### Understanding Poverty and Inequality

Poverty and inequality are multifaceted issues that affect individuals and communities globally.
Understanding their causes, effects, and potential measures to address them is crucial for
developing effective policies.

#### Causes of Poverty and Inequality

Economic factors, such as unemployment and underemployment, are significant contributors to

poverty, limiting individuals' ability to earn a living wage (Bartik, 2020). Economic recessions can
exacerbate these issues, leading to increased poverty rates (Marmot, 2018). Access to quality
education and job training is often limited for low-income individuals, perpetuating cycles of poverty
and inequality (Chetty et al., 2014).

Social factors also play a crucial role. Discrimination based on race, gender, or ethnicity can restrict
access to economic opportunities and resources, leading to higher poverty rates among marginalized
groups (Piketty, 2014). Family structure, including single-parent households, can influence poverty
levels, as these families may have fewer financial resources (McLanahan, 2011).

Political factors contribute as well. Corruption and ineffective governance can hinder economic
growth and the implementation of policies aimed at reducing poverty (World Bank, 2017).
Inadequate social safety nets often fail to support those in need, leaving vulnerable populations
without necessary assistance (Oxfam, 2018).

Environmental factors cannot be overlooked. Natural disasters and climate change

disproportionately affect low-income communities, leading to increased poverty and displacement
(IPCC, 2021). Urbanization can create challenges for infrastructure and services, further entrenching
poverty in certain areas (Brenner, 2014).

#### Effects of Poverty and Inequality

Individuals living in poverty often experience poor health outcomes, including higher rates of chronic
diseases and lower life expectancy (Wilkinson & Pickett, 2010). Limited access to education can
hinder personal development and economic mobility, perpetuating cycles of poverty (Rothstein,
2013).
At the community level, high poverty rates can lead to increased crime and social unrest, straining
community resources and public services (Sampson, 2012). Economic inequality can stifle overall
growth, as lower-income individuals are unable to contribute fully to the economy (Stiglitz, 2012).

On a global scale, poverty and inequality can lead to increased migration, as individuals seek better
opportunities elsewhere, creating tensions in receiving countries (Castles & Miller, 2009). Addressing
these issues is essential for achieving global Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), as poverty and
inequality are barriers to progress (United Nations, 2015).

#### Measures to Address Poverty and Inequality

Policy interventions are vital. Implementing progressive taxation can help redistribute wealth and
fund social programs aimed at reducing poverty (Saez & Zucman, 2019). Enhancing social welfare
programs, such as unemployment benefits and food assistance, can provide immediate relief to
those in need (Cunha et al., 2018).

Education and training initiatives are also crucial. Expanding access to quality education and
vocational training can empower individuals to improve their economic situations (Baker, 2015).
Promoting lifelong learning opportunities can help individuals adapt to changing job markets and
reduce unemployment (OECD, 2016).

Community development efforts are essential. Investing in infrastructure and services in low-income
areas can improve living conditions and economic opportunities (Hollander, 2015). Supporting local
businesses and entrepreneurship can stimulate economic growth within communities (Mason,
2013).

International cooperation is necessary as well. Global initiatives aimed at poverty reduction, such as
the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), can foster international collaboration to address these
issues (United Nations, 2015). Promoting fair trade practices can help ensure that developing
countries benefit from global markets (Dolan, 2008).

### References

- Baker, D. (2015). *The Benefits of Education: A Global Perspective*. Washington, DC: Center for
Economic and Policy Research.

- Bartik, T. J. (2020). *The Effects of Unemployment on Poverty*. Journal of Economic Perspectives,

34(1), 115-138.
- Brenner, N. (2014). *Urban Theory: A New Agenda for the Urban Humanities*. Cambridge, MA:
Harvard University Press.

- Castles, S., & Miller, M. J. (2009). *The Age of Migration: International Population Movements in
the Modern World*. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.

- Chetty, R., Hendren, N., Kline, P., & Saez, E. (2014). *Where is the Land of Opportunity? The
Geography of Intergenerational Mobility in the United States*. Quarterly Journal of Economics,
129(4), 1553-1623.

- Cunha, F., Heckman, J. J., & Schennach, S. M. (2010). *Estimating the Technology of Cognitive and
Noncognitive Skill Formation*. Econometrica, 78(3), 883-931.

- Dolan, C. (2008). *The Good Trade: A New Approach to Fair Trade*. London: The New Economics
Foundation.

- Hollander, J. (2015). *Community Development: A Critical Approach*. New York: Routledge.

- IPCC. (2021). *Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis*. Cambridge University Press.

- Marmot, M. (2018). *The Health Gap: The Challenge of an Unequal World*. London: Bloomsbury
Publishing.

- Mason, C. (2013). *Supporting Local Entrepreneurs: A Guide to Economic Development*. London:

Routledge.

- McLanahan, S. (2011). *Family Structure and Child Well-Being: Integrating Family Complexity*. The
Future of Children, 21(2), 29-48.

- Oxfam. (2018). *Wealth: Having It All and Wanting More*. Oxford: Oxfam International.

- OECD. (2016). *Skills Matter: Further Results from the Survey of Adult Skills*. Paris: OECD
Publishing.

- Piketty, T. (2014). *Capital in the Twenty-First Century*. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press.

- Rothstein, J. (2013). *The Racial Achievement Gap: How Much Does the Home Environment
Matter?* Journal of Economic Perspectives, 27(1), 1-26.

- Saez, E., & Zucman, G. (2019). *Progressive Wealth Taxation*. Brookings Papers on Economic
Activity, 2019(2), 1-45.

- Sampson, R. J. (2012). *Great American City: Chicago and the Enduring Neighborhood Effect*.
Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

- Stiglitz, J. E. (2012). *The Price of Inequality: How Today's Divided Society Endangers Our Future*.
New York: W.W. Norton & Company.

- United Nations. (2015). *Transforming Our World: The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development*.
New York: United Nations.

- Wilkinson, R., & Pickett, K. (2010). *The Spirit Level: Why Equality is Better for Everyone*. London:
Allen Lane.

- World Bank. (2017). *World Development Report 2017: Governance and the Law*. Washington,
DC: World Bank Publications.
### Understanding Poverty and Inequality

Poverty and inequality are multifaceted issues that affect individuals and communities globally.
Understanding their causes, effects, and potential measures to address them is crucial for
developing effective policies.

#### Causes of Poverty and Inequality

1. **Economic Factors:**

- Unemployment and underemployment are significant contributors to poverty, as they limit

individuals' ability to earn a living wage. Economic recessions can exacerbate these issues, leading to
increased poverty rates [[1]](https://www.mdpi.com/2227-7099/11/4/110).

- Access to quality education and job training is often limited for low-income individuals,
perpetuating cycles of poverty and inequality [[1]](https://www.mdpi.com/2227-7099/11/4/110).

2. **Social Factors:**

- Discrimination based on race, gender, or ethnicity can restrict access to economic opportunities
and resources, leading to higher poverty rates among marginalized groups
[[3]](https://odphp.health.gov/healthypeople/priority-areas/social-determinants-health/literature-
summaries/poverty).

- Family structure, including single-parent households, can also influence poverty levels, as these
families may have fewer financial resources [[3]](https://odphp.health.gov/healthypeople/priority-
areas/social-determinants-health/literature-summaries/poverty).

3. **Political Factors:**

- Corruption and ineffective governance can hinder economic growth and the implementation of
policies aimed at reducing poverty [[1]](https://www.mdpi.com/2227-7099/11/4/110).

- Inadequate social safety nets fail to support those in need, leaving vulnerable populations
without necessary assistance [[2]](https://www.oecd.org/social/inequality-and-poverty.htm).

4. **Environmental Factors:**

- Natural disasters and climate change disproportionately affect low-income communities, leading
to increased poverty and displacement [[2]](https://www.oecd.org/social/inequality-and-
poverty.htm).

- Urbanization can create challenges for infrastructure and services, further entrenching poverty in
certain areas [[1]](https://www.mdpi.com/2227-7099/11/4/110).
#### Effects of Poverty and Inequality

1. **Individual Impact:**

- Individuals living in poverty often experience poor health outcomes, including higher rates of
chronic diseases and lower life expectancy [[3]](https://odphp.health.gov/healthypeople/priority-
areas/social-determinants-health/literature-summaries/poverty).

- Limited access to education can hinder personal development and economic mobility,
perpetuating cycles of poverty [[3]](https://odphp.health.gov/healthypeople/priority-areas/social-
determinants-health/literature-summaries/poverty).

2. **Community Impact:**

- High poverty rates can lead to increased crime and social unrest, straining community resources
and public services [[2]](https://www.oecd.org/social/inequality-and-poverty.htm).

- Economic inequality can stifle overall economic growth, as lower-income individuals are unable to
contribute fully to the economy [[2]](https://www.oecd.org/social/inequality-and-poverty.htm).

3. **Global Impact:**

- Poverty and inequality can lead to increased migration, as individuals seek better opportunities
elsewhere, which can create tensions in receiving countries
[[2]](https://www.oecd.org/social/inequality-and-poverty.htm).

- Addressing these issues is essential for achieving global sustainable development goals, as
poverty and inequality are barriers to progress [[1]](https://www.mdpi.com/2227-7099/11/4/110).

#### Measures to Address Poverty and Inequality

1. **Policy Interventions:**

- Implementing progressive taxation can help redistribute wealth and fund social programs aimed
at reducing poverty [[1]](https://www.mdpi.com/2227-7099/11/4/110).

- Enhancing social welfare programs, such as unemployment benefits and food assistance, can
provide immediate relief to those in need [[3]](https://odphp.health.gov/healthypeople/priority-
areas/social-determinants-health/literature-summaries/poverty).

2. **Education and Training:**

- Expanding access to quality education and vocational training can empower individuals to
improve their economic situations [[1]](https://www.mdpi.com/2227-7099/11/4/110).
 - Promoting lifelong learning opportunities can help individuals adapt to changing job markets and
reduce unemployment [[2]](https://www.oecd.org/social/inequality-and-poverty.htm).

3. **Community Development:**

- Investing in infrastructure and services in low-income areas can improve living conditions and
economic opportunities [[2]](https://www.oecd.org/social/inequality-and-poverty.htm).

- Supporting local businesses and entrepreneurship can stimulate economic growth within
communities [[3]](https://odphp.health.gov/healthypeople/priority-areas/social-determinants-
health/literature-summaries/poverty).

4. **International Cooperation:**

- Global initiatives aimed at poverty reduction, such as the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs),
can foster international collaboration to address these issues [[1]](https://www.mdpi.com/2227-
7099/11/4/110).

- Promoting fair trade practices can help ensure that developing countries benefit from global
markets [[2]](https://www.oecd.org/social/inequality-and-poverty.htm).

---

Learn more:

1. [Causes and Measures of Poverty, Inequality, and Social Exclusion: A

Review](https://www.mdpi.com/2227-7099/11/4/110)

2. [OECD temporary archive](https://www.oecd.org/social/inequality-and-poverty.htm)

3. [Poverty - Healthy People 2030 |

odphp.health.gov](https://odphp.health.gov/healthypeople/priority-areas/social-determinants-
health/literature-summaries/poverty)

### Definitions of Poverty and Inequality

#### Poverty

Poverty is generally defined as the state in which an individual or community lacks the financial
resources to meet basic living standards, including adequate food, shelter, clothing, healthcare, and
education. It is often measured in absolute terms, where a specific income threshold, such as the
international poverty line set by the World Bank (currently at $1.90 per day), is used to determine
whether individuals or families are considered poor.
Poverty can also be understood in relative terms, where individuals are considered poor if their
income is significantly less than that of the average population, leading to a diminished quality of life
and limited opportunities for social and economic mobility.

#### Inequality

Inequality refers to the unequal distribution of resources, opportunities, and privileges within a
society. This can manifest in various forms, including economic inequality (disparities in income and
wealth), social inequality (differences in access to education, healthcare, and social services), and
political inequality (disparities in political representation and influence).

Economic inequality is often measured using indices such as the Gini coefficient, which quantifies
income distribution within a population, or the Lorenz curve, which graphically represents income
distribution. High levels of inequality can lead to social unrest, reduced economic growth, and
hindered social mobility, as individuals from lower socioeconomic backgrounds may face systemic
barriers to advancement.

### Causes of Poverty in Kenya and Mbare, Harare, Zimbabwe

Poverty is a complex issue influenced by various factors that can differ significantly between
countries and even specific regions within a country. Here are some examples of causes of poverty in
Kenya and Mbare, Harare, Zimbabwe:

#### Causes of Poverty in Kenya

1. **Economic Factors:**

- **Unemployment:** Kenya faces high youth unemployment rates, which limits job opportunities
and leads to increased poverty levels. Many young people are unable to find stable, well-paying jobs,
contributing to economic insecurity.

- **Agricultural Dependence:** A significant portion of Kenya's population relies on agriculture for

their livelihood. Vulnerability to climate change, such as droughts and floods, can devastate crops
and incomes, pushing families into poverty.

2. **Social Factors:**

- **Educational Barriers:** Access to quality education can be limited, particularly in rural areas.
This lack of education restricts economic opportunities and perpetuates cycles of poverty.
 - **Gender Inequality:** Women and girls often face societal and cultural barriers that limit their
access to education and economic opportunities, increasing their risk of poverty.

3. **Political Factors:**

- **Corruption:** Corruption in government can divert resources away from essential services and
infrastructure, hindering economic growth and poverty alleviation efforts.

- **Inadequate Social Safety Nets:** Limited access to social protection programs means that
vulnerable populations lack support during crises, such as illness or economic downturns.

4. **Environmental Factors:**

- **Climate Change:** Kenya is particularly susceptible to the impacts of climate change, which
affects agricultural productivity and water availability, further exacerbating poverty.

- **Urbanization Challenges:** Rapid urbanization has led to the growth of informal settlements,
where residents often lack access to basic services such as clean water, sanitation, and healthcare.

#### Causes of Poverty in Mbare, Harare, Zimbabwe

1. **Economic Factors:**

- **Hyperinflation and Economic Decline:** Zimbabwe has experienced severe economic

instability, including hyperinflation, which has eroded savings and income, pushing many into
poverty. The decline of industries has also led to job losses.

- **Lack of Employment Opportunities:** In Mbare, limited economic activity and high

unemployment rates mean that many residents struggle to find stable income sources.

2. **Social Factors:**

- **Access to Education:** Many families in Mbare may not afford school fees or materials, leading
to high dropout rates. This lack of education limits future job prospects and economic mobility.

- **Health Issues:** High rates of disease, including HIV/AIDS, can impact household income and
stability, as families may face high medical costs or loss of income due to illness.

3. **Political Factors:**

- **Government Policies:** Political instability and poor governance have led to ineffective
economic policies and reduced foreign investment, exacerbating poverty levels.

- **Corruption:** Corruption at various levels of government can divert resources away from
poverty alleviation programs, leaving vulnerable populations without necessary support.
4. **Environmental Factors:**

- **Urban Infrastructure Challenges:** As a low-income urban area, Mbare faces issues such as
inadequate housing, poor sanitation, and limited access to clean water, which contribute to poor
health and economic outcomes.

- **Natural Disasters:** Droughts and other environmental challenges can impact food security
and livelihoods, particularly for those reliant on subsistence farming.

### Conclusion

Both Kenya and Mbare, Harare, face unique challenges that contribute to poverty. Addressing these
issues requires targeted interventions that consider local contexts and the multifaceted nature of
poverty and inequality. Efforts must focus on improving economic opportunities, education access,
healthcare, and effective governance to create sustainable pathways out of poverty.