MOTION IN ONE DIMENSION

Kinematics: this describes the motion of an object in space as a function of time but does not
consider the cause (force) of the motion. When we relate the motion to the forces associated with
it and to the properties of the moving objects, we are dealing with dynamics.

Separating the study of motion into kinematics and dynamics gives a better understanding of
mechanics. Dynamics is the science of motion. It deals with force, energy, acceleration and
velocity of large objects such as cars, airplane, and tiny particles.

Average Velocity: Consider the motion of a dragster from point p1 with coordinate x1, and time t1
in figure 1. At time t2 it is at point p2, with coordinate x2. The displacement of the dragster during
the time interval from t1 to t2 is the vector from p1 to p2 with x-component (x2 - x1). Average
velocity is thus defined as the displacement of a body from one point to another divided by the
time interval. Mathematically,

Fig. 1. Positions of a dragster at two times during its run.

The graph in figure 2 depicts the dragster’s position as a function of time, that is, an x-t graph.
The curve in this figure does not represent the dragster’s path in space; as in the figure above which
shows the path in a straight line. Rather, the graph is a pictorial way to represent how the dragster’s
position changes with time.

The point on the graph labeled p1 and p2 correspond to the point p1 and p2 on the dragster’s path.
Line p1p2 is the hypotenuse of a right angle triangle with vertical side ∆𝑥 = 𝑥2 - 𝑥1 and the
horizontal side ∆𝑡 = 𝑡2 - 𝑡1. The average velocity of the dragster is then equal to the slope of the
line p1p2, i.e. the ration of the vertical side ∆𝑥 to the horizontal side ∆𝑡. The figure below shows
the position of a dragster as a function of time.

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Fig. 2. The position of a dragster as a function of time.

INSTANTANEOUS VELOCITY: In most cases, the average velocity cannot describe how fast
or the direction a given particle was moving in an interval. To describe the motion in greater detail,
we need to define the velocity at any specific instant of time or specify some point along the path.
Such a velocity is the Instantaneous velocity.

In physics the word instant is used to refer to a single value. To find the instantaneous velocity of
the dragster in fig 2, at the point p1, we imagine moving the second point p2 closer and closer to
the first point. We compute the average velocity over these shorter and shorter distances and time
intervals. Both ∆𝑥 and ∆𝑡 become very small, but their ratio does not necessarily become small.

The instantaneous velocity is the limit of the average velocity as the time interval approaches zero;
it is equal to the instantaneous rate of change of position with time.

AVERAGE AND INSTANTANEOUS ACCELERATION

The acceleration describes the change in velocity of a body with time. Like velocity, it is a vector
quantity; its unit is the meter per Second Square (m/s2). Consider the motion of a body along the
x-axis.

Suppose that at a time 𝑡1 the particle is at point p1 and has x-component of (instantaneous) velocity
v1. At a later time t2 it is at point p2 and has x-component of velocity v2. The x component of the
velocity changes by an amount ∆𝑣 = 𝑣2 - 𝑣1 during the time interval ∆𝑡 = 𝑡2 -
𝑡1.

From the above, we can define the average velocity of the particle as it moves from p1 to p2 to be
a vector quantity whose x-component is ∆, the change in the x-component of velocity, divided by
the time interval ∆𝑡.

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INTANTANEOUS ACCELERATION: just like velocity, instantaneous acceleration is the limit
of the average acceleration as the time interval approaches zero. Mathematically,

FINDING ACCELERATION ON A V-T GRAPH OR AN X-T GRAPH

We can get additional insight into the concept of average and instantaneous acceleration from a
graph with instantaneous velocity v on the vertical axis and t on the horizontal axis (fig 3). The
point on the graph labeled p1 and p2 correspond to the position of the body.

The average acceleration of the body during this interval is the slope of the line p1p2. As the point
p2 approaches p1, the slope of the line p1p2 approaches the slope of the line tangent to the curve at
point p1. Thus on a graph of velocity as a function of time, the instantaneous acceleration at any
point equal to the slope of the tangent to the curve at that point.

In fig. 3, the instantaneous acceleration varies with the time. We can also learn about the
acceleration of a body from a graph of its position verses time.

Fig. 3. A graph of the motion (v - t)

Example 1: the distance S covered by a particle at time t seconds is given as S = 2t3 – 3t2 – 5t.
Find
i. Its speed in the 5th second
ii. The distance covered in the 3rd second iii. The acceleration at t
= 5s

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Example 2: A car travels for 30minutes in a straight line for a distance of 50km. what is the average
speed of the car?

Example 3: The nearest star, proxima centaury is 4.0x1013 km away. Calculate the time it takes a
light signal from earth to reach the star? How many years will it take a spacecraft travelling with
speed of 10-4 𝑐 to reach proxima centaury? 𝑐 = 3 × 108 𝑚/𝑠.

Example 4: If an object has coordinates given by 𝑥 (𝑡) = 3𝑡 + 2𝑡3, obtain the expression for the
acceleration and hence the value of acceleration when the time is 2 seconds.

Example 5: The coordinate of a particle at motion are given by 𝑥 = 2𝑡 + 7𝑡2 − 4 and 𝑦 = 6𝑡 − 2𝑡3,
where 𝑥 and 𝑦 are in meters and 𝑡 is in seconds. Determine a. The instantaneous average velocity
at 𝑡 = 3𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠.
b. The displacement vector at time 𝑡 = 3𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑

MOTION WITH CONSTANT ACCELERATION

The simplest acceleration is straight-line motion with constant acceleration. In this case, the
velocity changes at the same rate throughout the motion. Consider fig. 4 below;

Now we let t1 = 0 and let t2 be any later time t. We use the symbol vox for the x-velocity at the
initial time t = 0; the x-velocity at the later time t is vx. Then,

This is the equation for finding velocity when distance is not involved. If distance is involved then
we make some substitution.

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Fig. 4. A velocity-time (vx - t) graph for straight-line motion with constant positive xacceleration
ax. The initial x-velocity vox is also positive in this case.

To obtain the other equations of motion, we recall that

Now, from the equation v = 𝑣0 + 𝑎𝑡;

Substituting this into

S
Vav 
t

As t approaches zero, the average velocity approaches the instantaneous velocity V

lim S s  ds
i.e t 0 ,
t t  dt

lim S
v= t 0
t

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 ds

dt

S
 ds
 S v (1)
dt

This can be defined as the time rate of change of displacement or position coordinate.

v
The average acceleration a av 
t

As t  0 , a av  instantaneous acceleration

v dv
a lim
t 0 
t dt
 
v s

 
dv d 2 s
s va  (2)
dt dt 2

Lets eliminate dt from equation 1 and 2

ds
From (1): v 
dt

ds
 dt 
v

dv
From (2) a 
dt

dv

ds v

vdv

ds

ads  vdv 
    (3)
 s ds  s dv

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Equations (1), (2) and (3) are called the differential equations for the rectilinear motion of a
 
particle, where s , s , s are all vector quantities.

When acceleration is constant, we consider equation (2):

dv
Thus, from a 
dt

 v  u  at (4)

From equation (3),

vdv  ads

 v 2  u 2  2as (5)

From equation (1) and (2),

ds
 v  u  at
dt

ds  (u  at)dt

1
 s  ut  at 2 (6)
2

Example

1 The position of a particlealong a straight line s  2t 3  24t  6 . Calculate:

(1) The time required for the body to reach the velocity of 72 m/s.
(2) The acceleration of the body when its velocity is 30 m/s.
(3) The displacement covered from time of 1 s to 4 s.

2 The position of an object moving in a straight line is given by x  3t  4t 2  t 3 , where x is in

meters and t is in seconds.

(1) What is the position of the object at t=2 s, and 4 s

(2) What is the object’s instantaneous velocity and acceleration at t= 5 s
(3) What is the average velocity for the time internal t= 2s to t= 4s

FREELY FALLING BODIES

The most familiar example of motion with (nearly) constant acceleration is that of a body falling
under the influence of the earth gravitational attraction. In the absence of air resistance, we find
that all bodies, regardless of their size, weight, or composition fall into the same acceleration at

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the same point on the earth surface and if the distance curved is not too great the acceleration
remains constant throughout the fall.

In the nineteenth century, Galileo carried out an experiment by dropping bullets and cannonball
from the leaning tower of Pisa to demonstrate that a body fall with a downward acceleration that
is constant and independent on its weight. This ideal motion in which the air resistance and the
small change in acceleration with altitude are neglected is called ‘free fall’
The acceleration of freely falling body is called the acceleration due to gravity and it is denoted by
the symbol g. near the earth surface its magnitude is approximately 9.8m/ 2 or 980cm/s2. The
kinematic equation for freely falling bodies can be written by changing the – a to g and x to y in
our equations for constant acceleration above.

NOTE; for this course g is chosen to be negative upwards and positive downward

Example 6: A body of mass 5kg falls freely from rest through a height of 0 m and comes to rest
having penetrated 5.0 cm into the ground. Calculate (a) the time taken in falling (b) the velocity
when the body strikes the ground (c) the average force exerted by the ground before the body
comes to rest.

PARTICLES DYNAMICS

Newton first law of motion (inertial): it states that there is a tendency for a body to continue in its
state of rest or if in motion move with uniform velocity unless it is acted upon by an external force.
All Newton laws are based on an inertial frame of reference.

Newton’s first law shows that a body at rest or moving with constant velocity is acted by several
forces but with a net force of zero. When a body is acted on by no forces or by several forces, such
that their vectors sum [resultant] is zero, we say that the body is in equilibrium. For a body in
equilibrium the net force is zero;

Newton’s Second Law: The law states that the net force acting on a body is directly proportional
to the change in momentum per time taken for that change.

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The equation assume for force is a vector equation, hence the component of force and acceleration
must be defined. ∑ 𝐹𝑥 = max, ∑ 𝐹𝑦 = may

Note; (i) Newton’s second law refers to external forces. By this we mean forces exerted on the
body by other bodies in its environment. (ii) The equations above are valid when the mass is
constant and hence this equation might not be valid otherwise. (iii) Finally, Newton’s second law
is valid only in inertial frames of reference.

Newton’s Third Law: Force acting on a body is always the result of its interaction with another
body, so force comes in pairs. When you kick a football, the forward force that your foot exerts on
the ball launches it into its trajectory, but you also feel the force the ball exerts on your foot.

In each of these cases, the force that you exert on the other body is in the opposite direction to the
force that body exert on you. Newton’s third law states that action and reaction are equal and
opposite.
FA on B is the force applied by body A on body B, and FB on A is the force applied by body B on
body A. The mathematical statement of Newton’s third law is FA on B = -FB on A