introduce disequilibrium within a specific subject content
area (math, science, language, or visual art), aimed at guiding a child's transition from one
developmental stage to the next.

-Identify a textbook or storybook that aligns with Piaget's developmental recommendations for
the specific age group in question.

-Find a game suitable for the chosen age group according to Piaget's guidelines.
Application of the Theory in a classroom

Focus on what the children can do in each stage & avoid what they cannot meaningfully

understand.
Point out to them how new ideas relate to their old ideas and extend their understanding.

Debate when there are 2 or more conflicting ideas. Encourage students to explain their responses
instead of only memorizing

Begin lessons with concrete objects or ideas, and gradually shift explanations to a more abstract
and general level

Start counting objects at 4-5 years and algebra at 12 years.

Assess children’s level of understanding - before & after teaching

Application of the Theory in a classroom

By creating disequilibrium through an unexpected outcome, the teacher encourages students to

reconsider their beliefs and adjust their understanding to incorporate new information.

Create Disequilibrium

Students may be at different stages of development; small group activities should be tailored to
their developmental stage, with assessments focused on individual progress, comparing each
student's growth against their own previous achievements.

Differentiated Learning

Assessing students' thinking requires more than standard testing; teachers need to find alternative
methods to understand how and to what extent students are thinking in a certain way

Assessing how they are thinking?

Suggestions for 3 to 6 year olds....

​ ● Allow children to experiment freely with materials. Eg- to introduce concept of speed
ask children to take balls of many sizes and see if speed changes with size of ball.
​ ● Ask children to make comparisons. These might involve such concepts as bigger,
taller, wider, heavier and longer.
​ ● Ask children to justify their answers when they draw conclusions.
Suggestions for 7 to 11 year olds....

​ ● Assess level of thinking by giving Piaget’s tasks and listening to the explanation given.
​ ● Learning through activity and direct experience is essential. Supply material and
resources.
​ ● Encourage students to discover concepts and principles. Ask relevant questions about
what is being studied. Refrain from giving answers; instead encourage them to ask more
questions.
​ ● Encourage social interaction so children learn from one another.

Suggestions for 12+ year olds....

​ ● Ask students to explain how they arrived at solutions to various problems. This will
help to recognize at what stage of development they are at - concrete/ formal.
​ ● Accept that some high school students maybe more interested in possibilities than in
realities.
​ ● Propose a problem and invite students to form hypothesis about how to solve it. For
e.g. A teacher might say, “Imagine that a girl has no friends. What should she do?”

VYGOTSKY'S THEORY

OF DEVELOPMENT

PSYC 205

Application of Vygotsky's principles

1FIND STUDENTS' ZPD

Use a variety of formal and informal classroom assessments

Begin instruction where the student is able to reach the instructional goal in close collaboration
with you.
Hold individual conferences with students to find out the knowledge and skills they have
mastered and those where they still need assistance.

2. SCAFFOLD

Encourage students to attempt new challenges independently and offer hints or prompts as
needed.
Encourage students to seek help whenever they are unable to make progress and be responsive to
their impasses to prevent frustration.
Break down a complex task into smaller components.
Give frequent and informational feedback during performance

Application of Vygotsky's principles

3. USE FADING

As students make progress, reduce explanations, hints, and prompts

More time for individual practice initially and less time for guided practice

as the unit progresses.

Provide written and oral prompts when students start tackling a task within their ZPD. Gradually
remove oral prompts and refer to written prompts.

4. ENCOURAGE PRIVATE SPEECH

During preschool years, encourage children to talk to themselves as they solve challenging tasks.
Model how to think about a task by thinking aloud
As students demonstrate mastery, encourage them to internalize and self- regulate their private
speech.

Application of Vygotsky's principles

5. APPOINT MORE SKILLED PEERS AS TUTORS

Keep student model work from previous years to use as examples

Allow more capable students to explain processes or concepts to the class. Assign partners so
that less capable students are paired with more capable students for group work.
Create opportunities for discussion and debate among peers to help students internalize the
arguing process demonstrated by more capable students.

6. Place instruction in a meaningful context

Share culturally relevant examples

Gives problems/tasks embedded in the culture

Education Implications of Learner Development: Bronfenbrenner’s

Ecological Theory of Development

PSYC205

Bronfenbrenner’s Contribution
 ​ ● Before Bronfenbrenner, child psychologists studied the child, sociologists examined
the family, anthropologists the society, economists the economic framework of the times
and political scientists the structure.
​ ● As the result of Bronfenbrenner’s groundbreaking concept of the ecology of human
development, these environments — from the family to economic and political
structures — and their interaction were viewed as strong determinants of
development.
​ ● To study a child's development then, we must look not only at the child and her
immediate environment, but also at the interaction of the larger environment as well.

The five systems

● Microsystem- Setting in which individual lives

● Mesosystem- Relationships between microsystems

● Exosystem- Context in which individual does not have an active role

● Macrosystem-Culture in which individual lives

● Chronosystem- changes in the individual or the environment that occur over time and
influence the direction development takes

Microsystem

​ ● Immediate environment- most contact with- closest to the child

​ ● Family, school, neighbourhood
​ ● Does the child has strong and nurturing relationship with parents and family? Peers?
​ ● Individual is actively involved
​ ● Bi-directional influences

Mesosystem

​ ● Connections between structures of microsystem

​ ● Interaction between teachers and parents, parents and other family members, family
and neighbours etc.

Exosystem

​ ● Beyond control of the individual – not actively involved

​ ● Uni- directional influence- indirect effect
​ ● Policies at workplace of parents, the school and park supervisory boards in a
community, mass media

Macrosystem

​ ● Culture- values, customs, expectations, gender roles, ethnicity, Socio-economic class

​ ● Eastern vs western- Independence , individuality, gender preference
Chronosystem

​ ● Socio-historical conditions
​ ● Element of time as it related
to a child’s environment
​ ● Ex- birth of sibling, timing of parental separation, death of a parent
​ ● War, COVID-19, calamities

Reflect!

​ ● Think how globalization has affected the development of students using the ecological
model.
​ ● Which systems were affected by the globalization?
​ ● Take 10 minutes to write down your responses.

Education Implications of Learner Development

●The model can guide policy makers in making effective policies- e.g. Mid day meal Program

●The systems support teachers and school administrators to develop school environments that
are suitable to students’ needs, characteristics, culture, and family background e.g. platforms for
people with motor disability

●Teachers and school administration can use the model to increase students’ academic
achievement and education attainment by involving parents and

observing other contextual factors (e.g., students’ peers, extra-curricular activities, and
neighbour) that may help or inhibit their learning e.g TFI and home visits

● Provides a perspective to understand the characteristics and needs of the child, each learner via
reflecting on child’s environmental systems.

Marcia’s Identity Theory

PSYC205

Theory of Identity status: James Marcia

● Extended Erikson’s theory- focused on personal identity and gave a status typology

● Attaining an identity status incorporates two main dimensions:

1. Going through the phase of crisis (presence or absence of it)

 2. Presence or absence of well defined and stable commitment

Theory of Identity status: James Marcia

Note that the above status are not stages and should not be viewed as a sequential process.

Think about the student characteristics/actions in the classroom based on the 4 identity status.

Identity Diffusion Identity Achieved

Identity Foreclosure

Moratorium

Student characteristics/actions in the classroom based on the 4 identity status

Identity Status Characteristics

Diffusion Not self-directed; disorganized, impulsive, low self-esteem,

alienated from parents; avoids getting involved in
schoolwork and interpersonal relationships.,

Foreclosure Close-minded, authoritarian, low in anxiety; has difficulty

solving problems under stress; feels superior to peers; more
dependent on parents and other authority figures for
guidance and approval than in other statuses
 Moratorium Anxious, dissatisfied with school; changes major often,
daydreams, engages in intense but short-lived relationships;
may temporarily reject parental and societal values.

Achievement Introspective; more planful, rational, and logical in decision

making than in other identity statuses; high self-esteem;
works effectively under stress; likely to form close
interpersonal relationships. Usually the last identity status
to emerge

How a teacher can support the 4 identity statuses in classroom?

How a teacher can support the 4 identity statuses in classroom?

​ ● Teachers can contribute to student’s sense of positive identity by recognizing them as

individuals and praising them for their accomplishments.
​ ● Teacher might be able to reduce identity problems resulting from indecisiveness about
gender roles by having class discussions (for example, in social science courses)
centering on changes in attitudes regarding masculinity, femininity, and family
responsibilities.
​ ● Aimlessness of some students may be evidence that they are engaging in a
psychosocial moratorium. Teachers can encourage such individuals to focus on
short-term goals while they continue to search for long-term goals.
​ ● Because students in the foreclosure status will pose few, if any, classroom problems,
teacher must keep in mind that foreclosure is not necessarily desirable for the individual
student.
​ ● Those experiencing identity diffusion or moratorium may be so bothered by role
confusion that they are unwilling to carry out even simple assignments unless teacher
supply support and incentives.

Snowman/McCrown

Support Strategies

Identity Diffusion:
 ​ ● Encouragement of Exploration: Create opportunities for students to explore various
interests and subjects. Provide a variety of activities and discussions that can spark
curiosity.
​ ● Guidance and Mentorship: Offer personalized guidance to help these students set
small, achievable goals. Regular check-ins can help them reflect on their experiences and
gradually consider future possibilities.
​ ● Positive Reinforcement: Celebrate small achievements and encourage the student to
reflect on what aspects of the experience they enjoyed or found fulfilling.

Support Strategies

Identity Foreclosure:

​ ● Foster Critical Thinking: Encourage students to question and critically analyze their
commitments. Use open-ended questions in class discussions that prompt them to think
about why they hold certain beliefs or pursue certain paths.
​ ● Expose to Diverse Perspectives: Introduce students to different viewpoints, careers,
and lifestyles. Guest speakers, field trips, or media resources can help broaden their
understanding of the possibilities available to them.
​ ● Provide Safe Spaces: Create a supportive environment where students feel comfortable
exploring and discussing doubts or uncertainties without fear of judgment.

Support Strategies

Identity Moratorium:

​ ● Encourage Exploration: Support students in trying out different roles, interests, and
subjects. Encourage participation in extracurricular activities, internships, or volunteer
work that align with their interests.
​ ● Facilitate Reflection: Provide opportunities for reflective writing or discussions where
students can process their experiences and consider how they align with their emerging
identity.
​ ● Offer Reassurance: Normalize the uncertainty and stress that comes with exploration.
Let students know that it’s okay not to have everything figured out and that exploration is
a critical part of the process.

Support Strategies

Identity Achievement

​ ● Provide Advanced Opportunities: Offer challenges that allow these students to deepen
their commitments, such as leadership roles, advanced projects, or mentorship
opportunities where they can guide others.
​ ● Encourage Goal Setting: Help students set long-term goals and create actionable plans
to achieve them. Discuss the steps necessary to pursue their chosen path, whether it’s
further education, a career, or personal development.
​ ● Support Ongoing Development: While these students may have achieved a sense of
identity, remind them that personal growth is a continuous process. Encourage them to
stay open to new experiences and learning opportunities.