PHYC20015

PA R T 2
E L E C T R O M A G N ET I S M
P R O F E S S O R A N N R O B E R T S

A N N . R O B E R T S @ U N I M E L B . E D U . A U
ADMINISTRATION
• Lectures • Assignments (10% each)
– On-campus and livestreamed via Lecture Capture – Note process for extension application
– Recordings available after lectures – Will use Gradescope
• Tutorials – Due 13 September (available by 30 August)
~
– Tutor : TBC • 50/50 SR and EM
– EM tutorials start in Week 6 – Due 18 October (available by 4 October)
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~
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• LMS • Just EM

– Section slides now available • Exam (70%)

– Handwritten working made available as semester – Exam will be closed book and on-campus
progresses ~ – See University ‘Exams’ page for up-to-date
– Links to animations used in class ~ information
– Tutorial sheets available now • Textbook
• Solutions available at end of week of tutorial ~ – E. M. Purcell and D. J. Morin, Electricity and Magnetism,
3/e, Cambridge University Press
– Will be providing recommended reading and
suggested exercises from the text
– E-book available from library
– Other references
• See syllabus
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM

F U N DA M E N TA L S I G N I F I C A N C E T E C H N O L O G Y A P P L I C AT I O N S
• Central to physics • Power generation
– One of the four basic forces ~ • Electronics
• Electromagnetic waves are an important • Communication
probe of the Universe – Optical and RF
• Underpins further studies in physics, • Displays, sensors and cameras
engineering and provides a context for
• Lighting
studies in maths
• Medical imaging ~
MODULE OVERVIEW

• 8 sections • Induction
– Relativity and Faraday’s Law
• Electrostatics
• Electric potential and potential energy
– Conductors in electric fields & capacitors
Y • Inductors in Circuits
– Resonant Circuits

• Current and circuits • Maxwell’s Equations in differential form

– Electromagnetic waves
• Magnetostatics
• Electric and magnetic fields in matter ~
– Relativistic nature of magnetic field
– Vector potential
 SECTION 1
ELECTRIC FIELDS AND FORCES

P HYC 20015 EL EC TROMAG NETI SM

This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-SA

OVERVIEW

charge density
S E C T I O N OV E RV I E W
• Charge, electric force and electric field ~
• Finding fields from discrete and extended
- -
~
charge distributions
• Gauss’ Law in integral form
– Electric flux
– Concept ~
– Solutions for simple cases
• Gauss’ Law in differential form
– Divergence of a vector field
-
~
ELECTRIC CHARGE Charge can be positive or negative

C O N S E RV E D Q UA N T I S E D
• Total charge in an isolated • Electric charges come in units of one
system never changes ~ magnitude only ~

• Charge can be transferred – Equal to amount of charge carried by an

from one object to another
~ electron 𝑒𝑒 = 1.602176634 × 10−19 𝐶𝐶 ~
– 𝑞𝑞 = ±𝑁𝑁 𝑒𝑒 ~
• Net charge can be neither
created nor destroyed ~ – 𝑁𝑁 an integer ~

– Units
• Coloumb (C)
~
COULOMB’S LAW point charge
of a
~ size
𝐹𝐹⃗
𝑟𝑟̂
𝑟𝑟 + 𝑞𝑞
1

• There is a force between two stationary electric

charges ~ +
𝑞𝑞2
• Like charges repel ~
• Opposite charges attract ~

• Coulomb’s Law • Usually express Coulomb’s law in terms of 𝜀𝜀0

– Force on 𝑞𝑞1 due to presence of 𝑞𝑞2 1
𝑘𝑘 =
𝑞𝑞1 𝑞𝑞2 4𝜋𝜋𝜀𝜀0
𝐹𝐹⃗ = 𝑘𝑘 2
𝑟𝑟̂
𝑟𝑟 • Permittivity of the vacuum
– 𝑟𝑟 is distance from 𝑞𝑞1 to 𝑞𝑞2
– 𝜀𝜀0 = 8.854 × 10−12 𝐶𝐶 2 ⁄𝑁𝑁𝑚𝑚2
– 𝑟𝑟̂ is a unit vector pointing from 𝑞𝑞2 to 𝑞𝑞1 ~
– 𝑘𝑘 = 8.988 × 109 𝑁𝑁𝑚𝑚2 /𝐶𝐶 2
ELECTRIC FIELD Electric field mediates the electric
Force

• A collection of charges creates a local electric field 𝐸𝐸

– Units 𝑁𝑁/𝐶𝐶 or 𝑉𝑉/𝑚𝑚
• Another charge 𝑞𝑞 brought near these charges will
experience a force 𝑞𝑞𝑗𝑗
𝐹𝐹⃗ = 𝑞𝑞𝐸𝐸
• Electric field of a point charge 𝑄𝑄 𝑞𝑞𝑖𝑖 𝑟𝑟𝑗𝑗
1 𝑄𝑄 𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑖
𝐸𝐸 = 2
𝑟𝑟̂
4𝜋𝜋𝜀𝜀0 𝑟𝑟 𝑃𝑃 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦, 𝑧𝑧
• System of point charges 𝑟𝑟𝑗𝑗̂
𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑖̂
– Electric field is superposition of electric fields produced by
each individual charge
𝑁𝑁

𝐸𝐸 = 𝐸𝐸1 + 𝐸𝐸2 + 𝐸𝐸2 + ⋯ + 𝐸𝐸𝑁𝑁 = � 𝐸𝐸𝑛𝑛

𝑛𝑛=1
Vector sum!
ELECTRIC FIELD LINES
• The electric field is a vector field
-
• Can also draw electric field lines ~
• Direction of field is that of a positive • Electrostatic field lines begin on positive
charge placed in field charges and end on negative charges
• Can draw vectors • Line density corresponds to field strength
– Arrow defines direction of field
- -
Electric field lines
– Length is proportional to magnitude
-

T
⑦
-
- --
- - -
+
ELECTRIC FIELD
Distant charge distributions look like a
point charge if it has a net charge

EXAMPLES
~

~ ~
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~
~ ~

Source: Geek 3, Wikipedia

CHARGE DISTRIBUTIONS
• Volume distribution of charge described • Produces electric field at point 𝑃𝑃 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦, 𝑧𝑧
by the volume charge density at a point 1 𝜌𝜌 𝑥𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦𝑥, 𝑧𝑧𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑑𝑑𝑦𝑦𝑥𝑑𝑑𝑧𝑧𝑥
𝑥𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦𝑥, 𝑧𝑧𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝐸𝐸 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦, 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑟𝑟̂
4𝜋𝜋𝜀𝜀0 𝑟𝑟 2
– 𝜌𝜌 𝑥𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦𝑥, 𝑧𝑧𝑥 – 𝑟𝑟̂ points from 𝑥𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦𝑥, 𝑧𝑧𝑥 → 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦, 𝑧𝑧
– Charge per unit volume – 𝑟𝑟 is distance from 𝑥𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦𝑥, 𝑧𝑧𝑥 → 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦, 𝑧𝑧
– Units 𝐶𝐶 ⁄𝑚𝑚3
- Note distinction between source point -

• Charge in a volume 𝑑𝑑𝑉𝑉 = 𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑑𝑑𝑦𝑦𝑥𝑑𝑑𝑧𝑧𝑥 𝑥𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦𝑥, 𝑧𝑧𝑥 and observation point 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦, 𝑧𝑧
-
-

𝜌𝜌 𝑥𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦𝑥, 𝑧𝑧𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑑𝑑𝑦𝑦𝑥𝑑𝑑𝑧𝑧𝑥

𝑃𝑃 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦, 𝑧𝑧
𝑟𝑟
𝜌𝜌 𝑥𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦𝑥, 𝑧𝑧𝑥
𝑟𝑟̂
𝑥𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦𝑥, 𝑧𝑧𝑥 2 2 2
𝑟𝑟 = 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑥𝑥𝑥 + 𝑦𝑦 − 𝑦𝑦𝑥 + 𝑧𝑧 − 𝑧𝑧𝑥
 SURFACE AND LINEAR CHARGE
S U R FAC E C H A R G E LINEAR CHARGE
• For charge confined to a surface it makes sense • For charge confined to a line it makes sense
to refer to a surface charge density σ 𝑥𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦𝑥 to refer to a linear charge density λ 𝑠𝑠𝑥
• Charge per unit area • Charge per length
• Units 𝐶𝐶 ⁄𝑚𝑚2
-
• Units 𝐶𝐶 ⁄𝑚𝑚
-

• Charge on an area 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 ′ 𝑑𝑑𝑦𝑦𝑥 of the surface • Charge on an element of length 𝑑𝑑𝑠𝑠𝑥 of the
is 𝜎𝜎𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 ′ 𝑑𝑑𝑦𝑦𝑥 line is λ𝑑𝑑𝑠𝑠𝑥

𝑑𝑑𝑠𝑠𝑥
CHARGE DISTRIBUTIONS
TOTAL FIELD
• For a distribution of charge we add • Surface charge
contributions from all source points – Reduces to integral over the surface
𝑥𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦𝑥, 𝑧𝑧𝑥 1 𝜎𝜎 𝑥𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦𝑥, 𝑧𝑧𝑥
𝐸𝐸 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦, 𝑧𝑧 = � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑟𝑟̂
– Integrate over the whole distribution ~ 4𝜋𝜋𝜀𝜀0 𝑟𝑟 2 ~
• Total field • Line charge
1 𝜌𝜌 𝑥𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦𝑥, 𝑧𝑧𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑑𝑑𝑦𝑦𝑥𝑑𝑑𝑧𝑧𝑥 – Reduces to integral over the line
𝐸𝐸 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦, 𝑧𝑧 = � 2
𝑟𝑟̂
4𝜋𝜋𝜀𝜀0 𝑟𝑟
1 λ 𝑥𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦𝑥, 𝑧𝑧𝑥
𝐸𝐸 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦, 𝑧𝑧 = � 2
𝑑𝑑𝑠𝑠𝑥𝑟𝑟̂ ~
4𝜋𝜋𝜀𝜀0 𝑟𝑟

• Choose parameterization to suit geometry

EXAMPLE 1
RING OF CHARGE

𝑃𝑃 • Consider a point on the axis of the ring a distance 𝑧𝑧 from the centre of the
ring
– Ring radius 𝑅𝑅
– Linear charge density 𝜆𝜆
• What is the electric field at 𝑃𝑃?
𝑟𝑟
𝑧𝑧

𝑅𝑅

↑
 Document
available on LMS
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 Document
available on LMS

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 EXAMPLE 1
RING OF CHARGE
𝜃𝜃 𝑑𝑑𝐸𝐸
𝑃𝑃 • Consider a point on the axis of the ring a distance 𝑧𝑧 from the centre of the
ring
– Ring radius 𝑅𝑅
– Linear charge density 𝜆𝜆
– Each element of length 𝑑𝑑𝑠𝑠 carries a charge 𝑑𝑑𝑞𝑞 = 𝜆𝜆𝑑𝑑𝑠𝑠
𝑟𝑟
𝑧𝑧 – Each element is a distance 𝑟𝑟 = 𝑧𝑧 2 + 𝑅𝑅 2 from observation point ~
• Field contribution magnitude
1 𝑑𝑑𝑞𝑞 1 𝜆𝜆𝑑𝑑𝑠𝑠
𝑑𝑑𝐸𝐸 = =
4𝜋𝜋𝜀𝜀0 𝑟𝑟 2 4𝜋𝜋𝜀𝜀0 𝑧𝑧 2 + 𝑅𝑅2 ~
𝑅𝑅
𝑑𝑑𝑠𝑠
 EXAMPLE 1
RING OF CHARGE
• Field contribution magnitude
𝜃𝜃 𝜃𝜃 𝑑𝑑𝐸𝐸 1 𝑑𝑑𝑞𝑞 1 𝜆𝜆𝑑𝑑𝑠𝑠
𝑃𝑃 𝑑𝑑𝐸𝐸 = =
4𝜋𝜋𝜀𝜀0 𝑟𝑟 2 4𝜋𝜋𝜀𝜀0 𝑧𝑧 2 + 𝑅𝑅2
• Net field will be in 𝑧𝑧 −direction - take 𝑧𝑧 −component
𝜃𝜃
R
1 𝜆𝜆𝑑𝑑𝑠𝑠 1 𝜆𝜆𝑑𝑑𝑠𝑠 𝑧𝑧 1 𝜆𝜆𝑑𝑑𝑠𝑠 𝑧𝑧
4𝜋𝜋𝜀𝜀0 𝑧𝑧 2 + 𝑅𝑅2 𝑟𝑟 =
𝑑𝑑𝐸𝐸𝑧𝑧 = cos 𝜃𝜃 = =
4𝜋𝜋𝜀𝜀0 𝑧𝑧 2 + 𝑅𝑅2 4𝜋𝜋𝜀𝜀0 𝑧𝑧 2 + 𝑅𝑅2 𝑧𝑧 2 + 𝑅𝑅2
𝑟𝑟 • Integrate around ring
𝑧𝑧
1 𝜆𝜆𝑧𝑧
=...
Jds
𝐸𝐸𝑧𝑧 𝑧𝑧 = × 2𝜋𝜋𝑅𝑅
4𝜋𝜋𝜀𝜀0 𝑧𝑧 2 + 𝑅𝑅2 3⁄2 -
=
ZAR
• Answer
1 𝜆𝜆𝑧𝑧𝑅𝑅
𝐸𝐸 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑧𝑧̂
𝑅𝑅 2𝜀𝜀0 𝑧𝑧 2 + 𝑅𝑅2 3⁄2
𝑑𝑑𝑠𝑠
Et ast
e

E(z 0)
= = 0
 of
Ring charge
conceptualising Modelling
Electrostatic problem

Ring of point charges da of length ds => dq = Ads

Each
'charge' contributes

I
Side view
dE
= =O
Z

--
Analysing
r =Rh
E will perpendicular ring-take z-component
Symmetry=> be to

cosQTdEuse
Top view & dE
Fz =

field

G
Total

Fr =By
-

st a=
XdS
EXAMPLE 2
HEMISPHERE OF CHARGE
• Find field at 𝑃𝑃 at centre of hemisphere
– Radius 𝑑𝑑 and surface charge density 𝜎𝜎
• Decompose into rings of radius 𝑅𝑅 𝑧𝑧 and width 𝑤𝑤
• Field contribution from each ring
1 𝜆𝜆𝑧𝑧𝑅𝑅 𝑧𝑧
𝐸𝐸 𝑧𝑧 = 3⁄2
𝑧𝑧̂
2𝜀𝜀0 𝑧𝑧 2 + 𝑅𝑅 𝑧𝑧 2
𝑃𝑃
EXAMPLE 2
HEMISPHERE OF CHARGE
• Find field at 𝑃𝑃 at centre of hemisphere
– Radius 𝑑𝑑 and surface charge density 𝜎𝜎
• Decompose into rings of radius 𝑅𝑅 𝑧𝑧 and width 𝑤𝑤
• Field contribution from each ring
1 𝜆𝜆𝑧𝑧𝑅𝑅 𝑧𝑧
𝐸𝐸 𝑧𝑧 = 3⁄2
𝑧𝑧̂
2𝜀𝜀0 𝑧𝑧 2 + 𝑅𝑅 𝑧𝑧 2
𝑃𝑃
EXAMPLE 2 Note that 𝑧𝑧 is distance
from centre of each ring

HEMISPHERE OF CHARGE
• Find field at 𝑃𝑃 at centre of hemisphere
– Radius 𝑑𝑑 and surface charge density 𝜎𝜎
• Decompose into rings of radius 𝑅𝑅 𝑧𝑧 and width 𝑤𝑤
• Field contribution from each ring
1 𝜆𝜆𝑧𝑧𝑅𝑅 𝑧𝑧
𝐸𝐸 𝑧𝑧 = 3⁄2
𝑧𝑧̂
2𝜀𝜀0 𝑧𝑧 2 + 𝑅𝑅 𝑧𝑧 2
𝑃𝑃 • Charge per unit length
𝑞𝑞 𝜎𝜎 × area of ring 𝜎𝜎 × 2𝜋𝜋𝑅𝑅𝑤𝑤
𝜆𝜆 = = = =#
𝜎𝜎𝑤𝑤
2𝜋𝜋𝑅𝑅 circumference 2𝜋𝜋𝑅𝑅
• Sum up contributions from each ring
1 σ𝑤𝑤𝑅𝑅 𝑧𝑧 𝑧𝑧
𝑑𝑑𝐸𝐸𝑧𝑧 𝑧𝑧 =
2𝜀𝜀0 𝑧𝑧 2 + 𝑅𝑅 𝑧𝑧 2 3⁄2
EXAMPLE 2
HEMISPHERE OF CHARGE
1 σ𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 𝑧𝑧 𝑧𝑧
𝑃𝑃 • Each ring contributes 𝑑𝑑𝐸𝐸𝑧𝑧 𝑧𝑧 =
2𝜀𝜀0 𝑧𝑧 2 +𝑤𝑤 𝑧𝑧 2 3⁄2
– Sum up contributions from each ring noting 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑑𝑑 cos 𝜃𝜃
𝜃𝜃 𝑑𝑑
𝑧𝑧 • Radius of ring: 𝑅𝑅 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑑𝑑 sin 𝜃𝜃 ⟹ 𝑧𝑧 2 + 𝑅𝑅 𝑧𝑧 2 3⁄2 = 𝑑𝑑3
1 σ × 𝑤𝑤 × 𝑑𝑑 sin 𝜃𝜃 × 𝑑𝑑 cos 𝜃𝜃 1 σ𝑤𝑤 sin 𝜃𝜃 cos 𝜃𝜃
𝑅𝑅 𝑧𝑧 ⇒ 𝑑𝑑𝐸𝐸𝑧𝑧 𝜃𝜃 = =
2𝜀𝜀0 𝑑𝑑3 2𝜀𝜀0 𝑑𝑑
• Width of ring: 𝑤𝑤 = 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝜃𝜃

𝑃𝑃
• Contribution to field
σ sin 𝜃𝜃 cos 𝜃𝜃 𝑑𝑑𝜃𝜃
𝜃𝜃 𝑑𝑑𝐸𝐸𝑧𝑧 𝜃𝜃 =
𝑑𝑑𝜃𝜃 𝑑𝑑 2𝜀𝜀0
• Integrating
𝜋𝜋⁄2 𝜋𝜋⁄2
σ σ sin2 𝜃𝜃 σ
𝐸𝐸𝑧𝑧 𝑃𝑃 = � sin 𝜃𝜃 cos 𝜃𝜃 𝑑𝑑𝜃𝜃 = =
𝑤𝑤 2𝜀𝜀0 2𝜀𝜀0 2 0
4𝜀𝜀0
0
GAUSS’ LAW
REVISION
• In first year
First year focussed on two special cases
• Saw that the electric flux through a closed
surface was related to the net electric charge 1.
inside the surface – 𝐸𝐸 = 𝐸𝐸 constant on surface AND
𝑞𝑞 – 𝐸𝐸 at constant angle 𝜃𝜃 to 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑⃗ at all points on surface
*
Φ𝐸𝐸 = � 𝐸𝐸 * ⃗
� 𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑 =
𝜀𝜀0 Φ𝐸𝐸 = 𝐸𝐸𝑑𝑑 cos 𝜃𝜃
– Furthermore, if 𝐸𝐸 ∥ 𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑⃗ at all points on the surface
⇒ Φ𝐸𝐸 = 𝐸𝐸𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑⃗ 2.
– 𝐸𝐸 ⊥ 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑⃗ at all points on the surface OR
– 𝐸𝐸 = 0 at all points on the surface
⇒ Φ𝐸𝐸 = 0
THE AREA VECTOR, 𝑨𝑨
REVISION
𝑑𝑑⃗

• The area vector, 𝑑𝑑⃗

• Magnitude
⃗ = surface area (m2)
– |𝑑𝑑| Area, A
⃗
• Direction (𝑑𝑑)
– Perpendicular to the surface
• Electric flux 𝑑𝑑⃗

– Φ𝐸𝐸 = 𝐸𝐸 � 𝑑𝑑⃗ = 𝐸𝐸 𝑑𝑑⃗ 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑠𝑠𝜃𝜃

Area, A
FLUX Φ 𝐸𝐸 = 𝐸𝐸 � 𝑑𝑑 = 𝐸𝐸 𝑑𝑑 COS 𝜃𝜃

Non-uniform field  sum contributions from each piece

∆𝑑𝑑⃗ 𝑗𝑗 ∆𝑨𝑨 𝑖𝑖
∆𝑑𝑑⃗ 𝑖𝑖 θ
𝐸𝐸𝑗𝑗
𝐸𝐸𝑖𝑖

𝐸𝐸𝑖𝑖

Φ𝐸𝐸 = � 𝐸𝐸 � 𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑⃗ Φ𝐸𝐸 = � 𝐸𝐸 � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑⃗

𝑎𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑝𝑝𝑖𝑖𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
A CLOSED (3D) SURFACE
• 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑⃗ vectors point outwards from surface
• 𝐸𝐸 � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑⃗
– Positive, negative or zero
– Is 𝐸𝐸 entering or exiting the surface?
• Each element of surface contributes to flux
– 𝑑𝑑Φ𝐸𝐸 = 𝐸𝐸 � 𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑⃗
• Sum them! Closed surface

Φ𝐸𝐸 = � 𝑑𝑑Φ = � 𝐸𝐸 � 𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑⃗ Φ𝐸𝐸 = � 𝐸𝐸 � 𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑⃗ = � 𝐸𝐸 � 𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑⃗

𝑎𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑝𝑝𝑖𝑖𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑎𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑝𝑝𝑖𝑖𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑙 𝑝𝑝𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑎𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
 GAUSS’ LAW
• Gauss’ Law
The total electric flux out of a closed surface is equal to
the net charge enclosed by the surface divided by
the permittivity
𝑞𝑞𝑝𝑝𝑛𝑛𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑙
Φ𝐸𝐸 = � 𝐸𝐸 � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑⃗ =
𝜀𝜀0

• Gauss’ Law always applies

– Law of physics
• Can be used to find the electric field in some
cases with high symmetry
GAUSS’ LAW
CHARGE DISTRIBUTION
𝜌𝜌 𝑥𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦𝑥, 𝑧𝑧𝑥
• Volume distribution of charge described by
the volume charge density at a point, 𝜌𝜌
𝑥𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦𝑥, 𝑧𝑧𝑥
• Total charge inside a Gaussian surface

𝑞𝑞 = � 𝜌𝜌 𝑥𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦𝑥, 𝑧𝑧𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 ′ 𝑑𝑑𝑦𝑦 ′ 𝑑𝑑𝑧𝑧𝑥 • Gauss’ Law for continuous distribution of
charge charge
distribution
1
• Continuous distribution Φ𝐸𝐸 = � 𝐸𝐸 � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑⃗ = � 𝜌𝜌𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝜀𝜀0

𝑞𝑞 = � 𝜌𝜌𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 • Integral on right is over volume enclosed by

Gaussian surface
enclosed
by surface • Need to integrate over area or a line for
surface and linear charge densities,
respectively
GAUSS’ LAW – EXAMPLE
SPHERICAL CHARGE DISTRIBUTION
• Radially symmetric charge distribution
𝜌𝜌 𝑥𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦𝑥, 𝑧𝑧𝑥 = 𝜌𝜌 𝑟𝑟𝑥
• Gauss’ Law
1
Φ𝐸𝐸 = � 𝐸𝐸 � 𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑⃗ = � 𝜌𝜌𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝜀𝜀0

• Analysing symmetry, we expect

– 𝐸𝐸 will be radially directed, 𝐸𝐸 = 𝐸𝐸 𝑟𝑟̂
– 𝐸𝐸 = 𝐸𝐸 depends only on 𝑟𝑟
– 𝑟𝑟 is distance from centre of charge distribution
GAUSS’ LAW – EXAMPLE
SPHERICAL CHARGE DISTRIBUTION
• Gauss’ Law
1
� 𝐸𝐸 � 𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑⃗ = � 𝜌𝜌 𝑟𝑟 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝜀𝜀0

• Choose Gaussian surface to be a sphere, radius 𝑟𝑟

• LHS = Φ𝐸𝐸 = 𝐸𝐸𝑑𝑑
– Special case, 𝐸𝐸 ∥ 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑⃗ and 𝐸𝐸 constant
• Hence
Φ𝐸𝐸 = 4𝜋𝜋𝑟𝑟 2 𝐸𝐸
GAUSS’ LAW – EXAMPLE
SPHERICAL CHARGE DISTRIBUTION
• Finite, radially symmetric distribution with 𝜌𝜌 = 0 for 𝑟𝑟 > 𝑅𝑅
1
RHS = � 𝜌𝜌𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑟𝑟𝑥
𝜀𝜀0
𝑑𝑑𝑟𝑟𝑥
• Break up sphere into nested spherical shells and sum
𝑠𝑠
1
RHS = � 𝜌𝜌 𝑟𝑟𝑥 × 4𝜋𝜋𝑟𝑟𝑥2 𝑑𝑑𝑟𝑟𝑥
𝜀𝜀0
0
𝑠𝑠
4𝜋𝜋 #
= � 𝑑𝑑𝑟𝑟 𝑟𝑟𝑥2 𝜌𝜌 𝑟𝑟𝑥
𝜀𝜀0
0
Shell surface area 4𝜋𝜋𝑟𝑟 ′2
Width 𝑑𝑑𝑟𝑟𝑥
Volume 4𝜋𝜋𝑟𝑟𝑥2 𝑑𝑑𝑟𝑟𝑥
GAUSS’ LAW – EXAMPLE
SPHERICAL CHARGE DISTRIBUTION
• For 𝑟𝑟 > 𝑅𝑅, the RHS will be the total • For 𝑟𝑟 < 𝑅𝑅, the RHS will be
charge in the sphere 𝑠𝑠
4𝜋𝜋
𝑄𝑄 4𝜋𝜋𝑟𝑟 2 𝐸𝐸 = � 𝑑𝑑𝑟𝑟𝑥 𝑟𝑟𝑥2 𝜌𝜌 𝑟𝑟𝑥
4𝜋𝜋𝑟𝑟 2 𝐸𝐸 = 𝜀𝜀0
𝜀𝜀0 0

i.e. i.e.
𝑠𝑠
𝑄𝑄 1
𝐸𝐸 = 𝐸𝐸 = � 𝑑𝑑𝑟𝑟𝑥 𝑟𝑟𝑥2 𝜌𝜌 𝑟𝑟𝑥
4𝜋𝜋𝜀𝜀0 𝑟𝑟 2 𝜀𝜀0 𝑟𝑟 2
0
• Field is the same as if charge concentrated
in centre of sphere
𝑠𝑠
~ 1 2
𝑟𝑟̂ � 𝑑𝑑𝑟𝑟𝑥 𝑟𝑟𝑥 𝜌𝜌 𝑟𝑟𝑥 𝑟𝑟 < 𝑅𝑅
𝜀𝜀0 𝑟𝑟 2
𝐸𝐸 𝑟𝑟 = 0
𝑄𝑄
𝑟𝑟̂ 𝑟𝑟 > 𝑅𝑅
4𝜋𝜋𝜀𝜀0 𝑟𝑟 2
GAUSS’ LAW – EXAMPLE
LINE OF CHARGE
𝐸𝐸
• Gauss’ Law
𝑞𝑞𝑝𝑝𝑛𝑛𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑙
Φ𝐸𝐸 = � 𝐸𝐸 � 𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑⃗ =
𝜀𝜀0

--
• Long line of charge
– Charge per unit length 𝜆𝜆 ~
𝐸𝐸
• Analysing symmetry, we expect
– 𝐸𝐸 = 𝐸𝐸 depends only on 𝜌𝜌 where 𝜌𝜌 is
distance from line of charge
– 𝐸𝐸 will be radially directed, 𝐸𝐸 = 𝐸𝐸 𝜌𝜌�
𝜆𝜆
• Gaussian surface
– Cylinder, radius 𝑟𝑟 and length 𝐿𝐿
-
 GAUSS’ LAW – EXAMPLE
LINE OF CHARGE 𝐿𝐿

• Gauss’ Law 𝜌𝜌
𝑞𝑞𝑝𝑝𝑛𝑛𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑙
Φ𝐸𝐸 =
𝜀𝜀0
• LHS is sum of curved section and flat ends
– Special cases
– Flat ends 𝐸𝐸
Φ𝐸𝐸 = 0
• Since 𝐸𝐸 ⊥ 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑⃗ (special case)
– Curved surface
Φ𝐸𝐸 = 𝐸𝐸𝑑𝑑 = 2𝜋𝜋𝜌𝜌𝐿𝐿𝐸𝐸
• Since 𝐸𝐸 ∥ 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑⃗ and 𝐸𝐸 constant
𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 = 2𝜋𝜋𝜌𝜌𝐿𝐿𝐸𝐸
GAUSS’ LAW – EXAMPLE
LINE OF CHARGE 𝐸𝐸
𝜌𝜌

• Gauss’ Law 𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑⃗

𝑞𝑞𝑝𝑝𝑛𝑛𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑙
Φ𝐸𝐸 =
𝜀𝜀0
𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 = 2𝜋𝜋𝜌𝜌𝐿𝐿𝐸𝐸
𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑⃗
𝐿𝐿𝜆𝜆 𝐸𝐸
𝜀𝜀0 ~
RHS =

• Hence 𝜌𝜌
𝐿𝐿𝜆𝜆
2𝜋𝜋𝜌𝜌𝐿𝐿𝐸𝐸 =
𝜀𝜀0 𝐿𝐿
• Electric field
𝜆𝜆
𝐸𝐸 = 𝜌𝜌�
2𝜋𝜋𝜀𝜀0 𝜌𝜌
GAUSS’ LAW
SHEET OF CHARGE
• Infinitesimally thin sheet of charge with
surface charge 𝜎𝜎
• Analysing symmetry, we expect
– 𝐸𝐸 can depend only on perpendicular
distance from surface
𝑑𝑑
– 𝐸𝐸 will be normal to surface
• Choose Gaussian ‘pillbox’
– Vertical cylinder cross-sectional area 𝑑𝑑
– Symmetrically located on sheet of charge
GAUSS’ LAW
+ + + + + + + + + + + +
+ + + + + + + + + + + +
+ + + + + + + + + + + +
SHEET OF CHARGE +
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
• Infinitesimally thin sheet of charge with + + + + + + + + + + + +
surface charge 𝜎𝜎 + + + + + + + + + + + +
+ + + + + + + + + + + +
• Analysing symmetry, we expect + + + + + + + + + + + +
+ + + + + + + + + + + +
– 𝐸𝐸 can depend only on perpendicular
distance from surface
– 𝐸𝐸 will be normal to surface
• Choose Gaussian ‘pillbox’ 𝐸𝐸

– Vertical cylinder cross-sectional area 𝑑𝑑

– Symmetrically located on sheet of charge
+ + + + + + + + + + + +
 GAUSS’ LAW
+ + + + + + + + + + + +
+ + + + + + + + + + + +
+ + + + + + + + + + + +
SHEET OF CHARGE +
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ + + + + + + + + + + +
• Gauss’ Law + + + + + + + + + 𝑑𝑑+𝑑𝑑⃗ + +
Φ𝐸𝐸 =
𝑞𝑞𝑝𝑝𝑛𝑛𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑙 ~ + + + + + + + + + + + +
𝜀𝜀0 + + + + + + + + + + + +
• RHS + + + + + + + + + + + +
𝑞𝑞𝑝𝑝𝑛𝑛𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑙 𝜎𝜎𝑑𝑑
=
~
>
-- 𝜀𝜀0 𝜀𝜀0
• LHS EL A

Φ𝐸𝐸 = Φ𝐸𝐸,𝑝𝑝𝑖𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑝𝑝 + Φ𝐸𝐸,𝑝𝑝𝑛𝑛𝑙𝑙 𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = Φ𝐸𝐸,𝑝𝑝𝑛𝑛𝑙𝑙 𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑⃗ 𝐸𝐸

Φ𝐸𝐸 = 𝐸𝐸 × 𝑇𝑇𝑐𝑐𝑇𝑇𝑑𝑑𝑇𝑇 𝑑𝑑𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑑𝑑 = 𝐸𝐸 × 2𝑑𝑑 ~

• Hence + + + + + + + + + + + +
𝜎𝜎𝑑𝑑 ~
𝐸𝐸 × 2𝑑𝑑 =
𝜀𝜀0
𝜎𝜎
⟹ 𝐸𝐸 =
2𝜀𝜀0
-
GAUSS’ LAW
SPHERICAL SHELL
• Hollow shell, radius 𝑅𝑅
• Uniform surface charge density 𝜎𝜎
S

– Total charge 𝑄𝑄 = 4𝜋𝜋𝑅𝑅2 𝜎𝜎

• Analysing symmetry, we expect
– 𝐸𝐸 can depend only on radial distance from
centre of sphere
– 𝐸𝐸 will be radially directed
• Choose Gaussian surface to be sphere
radius 𝑟𝑟
GAUSS’ LAW
SPHERICAL SHELL
𝑞𝑞𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒
• Gauss’ Law Φ𝐸𝐸 =
𝜀𝜀0
• LHS
Φ𝐸𝐸 = 𝐸𝐸𝑑𝑑 = 𝐸𝐸4𝜋𝜋𝑟𝑟 2
• RHS
– For 𝑟𝑟 < 𝑅𝑅
𝑞𝑞𝑝𝑝𝑛𝑛𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑙 = 0 ∴ 𝐸𝐸 = 0 ~

~
– No field inside
– For 𝑟𝑟 > 𝑅𝑅
𝑞𝑞𝑝𝑝𝑛𝑛𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑙 = 4𝜋𝜋𝑅𝑅2 𝜎𝜎 0 𝑟𝑟 < 𝑅𝑅
2
• Gauss’ Law 𝐸𝐸 = � 𝜎𝜎𝑅𝑅
𝑟𝑟̂ 𝑟𝑟 > 𝑅𝑅
4𝜋𝜋𝑅𝑅 2 𝜎𝜎 𝜀𝜀0 𝑟𝑟 2
𝐸𝐸4𝜋𝜋𝑟𝑟 2 =
𝜀𝜀0
LAYERS OF CHARGE
WHAT DOES THIS MEAN?
• Spherical shell of charge
– Inside 𝐸𝐸 = 0
– Just outside
𝜎𝜎𝑅𝑅2 𝜎𝜎
𝐸𝐸𝑙𝑙𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑜 𝑅𝑅 = =
𝜀𝜀0 𝑅𝑅2 𝜀𝜀0
• Sheet of charge
𝜎𝜎
𝐸𝐸𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑝𝑝𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑒𝑤𝑤𝑒𝑝𝑝𝑠𝑠𝑝𝑝 =
2𝜀𝜀0
• These are different – why?
LAYERS OF CHARGE
WHAT DOES THIS MEAN? 𝜎𝜎
𝐸𝐸𝑙𝑙𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑜 =
𝜀𝜀0
𝐸𝐸𝑖𝑖𝑛𝑛 = 0
• Spherical shell of charge
– Inside 𝐸𝐸 = 0
– Just outside
𝜎𝜎
𝐸𝐸𝑙𝑙𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑜 𝑅𝑅 =
𝜀𝜀0
• Sheet of charge
𝜎𝜎
𝐸𝐸𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑝𝑝𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑒𝑤𝑤𝑒𝑝𝑝𝑠𝑠𝑝𝑝 =
2𝜀𝜀0
𝜎𝜎
• These are different – why? 𝐸𝐸
2𝜀𝜀0
• In general discontinuity in component of 𝐸𝐸
𝜎𝜎
normal to a plane of charge is 𝜎𝜎
𝜀𝜀0
𝜎𝜎 𝐸𝐸 −
𝐸𝐸2𝑛𝑛 − 𝐸𝐸1𝑛𝑛 = 2𝜀𝜀0
𝜀𝜀0
Electric fields on either side of a surface charge distribution

Fe

&
di
②
Gauss'
Law =

closed
LHS =
Stopbottom
side ,
0 as > 0
-

"small" so does not flutthe

area is
Exp = E d.

= component of I
=
En A

normal to surface

Similarly bottom =
-

En A
-
> normal is defined upward
A area of ends of pillbox A
genclosed
&
= => =

Gauss' law =
Ge = (Ezn-Ein)A = Also

=> F2n-Ein =
ELECTROSTATIC PRESSURE
• What is the force on the shell of charge with 𝜎𝜎
itself? 𝐸𝐸𝑙𝑙𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑜 =
𝜀𝜀0
– Electrostatic pressure 𝐸𝐸𝑖𝑖𝑛𝑛 = 0
• To find force on a patch of surface charge need
to ignore contribution to electric field from itself ~
• Relevant electric field

I 1
𝐸𝐸𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑒𝑝𝑝𝑠𝑠 = 𝐸𝐸𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑒𝑝𝑝 + 𝐸𝐸𝑎𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑤𝑤
2
𝜎𝜎
• Force per unit area 𝐸𝐸𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑒𝑝𝑝𝑠𝑠 𝐸𝐸𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑒𝑝𝑝
2𝜀𝜀0
𝑓𝑓⃗ = 𝜎𝜎𝐸𝐸𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑒𝑝𝑝𝑠𝑠
• Spherical shell of charge outward pressure 𝜎𝜎
𝜎𝜎 2 𝜎𝜎 𝐸𝐸𝑎𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑤𝑤
𝑃𝑃 =
2𝜀𝜀0 2𝜀𝜀0

I
flat P
Wh
sheet =

+ O)
.

P= WFother = 5 +
= Since they cancel out
Electrostatic pressure Top view

+
>
-
>
-

Fabore =
Fother paten

Fother side view

>

below
-

Frpat
Fother-In
= s

Adding :

>
-

Eabove + Ebelow
2
Fother =
below

=> Father =
I) Fabore +
Ebelow)
E qE
Force on
charge q
: =

Force
per unit
area =

(t) Fother & Fother

DIVERGENCE OF A VECTOR FUNCTION

• Consider a vector function 𝐹𝐹⃗ 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦, 𝑧𝑧

• Want to define a ‘flux like’ quantity at each
point in space
• Consider volume 𝑉𝑉
• Decompose into volume elements 𝑉𝑉𝑖𝑖

~
DIVERGENCE OF A VECTOR FUNCTION
• Consider two adjacent cells
• Total flux
• Want to define a ‘flux like’ quantity at each
Φ𝑜𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑎𝑎𝑙𝑙 = Φ1 + Φ2
point in space
• Note contributions to flux from common
side cancel ~

𝑉𝑉𝑖𝑖 Φ𝑖𝑖
DIVERGENCE OF A VECTOR FUNCTION
• Consider two cells
• Total flux
• Consider a vector function 𝐹𝐹⃗ 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦, 𝑧𝑧 Φ𝑜𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑎𝑎𝑙𝑙 = Φ1 + Φ2
• Want to define a ‘flux like’ quantity at each • Note contributions to flux from common
point in space side cancel
• Many cells
𝑁𝑁 𝑁𝑁

Φ𝑜𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑎𝑎𝑙𝑙 = � Φ𝑖𝑖 = � � 𝐹𝐹⃗ � 𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑⃗𝑖𝑖

-

𝑖𝑖=1 𝑖𝑖=1 𝑆𝑆𝑖𝑖

DIFFERENTIAL FORM OF GAUSS’ LAW
• Consider
• Normalise to the volume of each element
Φ𝑖𝑖
� 𝐹𝐹⃗ � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑⃗𝑖𝑖
𝑉𝑉𝑖𝑖
𝑆𝑆𝑖𝑖

• This quantity, however, does not approach a • We define this as the divergence of the
limit as the number of subdivisions increases function

1
div 𝐹𝐹⃗ ≡ lim � 𝐹𝐹⃗ � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑⃗𝑖𝑖
𝑉𝑉𝑖𝑖 →0 𝑉𝑉𝑖𝑖
𝑆𝑆𝑖𝑖

div 𝐹𝐹⃗ is the flux out of the volume 𝑉𝑉𝑖𝑖 per unit
volume, in the limit of infinitesimal 𝑉𝑉𝑖𝑖
• Scalar quantity
• Value depends on the position
GAUSS’ THEOREM
• We know
𝑁𝑁

� 𝐹𝐹⃗ � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑⃗ = � � 𝐹𝐹⃗ � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑⃗𝑖𝑖

𝑆𝑆 𝑖𝑖=1 𝑆𝑆𝑖𝑖

• This means that divide into N smal

#
volumes
𝑁𝑁 𝑁𝑁
∫𝑆𝑆 𝐹𝐹⃗ � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑⃗𝑖𝑖
� 𝐹𝐹⃗ � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑⃗ = � � 𝐹𝐹⃗ � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑⃗𝑖𝑖 = � 𝑉𝑉𝑖𝑖 𝑖𝑖
𝑉𝑉𝑖𝑖
𝑆𝑆 𝑖𝑖=1 𝑆𝑆𝑖𝑖 𝑖𝑖=1

• Integrals over each infinitesimal quantity are related to the divergence of 𝐹𝐹⃗ at each point

1
div 𝐹𝐹⃗ = lim � 𝐹𝐹⃗ � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑⃗𝑖𝑖
𝑉𝑉𝑖𝑖 →0 𝑉𝑉𝑖𝑖
𝑆𝑆𝑖𝑖
• So
𝑁𝑁 𝑁𝑁

� 𝐹𝐹⃗ � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑⃗ = � � 𝐹𝐹⃗ � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑⃗𝑖𝑖 = � 𝑉𝑉𝑖𝑖 div 𝐹𝐹⃗ → � div𝐹𝐹𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

⃗
𝑆𝑆 𝑖𝑖=1 𝑆𝑆𝑖𝑖 𝑖𝑖=1 𝑉𝑉
GAUSS’ LAW
• Gauss’ Theorem

� 𝐹𝐹⃗ � 𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑⃗ = � div 𝐹𝐹⃗ 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑆𝑆 𝑉𝑉
e
• Take 𝐹𝐹⃗ as electric field, so left hand side is electric flux:
>
- che
⑧
𝜌𝜌
g
Pe = di = � div 𝐸𝐸 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 e is volume
𝜀𝜀0
.

𝑉𝑉 density
• True for any volume ⟹
𝜌𝜌
A div 𝐸𝐸 =
𝜀𝜀0
* at a
particular point
• Gauss’ Law in differential form
DIVERGENCE IN CARTESIAN
COORDINATES
∆𝑥𝑥 ∆𝑦𝑦
• Flux through two opposite faces depends on 𝑥𝑥 + , 𝑦𝑦 + , 𝑧𝑧 + ∆𝑧𝑧
Box volume 𝑉𝑉𝑖𝑖 = ∆𝑥𝑥∆𝑦𝑦∆𝑧𝑧 2 2
difference in 𝐹𝐹𝑧𝑧 between these two faces
– To lowest order this difference is
𝜕𝜕𝐹𝐹𝑧𝑧
∆𝑧𝑧
𝜕𝜕𝑧𝑧
• Net flux out of these two surfaces is
𝜕𝜕𝐹𝐹𝑧𝑧 𝜕𝜕𝐹𝐹𝑧𝑧
∆𝑧𝑧 × 𝑑𝑑𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑑𝑑 = ∆𝑥𝑥∆𝑧𝑧∆𝑦𝑦
𝜕𝜕𝑧𝑧 𝜕𝜕𝑧𝑧
• Total flux out of box 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦, 𝑧𝑧 ∆𝑥𝑥 ∆𝑦𝑦
𝑥𝑥 + , 𝑦𝑦 + , 𝑧𝑧
2 2
𝜕𝜕𝐹𝐹𝑥𝑥 𝜕𝜕𝐹𝐹𝑒𝑒 𝜕𝜕𝐹𝐹𝑧𝑧
� 𝐹𝐹⃗ � 𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑⃗𝑖𝑖 = + + ∆𝑥𝑥∆𝑧𝑧∆𝑦𝑦
𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥 𝜕𝜕𝑦𝑦 𝜕𝜕𝑧𝑧
𝑆𝑆𝑖𝑖
DIVERGENCE IN CARTESIAN
COORDINATES
• Total flux out of box
𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦, 𝑧𝑧
𝜕𝜕𝐹𝐹𝑥𝑥 𝜕𝜕𝐹𝐹𝑒𝑒 𝜕𝜕𝐹𝐹𝑧𝑧
� 𝐹𝐹⃗ � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑⃗𝑖𝑖 = + + ∆𝑥𝑥∆𝑧𝑧∆𝑦𝑦 Box volume 𝑉𝑉𝑖𝑖 = ∆𝑥𝑥∆𝑦𝑦∆𝑧𝑧
𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥 𝜕𝜕𝑦𝑦 𝜕𝜕𝑧𝑧
𝑆𝑆𝑖𝑖
• Divergence

1 1 𝜕𝜕𝐹𝐹𝑥𝑥 𝜕𝜕𝐹𝐹𝑒𝑒 𝜕𝜕𝐹𝐹𝑧𝑧

div 𝐹𝐹⃗ = lim ⃗ ⃗
� 𝐹𝐹 � 𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑖 = + + ∆𝑥𝑥∆𝑧𝑧∆𝑦𝑦
𝑉𝑉𝑖𝑖 →0 𝑉𝑉𝑖𝑖 𝑉𝑉𝑖𝑖 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥 𝜕𝜕𝑦𝑦 𝜕𝜕𝑧𝑧
𝑆𝑆𝑖𝑖

• Divergence in Cartesian coordinates

& 𝜕𝜕𝐹𝐹𝑥𝑥 𝜕𝜕𝐹𝐹𝑒𝑒 𝜕𝜕𝐹𝐹𝑧𝑧

⃗
div 𝐹𝐹 = + +
𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥 𝜕𝜕𝑦𝑦 𝜕𝜕𝑧𝑧
 2

GRADIENT OPERATOR
1.5

0.5

E vector field 0

y
-0.5

-1

• Divergence of a vector function -1.5

𝜕𝜕𝐹𝐹𝑥𝑥 𝜕𝜕𝐹𝐹𝑒𝑒 𝜕𝜕𝐹𝐹𝑧𝑧 -2

⃗
div 𝐹𝐹 = + + -2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0
x
0.5 1 1.5 2

𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥 𝜕𝜕𝑦𝑦 𝜕𝜕𝑧𝑧

• Define gradient operator
𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕
∇ = 𝑥𝑥� + 𝑦𝑦� + 𝑧𝑧̂
𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥 𝜕𝜕𝑦𝑦 𝜕𝜕𝑧𝑧
• Can write divergence
div 𝐹𝐹⃗ = ∇ � 𝐹𝐹⃗
• Gauss’ Law
𝜌𝜌 E
∇ � 𝐸𝐸 = = = Ev .

𝜀𝜀0
DIVERGENCE
2

1.5

EXAMPLE
1

0.5

y
• Vector function
-0.5

2 2 -1

𝐹𝐹⃗ 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦 = 1− 2𝑥𝑥 2 𝑥𝑥� − 2𝑥𝑥𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦� -

𝑒𝑒 − 𝑥𝑥 +𝑒𝑒
-1.5

• Divergence -2
-2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2

∇ � 𝐹𝐹⃗ 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦 = −8𝑥𝑥 + 4𝑥𝑥 3 + 4𝑥𝑥𝑦𝑦 2 𝑒𝑒 − 𝑥𝑥 2 +𝑒𝑒 2 x

max
(xh +
yz)
2xy( zy)]e
-

=
((4x) + (1 2x)(2)
-
+ ( 2)
-
=

outflow in flow
( +
y))
=
(-
6x -
2x + 4x3 + 4xyz)e -
ki+ yr)
( uxy)
-

tVe -ve
=
-

8x + 4x3 +
e

min
PHYSICAL MEANING OF DIVERGENCE
in flow

• From Wolfram Mathworld ∇ � 𝐹𝐹⃗ < 0

out flow
Rate at which "density" exits a given region of
space ∇ � 𝐹𝐹⃗ > 0

• From Wikipedia
The divergence represents the volume density of
the outward flux of a vector field from an
infinitesimal volume around a given point

∇ � 𝐹𝐹⃗ = 0
DIVERGENCE IN OTHER COORDINATE
SYSTEMS
𝜌𝜌
• Cartesian 𝑧𝑧
𝜕𝜕𝐹𝐹𝑥𝑥 𝜕𝜕𝐹𝐹𝑒𝑒 𝜕𝜕𝐹𝐹𝑧𝑧
∇ • 𝐹𝐹⃗ = + +
𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥 𝜕𝜕𝑦𝑦 𝜕𝜕𝑧𝑧 𝜑𝜑
• Cylindrical
1 𝜕𝜕 1 𝜕𝜕𝐹𝐹𝜑𝜑 𝜕𝜕𝐹𝐹𝑧𝑧
∇ • 𝐹𝐹⃗ = 𝜌𝜌𝐹𝐹𝜌𝜌 + +
𝜌𝜌 𝜕𝜕𝜌𝜌 𝜌𝜌 𝜕𝜕𝜑𝜑 𝜕𝜕𝑧𝑧
• Spherical
1 𝜕𝜕 2 1 𝜕𝜕 1 𝜕𝜕𝐹𝐹𝜑𝜑 𝜃𝜃 𝑟𝑟
∇ • 𝐹𝐹⃗ = 𝑟𝑟 𝐹𝐹𝑠𝑠 + sin𝜃𝜃𝐹𝐹𝜃𝜃 +
𝑟𝑟 2 𝜕𝜕𝑟𝑟 𝑟𝑟sin𝜃𝜃 𝜕𝜕𝜃𝜃 𝑟𝑟sin𝜃𝜃 𝜕𝜕𝜑𝜑 𝜑𝜑
 GAUSS’ LAW IN DIFFERENTIAL FORM
EXAMPLE
• Charge density
1 𝜕𝜕 2 𝑘𝑘 𝜕𝜕 5
• Consider the electric field given in some 𝜌𝜌 = 𝜀𝜀0 2 𝑟𝑟 𝐸𝐸𝑠𝑠 = 𝜀𝜀0 2 𝑟𝑟
𝑟𝑟 𝜕𝜕𝑟𝑟 𝑟𝑟 𝜕𝜕𝑟𝑟
region given by
• Hence
𝐸𝐸 𝑟𝑟 = 𝑘𝑘𝑟𝑟 3 𝑟𝑟̂
𝜌𝜌 = 5𝑘𝑘𝜀𝜀0 𝑟𝑟 2 ~
in spherical coordinates, where 𝑘𝑘 is a constant
• Follow-up question
• Find charge distribution 𝜌𝜌 that created this
field – Find the total charge contained in a sphere of
radius 𝑅𝑅 centred on the origin
• Gauss’ Law
𝜌𝜌 = 𝜀𝜀0 ∇ � 𝐸𝐸 ev
q
=

• In spherical coordinates
1 𝜕𝜕 2
=
&R
∇ • 𝐸𝐸 = 2 𝑟𝑟 𝐸𝐸𝑠𝑠
𝑟𝑟 𝜕𝜕𝑟𝑟
– no angular dependence
SECTION SUMMARY
• Overarching concept
– Relationship between electric charge, electric force and electric field ~
• Mixture of revision and new content ~
• Challenging concepts from first year
– Calculating electric fields produced by extended charged objects
– Gauss’ Law in integral form
• New concepts
– Gauss’ Law in differential form ~
– Electrostatic pressure ~
• Do not lose sight of the big picture!
– Easy to be overwhelmed by the mathematics
– Practice problem-solving strategy
READING AND SUGGESTED PROBLEMS

READING S U G G E S T E D P RO B L E M S
• Chapter 1 • Chapter 1
– Sections 1-4, 7-13 – Problems 1.2, 1.9, 1.10, 1.11,1.12, 1.14(a),
1.15, 1.17, 1.27, 1.30
• Chapter 2
– Sections 8-10 • Chapter 2
– Problems 2.15, 2.17, 2.23
• Solutions available in Chapter 12 of text