Generations of Computers

The computers' timeline is divided into five generations each marked by significant
technological advancements that have changed their structure, speed, and operations.

1. First Generation (1940-1956): Vacuum Tubes

Main Features: Employed vacuum tubes as the main electronic element for computation.

Huge in size and demanded high energy usage.

Generated a lot of heat and were prone to frequent malfunctions.

Inputs were provided through punch cards, while output was achieved by printouts.

Programming made use of machine language (binary code).

Examples: ENIAC, UNIVAC.

2. Second Generation (1956-1963): Transistors Key Characteristics: Replaced

vacuum tubes with transistors, which were smaller, faster, and more reliable.

Considerably reduced the generation of heat and power consumption.

Enabled the development of assembly language for programming.

Technology: Batch processing and magnetic tape storage.

Examples: IBM 1401, CDC 1604.

3. Third Generation (1964-1971): Integrated Circuits (ICs)

Key Characteristics: It used integrated circuits that integrated a number of transistors on a
single silicon chip.

Reduced sizes and cost of computers with increased speed and efficiency.

Enabled multiprogramming, the development of operating systems for better exploitation of

resources.

Technologies: New language technologies such as COBOL and FORTRAN.

Examples: IBM System/360, PDP-8.

4. Fourth Generation (1971-Present): Microprocessors Characteristics:

Integrated CPU onto a single microprocessor chip.

Enabled development of PCs.

Incorporated GUI and enabled vast networking application.

Storage technology innovations in hard discs and solid-state drives (SSDs). Usage of C, C++,
and DBMS (Database Management System) programming languages.

Examples: Apple Macintosh, IBM PC.

5. Fifth Generation (Now and Later): Artificial Intelligence (AI)

Key Characteristics:

Artificial intelligence and machine learning.

Parallel processing and quantum computing technology use.

Focusing more on NLP, robotics, and neural networks.

Huge connectivity through the Internet of Things (IoT).

Technological developments: Advanced programming languages such as Python and AI-

based tools.

Examples: IBM Watson, Google DeepMind.

Learning Outcome

Understand the development of computers in terms of hardware, software, and operations.

Highlight the technological developments that led to the current generation of computers.

Discuss the effects of higher computing power on various industries and society.

This paper provides a guideline for grasping the revolutionary development of computers and
their potential applications.

Computer Block Diagram

The block diagram of a computer describes the basic components of the computer system and
the relations between them. It gives a brief overview of the data flow in the system.

Basic Structures Input Unit:

Peripherals: Keyboard, Mouse, Scanner, etc.

Function: Read data and commands from the user and present them to the computer in the
form of machine-understandable format.

Central Processing Unit (CPU): The CPU is the computer's central processing unit, which
executes data and instructions. It has two main modules:
Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU): This module executes all arithmetic computations as
well as logical operations.

The Control Unit (CU) regulates the activity of the computer by commanding the input,
output, and storage units.

Registers: These are compact high-velocity storage units within the CPU, set aside for
temporary data holding.

Memory Component:

Primary Memory (RAM, ROM): Holds data and instructions temporarily for quick CPU
access.

Secondary Memory (Hard Drive, SSD): Provides permanent data storage to access data
later.

Output Unit:

Devices: Monitor, Printer, Speakers, etc.

Work: Converts processed data from the CPU into a human-readable format.

Storage Facility:

Stores data and instructions either temporarily or permanently.

The devices used here are hard drives, SSDs, USB drives, and optical disks.

Definitions of Various Memory and Storage Devices

1. RAM (Random Access Memory) Definition: RAM is a type of volatile memory used to
store data and instructions temporarily when a computer is working. It allows accessing data
to be read and written in very fast speeds for the CPU.

Key Characteristics:

Vol: Data is lost when the power is turned off.

Fast accessing speed.

Apps and operating systems run it.

Example: DDR4, DDR5.

2. ROM (Read-Only Memory) Definition: ROM is a type of non-volatile memory that

persistently stores key data and instructions, mainly used for bootstrapping the computer
(BIOS/firmware).

Main Characteristics:

Non-volatile: Data is retained even when power is off.

Read-only: Data can not be changed easily

Used for system firmware and embedded systems.

Examples: PROM, EPROM, EEPROM.

3. Magnetic Disc Definition: Magnetic discs are storage devices that utilize magnetized
material for data storage. Data is retrieved by read/write heads on rotating platters.

Key Characteristics: Non-volatile.

Increased storage capacity.

Lower access speed compared to current SSDs.

Examples include Hard Disc Drives (HDDs) and Floppy Discs.

4. SSD (Solid-State Drive) Definition: A storage device using flash memory for storing
data, with access times significantly faster than magnetic disks, and is more resistant to shock
than a magnetic disk.

Key Characteristics: Non-volatile.

Data transfer rates are fast, with very low latency.

No moving parts increases reliability and shock resistance.

Examples: NVMe SSDs, SATA SSDs.

5. Flash Drive Definition: A flash drive is a portable storage device that uses flash memory
for storing data, with an interface through a USB port.

Key Features: Non-volatile.

Portable and lightweight.

Primarily used for file transfer between devices.

Examples: USB drives, thumb drives.

6. Memory Card Definition: A memory card is a small, portable storage media highly used
in cameras, mobile phones, and other devices for data storage .

Key Characteristics: Non-volatile.

Short and compact.

Available in several sizes such as SD cards, microSD cards, and CompactFlash.

Examples include SDHC and SDXC cards.

Categories of Software

Software refers to a group of instructions or programs that tell a computer to perform specific
tasks. It is mainly classified into two major categories:
1. System Software Definition: System software acts as a middleman between hardware and
user applications. It controls hardware resources and provides primary services for
application software.

Examples: Operating Systems (e.g., Windows, Linux, macOS).

Utility Software (e.g., antivirus, disk optimization).

Device Drivers (e.g., printer drivers, graphics processing unit drivers).

2. Application Software Definition: Application software is developed to help users

accomplish specific tasks or functions, including word processing, Internet browsing, or even
gaming.

Productivity Software (e.g., Microsoft Office, Google Docs).

Entertainment Software (e.g., video games, media player applications).

Enterprise Software (e.g., Tally, ERP systems).

3. Programming Software Definition: Programming software provides tools for developers

to write, test, and control software.

Illustrations: Text Editors (for example, Notepad++, Visual Studio Code).

Compilers -GCC, Turbo C.

Debuggers - GDB, JDB.