KH.

ABOVYAN ARMENIAN STATE PEDAGOGICAL UNIVERSITY

Department of Foreign Languages Chair of Foreign Language Teaching

PAPER PRESENTATION

Topic: Kinds of memory

Student’s Name/Surname: Anya Meltonyan
Academic Supervisor (Degree, Title): Bachelor
Faculty: Education Psychology and Sociology
Year: 2023
 Contents

Introduction………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………3

Chapter 1. Memory…………………………………………………………………………………………………………..4

1.1 Memory processes……………………………………………………………………………………………………..5

Chapter 2. Kinds of memory ………………………………………………………………..6

Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………………8

References……………………………………………………………………………………9

Glossary …………………………………………………………………………………….10
 Introduction

Memory is precisely the capacity that allows us to connect experiences, learn and make
sense of our lives. In short, it allows us to build our story. The full range of this complex
capacity’s neuroanatomical, neurobiological, neurophysiological, and psychological
mechanism remain unknown and it presents a challenge for psychologists and
neuroscientists who try to explain it. This review attempts to provide a rigorous overview
that permits anyone who wants to approach the latest scientific findings on memory to do
so, as well as to understand them and properly order them. We will focus on
neuroanatomical, neurophysiological, and psychological mechanisms of the different types
of memory.
We believe it is important to consider previous developments without which one cannot
adequately understand the classifications of memories and the kinds of memory models
that are now current in the scientific literature.
With this brief historical and conceptual introduction laid out, we intend to delve into
different types of memory in order to present the models that the scientific community has
most accepted thus far. Now we turn to our main task, presenting an overview of the latest
scientific findings on memory, classified according to different types and mechanisms.

My aim in this project is to explore and theorize types of memory.

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 Chapter 1. About memory

Our psyche is endowed with many features, but one of the most famous features of the
human psyche is memory. By memory we understand the imprinting, storage, further
recognition and reproduction of our past experience, which enables us to accumulate
information, while not losing previous knowledge, information, skills.
Memory is the phenomenon of memorizing perceived information, keeping it in the mind
and later reproducing it.
All living things and even some technical devices have memory. Human memory is an
extremely complex phenomenon. it has a number of clearly distinguishable processes,
psychological features, and is of a number of types.
Memory underlies all other mental processes. It is also the basis of the integrity and
continuity of a person's personality, his ego and self-awareness. This is why the study of
memory is so important not only for psychology, but also for all other human sciences. Here
it is appropriate to remember the famous physiologist I. M. Sechenov's idea that if a person
had no memory, he would always remain in the state of a newborn child.
Without memory, a person cannot become a complete person. Since the late 19th century,
many processes of human memory, especially memorization and reproduction, have been
studied with the help of scientific experiments. Memory is not only the ability to remember,
but also the ability to forget.
Memory is especially important in that we do not forget our ethnicity, national
consciousness and dignity, our inner need to protect our native land and home. Memory is
important to our lives.
A person's memory, whether he is rich or poor, highly or poorly developed, largely depends
on the person, his goals, demands, motives and interests, work nature. gives satisfaction,
helps to organize his life and activities.
Memory is today defined in psychology as the faculty of encoding, storing, and retrieving
information.
The advance of the fields of genetics and epigenetics has alsogiven us new metaphors to
describe memory. We understandDNA as a structure that carries information that we call
“geneticcode” – kind of like a computer chip for biological processes.

Memory is essentially the capacity for storing and retrieving information. Three processes
are involved in memory: encoding, storage, and retrieval. All three of these processes
determine whether something is remembered or forgotten.

Encoding
Processing information into memory is called Encoding. People automatically encode some
types of information without being aware of it. For example, most people probably can
recall where they ate lunch yesterday, even though they didn’t try to remember this
information. However, other types of information become encoded only if people pay
attention to it. College students will probably not remember all the material in their
textbooks unless they pay close attention while they’re reading.
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We emphasized earlier that encoding is selective: people cannot encode all information they
are exposed to. However, recoding can add information that was not even seen or heard
during the initial encoding phase. Several of the recoding processes, like forming
associations between memories, can happen without our awareness. This is one reason
people can sometimes remember events that did not actually happen—because during the
process of recoding, details got added. One common way of inducing false memories in the
laboratory employs a word-list technique
There are several different ways of encoding verbal information:
Structural Encoding focuses on what words look like. For instance, one might note whether
words are long or short, in uppercase or lowercase, or handwritten or typed.
Phonemic Encoding focuses on how words sound.
Semantic Encoding focuses on the meaning of words. Semantic encoding requires a deeper
level of processing than structural or phonemic encoding and usually results in better
memory.
Encoding is the first stage of the memory process. Encoding occurs when information is
translated into a form that can be processed mentally. Information from the environment is
constantly reaching your senses in the forms of stimuli. Encoding allows you to change the
stimuli so that you may put it into your memory. It is similar to librarians classifying books
before placing them on a shelf. As librarians encode/label books so patrons to easily locate
them, you encode/label information before placing the information into your memory.
Two Ways of Encoding
Simply receiving sensory input is not sufficient to encode information. You must attend to
and process that input. Encoding that information occurs through both automatic processing
and effortful processing.
Automatic processing occurs without any conscious awareness. It occurs effortlessly,
automatically, without you having to think about it. Examples includes details like time,
space, frequency, personal experience, and some motor skills learning.

Storage
After information enters the brain, it has to be stored or maintained. This second stage of
the memory process creates a permanent record of the encoded information. To describe
the process of storage, many psychologists use the three-stage model proposed by Richard
Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin. According to this model, information is stored sequentially in
three memory systems: sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory.
Every experience we have changes our brains. That may seem like a bold, even strange,
claim at first, but it’s true. We encode each of our experiences within the structures of the
nervous system, making new impressions in the process—and each of those impressions
involves changes in the brain. Psychologists (and neurobiologists) say that experiences leave
memory traces

Retrieval
Retrieval is the process of recalling stored information from memory. Basically, it is getting
information out of your long-term memory and returning it to your conscious mind.
As discussed previously in this module, we encode and store thousands of events—
conversations, sights and sounds—every day, creating memory traces. However, we later
access only a tiny portion of what we’ve taken in.
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 Chapter 2. Kinds of memory

During a person's life, his memory is manifested in different ways. By origin, memory is
phylogenetic and ontogenetic.
Phylogenetic memory includes the information that a person or an animal receives from its
parents through hereditary mechanisms. It is mostly information specific to the animal
species in question, although it may have its own individual characteristics. This type of
memory is encoded in genes and is associated with innate mechanisms of behavior. During
the development of the organism, this information is reproduced and implemented,
embodied in the anatomical structure, physiological and biochemical processes. It is
manifested necessarily in the form of reflexes and their combinations - instinctive actions.
The content of ontogenetic memory is acquired by a person during his individual,
ontogenetic development.
After the birth of living organisms, their postnatal ontogenesis and development of
ontogenetic memory begins. This field of memory stores the knowledge acquired from the
first day of life until death. A lot after birth
During the mental activity of animals, and to some extent also of humans, a unique process
is observed, which is called imprinting or pre-impression. It is an intermediate link between
hereditary and ontogenetic memory, a mechanism of transition from the first to the second.
It is seen only in the earliest period of individual development, immediately after birth.
According to human activity and the participation of conscious will and goal-setting,
ontogenetic memory is voluntary and involuntary.
Short-term, long-term and operational types of memory are distinguished according to the
duration of information retention in the psyche. By imagery: visual, auditory, tactile, etc.
According to mental activity, motor, verbal-logical and emotional types of memory are
distinguished. Memory is: verbal, lexical, pictorial, spatial, musical, ethnic, etc.
Voluntary memory - that is, during the memory born by will, human consciousness,
information is memorized in a purposeful way and with the help of special means. Along
with increasing age, the role of voluntary memory increases, because to perform this or that
professional job in modern society, a person must have systematic and deep knowledge and
strong skills. The efficiency of voluntary memory depends on a number of conditions.
1. from targeting
2. from mechanical memory
3. from logical repackaging.
Involuntary memory is when information is memorized by itself, without voluntary effort
and without special learning, memorization, while performing other activities, while working
on information. In the first years of a person's life, the main mechanism of accumulation of
knowledge, life experience and implementation of behavior is involuntary memory.
Short-Term Memory
Most of the information that gets into sensory memory is forgotten, but information that we
turn our attention to, with the goal of remembering it, may pass into short-term memory.

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 Short-term memory (STM) is the place where small amounts of information can be
temporarily kept for more than a few seconds but usually for less than one minute
(Baddeley, Vallar, & Shallice, 1990). Information in short-term memory is not stored
permanently but rather becomes available for us to process, and the processes that we use
to make sense of, modify, interpret, and store information in STM are known as working
memory.
Although it is called “memory,” working memory is not a store of memory like STM but
rather a set of memory procedures or operations.
Short-term memory is limited in both the length and the amount of information it can hold.
Peterson and Peterson (1959) found that when people were asked to remember a list of
three-letter strings and then were immediately asked to perform a distracting task (counting
backward by threes), the material was quickly forgotten.
One way to prevent the decay of information from short-term memory is to use working
memory to rehearse it. Maintenance rehearsal is the process of repeating information
mentally or out loud with the goal of keeping it in memory. We engage in maintenance
rehearsal to keep a something that we want to remember (e.g., a person’s name, e-mail
address, or phone number) in mind long enough to write it down, use it, or potentially
transfer it to long-term memory.
Although it is useful to hold information in sensory and short-term memory, we also rely on
our long-term memory (LTM). We want to remember the name of the new boy in the class,
the name of the movie we saw last week, and the material for our upcoming psychology
test. Psychological research has produced a great deal of knowledge about long-term
memory, and this research can be useful as you try to learn and remember new material.
Both types of memories have their separate stores in the brain. Short term memories are
held briefly (15-20 seconds) and if not rehearsed and kept active in the short term store, the
memories will be forgotten. Additionally, short term memories are severely limited in
capacity, meaning the short term store can only hold 7 items, plus or minus 2 (Miller, 1956).
This capacity is improved if the information being remembered has meaning attached to it.
However, the long term memory holds information for a long duration of up to a lifetime.
Also, it's capacity it thought to be unlimited, meaning there is no limit on how many long
term memories an individual can remember and recall.
Long-term memory can be further subdivided into two different types: explicit (conscious)
and implicit (unconscious) memory. If you can remember something that happened more
than just a few moments ago, whether it occurred just hours ago or decades earlier, it is
long-term memory.
Long term memory is important because it helps us recall major events in our lives. We also
use long-term memory to access the skills and behaviors that we've learned which
contribute to our survival.
Long-term memories are often outside of the conscious mind. This information is largely
outside of our awareness but can be called into working memory to be used when needed.
Some memories are relatively easy to recall, while others are much harder to access.
Through the process of association and rehearsal, the content of short-term memory can
become long-term memory. Long-term memories can last from a matter of days to as long
as many decades.
There are a number of factors that can influence how long information endures in long-term
memory.
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 Conclusion

This study indicated that, memory is a fundamental cognitive process that involves the
encoding, storage, and retrieval of information. It plays a crucial role in everyday life,
allowing us to retain and recall knowledge, experiences, and skills. The process begins with
encoding, where information is transformed into a format that can be stored in the brain.
Cultural differences among people determine what we pay attention to and encode in our
memories. Storage refers to the retention of encoded information over time, and it occurs in
different memory systems. These systems include sensory memory, short-term memory, and
long-term memory. Retrieval involves accessing stored information from memory when
needed. While memory is generally reliable, it can be influenced by various factors, leading
to errors and distortions.
The present research tries to bring out the significance of memory as it affects various of
stages of life and helps to investigate life thoroughly with the help of many available
information pertinent to incidents. The memory of early days comprises pleasure and pain
which emphasize to investigate own life. The pleasant and unpleasant memories enlist the
moment of various types which ever experienced. The ecstasy to know about the past
delineates to solve the problems of early days and to find out how life was in childhood or
adulthood. A person gets pleasure in recalling and reminiscing about the past dwelling upon
memory so that he can observe childhood again through old-age experiences.
Retaining memory is a continuous process throughout life. One can attain memory of major
or minor incidents at any age anytime and can be utilized later at will. Memory that subsists
in human mind sometimes seeks a fixed place where a person ever lived long before. The old
belongings of the place encourage him to dip down in reminiscence regarding the place and
own life. It pours out a plenty of memory related to life and even provides a fresh feeling of
that old feelings.

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 References

1. Allegrante, J. P. (2004). Unfit to learn. Education Week, 24(14), 38.

2. Atkinson, R. C., Shiffrin, R. M. (1968). Human memory: A proposed system and its
control processes. In W. K. Spence & J. T. Spence (Eds.), The psychology of learning
and motivation: Advances in research and theory (Vol.2, pp. 89-195) New York:
Academic Press
3. Atkinson, R. C., Shiffrin, R. M. (1971). The control of short- term memory. Scientific
American, 225, 82-90.
4. Baddeley, A. D. (1986). Working Memory. Oxford, U.K.: Oxford University Press.
5. Baddeley, A. D., Hitch, G. (1974). Working Memory. In G. H. Bower (Ed.), The
Psychology of learning and motivation: Advances in research and theory (vol. 8, pp
47-89) New York: Academic Press.
6. Bäckman, L, Dixon, A. R., Maitland, B.S., Nilsson, L-G, Nyberg, L, Rönnlund, M, et al.
(2003). Selective adult age differences in an age- invariant multifactor model of
declarative memory. Psychology and Aging, 18, 1, 149-160.
7. Colcombe, S., & Kramer, A. F. (2003). Fitness effects on the cognitive function of older
adults: a meta-analytic study. Psychological Science, 14, 125–130.
8. Coles, K., & Tomporowski, D. P. (2008). Effects of acute exercise on executive
processing, short-term and long-term memory. Journal of sport sciences, 26, 333-
344.
9. Craik, F. I. M., & Salthouse, T. A. (Eds.), (1999). Handbook of aging and cognition (2nd
ed.). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

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 Glossary

Endure- դիմանալ, հանդուրժել

Decade-տասնամյակ
Capacity - ընդունակություն
Retention -պահպանում
Duration -շարունակություն
Innate-բնածին
Portion-մաս, բաժին
Previous -նախորդ
Recall -վերհիշել
Impression- տպավորություն
Claim -պահանջ
Sequentially - հաջորդաբար
Permanent – մշտական, անփոփոխ
Create-ստեղծել, արարել
Awareness -իրազեկում
Conscious -գիտակցող
Sufficient -բավարար
Classify-դասակարգում
Reach-հասնել
Occur-պատահել, տեղի ունենալ
Deepen-խորանալ
Require-պահանջել
Uppercase -մեծատառ
Lowercase -փոքրատառ
Structural -կառուցվածքային
Determine-որոշ(վ)ել, սահմանել
Retrieve-վերագտնել
Integrity -ամբողջություն
Underlies- հիմքում ընկած է
Distinguish-տարբեր(վ)ել, առանձնացնել
Perceive-ընկալել, ըմբռնել
Further-ավելի հեռու, հետագա
Recognition -ճանաչում
Endowed- օժտված

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