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WATER-RESOURCES ENGINEERING

Third Edition

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Chin, David A.
Water-resources engineering / David A. Chin. – 3rd ed.
p. cm.
ISBN-13: 978-0-13-283321-9 (alk. paper)
ISBN-10: 0-13-283321-2 (alk. paper)
1. Hydraulics. 2. Hydrology. 3. Waterworks. 4. Water resources
development. I. Title.
TC160.C52 2014
627–dc23 2012018911

Vice President and Editorial Director, ECS: Marcia J. Horton

Executive Editor: Holly Stark
Editorial Assistant: Carlin Heinle
Executive Marketing Manager: Tim Galligan

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Marketing Assistant: Jon Bryant
Permissions Project Manager: Karen Sanatar
Senior Managing Editor: Scott Disanno

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Production Project Manager / Editorial Production Manager: Greg Dulles
Cover Photo: United States Bureau of Reclamation

© 2013, 2010, 2006, 2000 Pearson Education, Inc.

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Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form or by any means, without

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permission in writing from the publisher.
Pearson Prentice Hall™ is a trademark of Pearson Education, Inc.

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The author and publisher of this book have used their best efforts in preparing this book. These efforts include the
development, research, and testing of the theories and programs to determine their effectiveness. The author and
publisher make no warranty of any kind, expressed or implied, with regard to these programs or the documentation

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contained in this book. The author and publisher shall not be liable in any event for incidental or consequential
damages in connection with, or arising out of, the furnishing, performance, or use of these programs.

Printed in the United States of America.

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
ing
ISBN: 0-13-283321-2

Pearson Education Ltd., London

Pearson Education Australia Pty. Ltd., Sydney
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Pearson Education Singapore, Pte. Ltd.
Pearson Education North Asia Ltd., Hong Kong
Pearson Education Canada, Inc., Toronto
Pearson Educación de Mexico, S.A. de C.V.
Pearson Education—Japan, Tokyo
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Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey

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ww To Andrew and Stephanie.

“But those who hope in the Lord will renew their strength. They will soar on

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wings like eagles; they will run and not grow weary, they will walk and not be
faint.”

Isaiah 40:31
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Contents
Preface xv

1 Introduction 1
1.1 Water-Resources Engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 The Hydrologic Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.3 Design of Water-Resource Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.3.1 Water-Control Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.3.2 Water-Use Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.3.3 Supporting Federal Agencies in the United States . . . . . . . . . . 7
Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

ww 2 Fundamentals of Flow in Closed Conduits

2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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2.2 Single Pipelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.2.1 Steady-State Continuity Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.2.2 Steady-State Momentum Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.2.3 Steady-State Energy Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

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2.2.3.1 Energy and hydraulic grade lines . . .
2.2.3.2 Velocity profile . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.3.3 Head losses in transitions and fittings
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2.2.3.4 Head losses in noncircular conduits .
2.2.3.5 Empirical friction-loss formulae . . .
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2.2.4 Water Hammer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3 Pipe Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3.1 Nodal Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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2.3.2 Loop Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3.3 Application of Computer Programs . . . . . . .
2.4 Pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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2.4.2 Pump Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ing .
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2.4.2.2 System characteristics . . . . . . . . .
2.4.2.3 Limits on pump location . . . . . . . .
2.4.3 Multiple-Pump Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.4.4 Variable-Speed Pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62

3 Design of Water-Distribution Systems 70

3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
3.2 Water Demand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
3.2.1 Per-Capita Forecast Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
3.2.1.1 Estimation of per-capita demand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
3.2.1.2 Estimation of population . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
3.2.2 Temporal Variations in Water Demand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
3.2.3 Fire Demand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
3.2.4 Design Flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
3.3 Components of Water-Distribution Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
3.3.1 Pipelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
3.3.1.1 Minimum size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
3.3.1.2 Service lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
3.3.1.3 Pipe materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83

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vi Contents

3.3.2 Pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
3.3.3 Valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
3.3.4 Meters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
3.3.5 Fire Hydrants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
3.3.6 Water-Storage Reservoirs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
3.4 Performance Criteria for Water-Distribution Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
3.4.1 Service Pressures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
3.4.2 Allowable Velocities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
3.4.3 Water Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
3.4.4 Network Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
3.5 Building Water-Supply Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
3.5.1 Specification of Design Flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
3.5.2 Specification of Minimum Pressures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
3.5.3 Determination of Pipe Diameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101

ww 4 Fundamentals of Flow in Open Channels

4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2 Basic Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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4.2.2 Steady-State Momentum Equation . .
4.2.2.1 Darcy–Weisbach equation . .
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4.2.2.2 Manning equation . . . . . .
4.2.2.3 Other equations . . . . . . .
4.2.2.4 Velocity distribution . . . . .
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4.2.3 Steady-State Energy Equation . . . . .
4.2.3.1 Energy grade line . . . . . .
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4.2.3.2 Specific energy . . . . . . . .
4.3 Water-Surface Profiles . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3.1 Profile Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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4.3.4 Computation of Water-Surface Profiles eer

4.3.2 Classification of Water-Surface Profiles
4.3.3 Hydraulic Jump . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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4.3.4.3 Standard-step method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
4.3.4.4 Practical considerations . . .
4.3.4.5 Profiles across bridges . . . .
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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5 Design of Drainage Channels 166

5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
5.2 Basic Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
5.2.1 Best Hydraulic Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
5.2.2 Boundary Shear Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
5.2.3 Cohesive versus Noncohesive Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
5.2.4 Bends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
5.2.5 Channel Slopes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
5.2.6 Freeboard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
5.3 Design of Channels with Rigid Linings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
5.4 Design of Channels with Flexible Linings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
5.4.1 General Design Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
5.4.2 Vegetative Linings and Bare Soil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
5.4.3 RECP Linings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
5.4.4 Riprap, Cobble, and Gravel Linings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
5.4.5 Gabions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203

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Contents vii

5.5 Composite Linings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205

Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208

6 Design of Sanitary Sewers 211

6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
6.2 Quantity of Wastewater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
6.2.1 Residential Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
6.2.2 Nonresidential Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
6.2.3 Inflow and Infiltration (I/I) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
6.2.4 Peaking Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
6.3 Hydraulics of Sewers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
6.3.1 Manning Equation with Constant n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
6.3.2 Manning Equation with Variable n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
6.3.3 Self-Cleansing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
6.3.4 Scour Prevention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224

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6.3.5 Design Computations for Diameter and Slope . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
6.3.6 Hydraulics of Manholes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
6.4 System Design Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
6.4.1 System Layout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229

w.E 6.4.2 Pipe Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

6.4.3 Depth of Sanitary Sewer . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.4.4 Diameter and Slope of Pipes . . . . . . . . . . .
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6.4.5 Hydraulic Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.4.6 Manholes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.4.7 Pump Stations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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6.4.8 Force Mains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.4.9 Hydrogen-Sulfide Control . . . . . . . . . . . .
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6.4.10 Combined Sewers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.5 Design Computations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.5.1 Design Aids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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6.5.1.1 Manning’s n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.5.1.2 Minimum slope for self-cleansing . .
6.5.2 Procedure for System Design . . . . . . . . . .
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Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247

7 Design of Hydraulic Structures

7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.2 Culverts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.2.1 Hydraulics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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7.2.1.1 Submerged entrances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
7.2.1.2 Unsubmerged entrances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
7.2.2 Design Constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
7.2.3 Sizing Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
7.2.3.1 Fixed-headwater method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
7.2.3.2 Fixed-flow method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
7.2.3.3 Minimum-performance method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
7.2.4 Roadway Overtopping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
7.2.5 Riprap/Outlet Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
7.3 Gates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
7.3.1 Free Discharge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
7.3.2 Submerged Discharge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
7.3.3 Empirical Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
7.4 Weirs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
7.4.1 Sharp-Crested Weirs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
7.4.1.1 Rectangular weirs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
7.4.1.2 V-notch weirs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288

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7.4.1.3 Compound weirs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291

7.4.1.4 Other types of sharp-crested weirs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
7.4.2 Broad-Crested Weirs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
7.4.2.1 Rectangular weirs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
7.4.2.2 Compound weirs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
7.4.2.3 Gabion weirs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
7.5 Spillways . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
7.5.1 Uncontrolled Spillways . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
7.5.2 Controlled (Gated) Spillways . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
7.5.2.1 Gates seated on the spillway crest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
7.5.2.2 Gates seated downstream of the spillway crest . . . . . . . 309
7.6 Stilling Basins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
7.6.1 Type Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
7.6.2 Design Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
7.7 Dams and Reservoirs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
7.7.1 Types of Dams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319

ww 7.7.2 Reservoir Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

7.7.2.1 Sediment accumulation . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.7.2.2 Determination of storage requirements . . . .
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w.E 7.7.3 Hydropower . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

7.7.3.1 Turbines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.7.3.2 Turbine performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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8 Probability and Statistics in Water-Resources Engineering
8.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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344

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8.2 Probability Distributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.2.1 Discrete Probability Distributions . . . . . . . . . .
8.2.2 Continuous Probability Distributions . . . . . . . .
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8.2.3 Mathematical Expectation and Moments . . . . .
8.2.4 Return Period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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8.2.5 Common Probability Functions . . . . . . . . . . .

8.2.5.2 Geometric distribution . . . . . . . . . .ing

8.2.5.1 Binomial distribution . . . . . . . . . . .
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8.2.5.3 Poisson distribution . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.2.5.4 Exponential distribution . . . . . . . . . .
8.2.5.5 Gamma/Pearson Type III distribution . .
8.2.5.6 Normal distribution . . . . . . . . . . . .
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8.2.5.7 Log-normal distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362
8.2.5.8 Uniform distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
8.2.5.9 Extreme-value distributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364
8.2.5.10 Chi-square distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
8.3 Analysis of Hydrologic Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
8.3.1 Estimation of Population Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
8.3.1.1 Probability distribution of observed data . . . . . . . . . . 372
8.3.1.2 Hypothesis tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376
8.3.1.3 Model selection criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379
8.3.2 Estimation of Population Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379
8.3.2.1 Method of moments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379
8.3.2.2 Maximum-likelihood method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382
8.3.2.3 Method of L-moments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383
8.3.3 Frequency Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387
8.3.3.1 Normal distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388
8.3.3.2 Log-normal distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389
8.3.3.3 Gamma/Pearson Type III distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . 390

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Contents ix

8.3.3.4 Log-Pearson Type III distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391

8.3.3.5 Extreme-value Type I distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393
8.3.3.6 General extreme-value (GEV) distribution . . . . . . . . . 394
8.4 Uncertainty Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397

9 Fundamentals of Surface-Water Hydrology I: Rainfall and Abstractions 401

9.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401
9.2 Rainfall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401
9.2.1 Measurement of Rainfall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403
9.2.2 Statistics of Rainfall Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405
9.2.2.1 Rainfall statistics in the United States . . . . . . . . . . . . 410
9.2.2.2 Secondary estimation of IDF curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410
9.2.3 Spatial Averaging and Interpolation of Rainfall . . . . . . . . . . . . 416
9.2.4 Design Rainfall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421

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9.2.4.1 Return period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421
9.2.4.2 Rainfall duration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422
9.2.4.3 Rainfall depth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422
9.2.4.4 Temporal distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422

w.E 9.2.4.5 Spatial distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

9.2.5 Extreme Rainfall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.2.5.1 Rational estimation method . . . . . . . . . . . .
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9.2.5.2 Statistical estimation method . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.2.5.3 World-record precipitation amounts . . . . . . . .
9.2.5.4 Probable maximum storm . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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9.3 Rainfall Abstractions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.3.1 Interception . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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9.3.2 Depression Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.3.3 Infiltration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.3.3.1 The infiltration process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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9.3.3.2 Horton model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.3.3.3 Green–Ampt model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.3.3.4 NRCS curve-number model . . . . . . . . . . . .
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9.3.4 Rainfall Excess on Composite Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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9.4 Baseflow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 464
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

10 Fundamentals of Surface-Water Hydrology II: Runoff

10.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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10.2 Mechanisms of Surface Runoff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473
10.3 Time of Concentration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 474
10.3.1 Overland Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 474
10.3.1.1 Kinematic-wave equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 474
10.3.1.2 NRCS method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 478
10.3.1.3 Kirpich equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481
10.3.1.4 Izzard equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481
10.3.1.5 Kerby equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 482
10.3.2 Channel Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 484
10.3.3 Accuracy of Estimates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 486
10.4 Peak-Runoff Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 487
10.4.1 The Rational Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 487
10.4.2 NRCS-TR55 Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 492
10.5 Continuous-Runoff Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 495
10.5.1 Unit-Hydrograph Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 495
10.5.2 Instantaneous Unit Hydrograph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 501

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x Contents

10.5.3 Unit-Hydrograph Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 502

10.5.3.1 Snyder unit-hydrograph model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 503
10.5.3.2 NRCS dimensionless unit hydrograph . . . . . . . . . . . . 506
10.5.3.3 Accuracy of unit-hydrograph models . . . . . . . . . . . . 509
10.5.4 Time-Area Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 509
10.5.5 Kinematic-Wave Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 514
10.5.6 Nonlinear-Reservoir Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 515
10.5.7 Santa Barbara Urban Hydrograph Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 517
10.5.8 Extreme Runoff Events . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 519
10.6 Routing Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 520
10.6.1 Hydrologic Routing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 520
10.6.1.1 Modified Puls method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 520
10.6.1.2 Muskingum method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 524
10.6.2 Hydraulic Routing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 531
10.7 Water-Quality Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533
10.7.1 Event-Mean Concentrations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533

ww 10.7.2 Regression Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

10.7.2.1 USGS model . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.7.2.2 EPA model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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11 Design of Stormwater-Collection Systems

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11.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.2 Street Gutters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.3 Inlets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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11.3.1 Curb Inlets . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.3.2 Grate Inlets . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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11.3.3 Combination Inlets . . . . . . . . .
11.3.4 Slotted Inlets . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.4 Roadside and Median Channels . . . . . .
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11.5.1 Calculation of Design Flow Rates .
11.5.2 Pipe Sizing and Selection . . . . . .eer .
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11.5.4 Determination of Impervious Area
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11.5.6 Other Design Considerations . . .
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12 Design of Stormwater-Management Systems

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586
12.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 586
12.2 Performance Goals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 586
12.2.1 Quantity Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 586
12.2.2 Quality Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 586
12.3 Design of Stormwater Control Measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 587
12.3.1 Storage Impoundments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 587
12.3.1.1 Detention basins—Design parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . 588
12.3.1.2 Wet detention basins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 590
12.3.1.3 Dry detention basins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 592
12.3.1.4 Design of outlet structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 593
12.3.1.5 Design for flood control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 599
12.3.2 Infiltration Basins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 603
12.3.3 Swales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 605
12.3.3.1 Retention swales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 606
12.3.3.2 Biofiltration swales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 607
12.3.4 Vegetated Filter Strips . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 610

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12.3.5 Bioretention Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 610

12.3.6 Exfiltration Trenches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 612
12.3.6.1 General design guidelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 613
12.3.6.2 Design for flood control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 614
12.3.6.3 Design for water-quality control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 616
12.3.7 Subsurface Exfiltration Galleries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 617
12.4 Selection of SCMs for Water-Quality Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 618
12.4.1 Nonstructural SCMs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 618
12.4.2 Structural SCMs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 618
12.4.3 Other Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 619
12.5 Major Drainage System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 619
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 619

13 Estimation of Evapotranspiration 624

13.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 624

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13.2 Penman–Monteith Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 624
13.2.1 Aerodynamic Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 625
13.2.2 Surface Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 626
13.2.3 Net Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 627

w.E 13.2.3.1 Shortwave radiation . . .

13.2.3.2 Longwave radiation . . .
13.2.4 Soil Heat Flux . . . . . . . . . . . .
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13.2.5 Latent Heat of Vaporization . . . .
13.2.6 Psychrometric Constant . . . . . .
13.2.7 Saturation Vapor Pressure . . . . .
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13.2.8 Vapor-Pressure Gradient . . . . . .
13.2.9 Actual Vapor Pressure . . . . . . .
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13.2.10 Air Density . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13.3 Application of the PM Equation . . . . . .
13.4 Potential Evapotranspiration . . . . . . . .
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633
634
637
13.5 Reference Evapotranspiration . . . . . . .
13.5.1 FAO56-Penman–Monteith Method
13.5.2 ASCE Penman–Monteith Method eer .
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13.5.3 Evaporation Pans . . . . . . . . . .
13.5.4 Empirical Methods . . . . . . . . .
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13.6 Actual Evapotranspiration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 651
13.6.1 Index-of-Dryness Method . . . . .
13.6.2 Crop-Coefficient Method . . . . .
13.6.3 Remote Sensing . . . . . . . . . . .
13.7 Selection of ET Estimation Method . . . .
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651
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Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 654

14 Fundamentals of Groundwater Hydrology I: Governing Equations 656

14.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 656
14.2 Darcy’s Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 662
14.2.1 Hydraulic Conductivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 666
14.2.1.1 Empirical formulae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 666
14.2.1.2 Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 670
14.2.1.3 Anisotropic properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 670
14.2.1.4 Stochastic properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 674
14.3 General Flow Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 676
14.4 Two-Dimensional Approximations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 681
14.4.1 Unconfined Aquifers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 681
14.4.2 Confined Aquifers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 687
14.5 Flow in the Unsaturated Zone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 691
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 696

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15 Fundamentals of Groundwater Hydrology II: Applications 700

15.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 700
15.2 Steady-State Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 700
15.2.1 Unconfined Flow Between Two Reservoirs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 700
15.2.2 Well in a Confined Aquifer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 702
15.2.3 Well in an Unconfined Aquifer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 706
15.2.4 Well in a Leaky Confined Aquifer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 709
15.2.5 Well in an Unconfined Aquifer with Recharge . . . . . . . . . . . . . 713
15.2.6 Partially Penetrating Wells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 714
15.3 Unsteady-State Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 718
15.3.1 Well in a Confined Aquifer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 718
15.3.2 Well in an Unconfined Aquifer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 728
15.3.3 Well in a Leaky Confined Aquifer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 736
15.3.4 Other Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 741
15.4 Principle of Superposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 741
15.4.1 Multiple Wells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 742

ww 15.4.2 Well in Uniform Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

15.5 Method of Images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15.5.1 Constant-Head Boundary . . . . . . . . . . . .
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w.E 15.5.2 Impermeable Boundary . . . . . . . . . . . . .

15.5.3 Other Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15.6 Saltwater Intrusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 761

16 Design of Groundwater Systems 771

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16.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16.2 Design of Wellfields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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16.3 Wellhead Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16.3.1 Delineation of Wellhead Protection Areas
16.3.2 Time-of-Travel Approach . . . . . . . . .
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16.4 Design and Construction of Water-Supply Wells .
16.4.1 Types of Wells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16.4.2 Design of Well Components . . . . . . . .
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16.4.2.1 Casing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16.4.2.2 Screen intake . . . . . . . . . . . ing
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16.4.2.3 Gravel pack . . . . . . . . . . . .
16.4.2.4 Pump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16.4.2.5 Other considerations . . . . . . .
16.4.3 Performance Assessment . . . . . . . . . .
16.4.4 Well Drilling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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16.5 Design of Aquifer Pumping Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 794
16.5.1 Pumping Well . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 794
16.5.2 Observation Wells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 795
16.5.3 Field Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 796
16.6 Design of Slug Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 798
16.7 Design of Exfiltration Trenches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 803
16.8 Seepage Meters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 808
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 809

17 Water-Resources Planning 815

17.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 815
17.2 Planning Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 815
17.3 Economic Feasibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 818
17.3.1 Compound-Interest Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 819
17.3.1.1 Single-payment factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 819
17.3.1.2 Uniform-series factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 820

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17.3.1.3 Arithmetic-gradient factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 820

17.3.1.4 Geometric-gradient factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 821
17.3.2 Evaluating Alternatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 823
17.3.2.1 Present-worth analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 823
17.3.2.2 Annual-worth analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 825
17.3.2.3 Rate-of-return analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 825
17.3.2.4 Benefit–cost analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 828
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 829

A Units and Conversion Factors 831

A.1 Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 831
A.2 Conversion Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 832

B Fluid Properties 834

B.1 Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 834

ww B.2 Organic Compounds Found in Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

B.3 Air at Standard Atmospheric Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
834
836

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C Statistical Tables
C.1 Areas Under Standard Normal Curve . . . . . . . . . . . .
C.2 Frequency Factors for Pearson Type III Distribution . . .
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C.3 Critical Values of the Chi-Square Distribution . . . . . . .
C.4 Critical Values for the Kolmogorov–Smirnov Test Statistic
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D.1 Error Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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843

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D.2 Bessel Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
D.2.1 Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
D.2.2 Evaluation of Bessel Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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D.2.2.1 Bessel function of the first kind of order n . . . . . . . .
D.2.2.2 Bessel function of the second kind of order n . . . . . .
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D.2.2.3 Modified Bessel function of the first kind of order n . .
D.2.2.4 Modified Bessel function of the second kind of order n
D.2.2.5 Tabulated values of useful Bessel functions . . . . . . .
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D.3 Gamma Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
D.4 Exponential Integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

E Pipe Specifications
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E.1 PVC Pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 850
E.2 Ductile-Iron Pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 850
E.3 Concrete Pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 851
E.4 Physical Properties of Common Pipe Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 851

F Unified Soil Classification System 852

F.1 Definition of Soil Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 852
F.2 Terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 853

Bibliography 854

Index 912

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Exploring the Variety of Random
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mechanical service in the household life of the community. According
to Manu the highest merit for this class was to serve faithfully the
other three classes. The Sudras performed the most degrading
tasks, and were allowed to come into contact with the Aryan
population only as menials. On account of their filthy habits these
aboriginals were not allowed a close approach to the persons of the
higher classes—hence the origin of the term “untouchable.” Yet the
fact stands that even the “untouchables” are members of the Hindu
family group. At marriages and other festivals gifts are freely
exchanged between them and the upper classes. For a householder
it is equally important to participate in the ceremonies of the village
“untouchables” and his own cousins. I remember very clearly how as
a young boy I was instructed by my mother to bow each morning
before every elder member of the family, nor forgetting the servants,
or Sudras.
Bhagavad Gita, the Bible of the Hindus, lays down the following rules
for the different castes of India:

“The duties of the Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, as also of

Sudras, are divided in accordance with their nature-born
qualities. Peace, self-restraint, austerities, purity, forgiveness,
and uprightness, knowledge, direct intuition, and faith in God are
the natural qualities of the Brahmin. Of the Kshatriyas, bravery,
energy, fortitude, dexterity, fleeing not in battle, gift and
lordliness are the nature-born qualities. Agriculture, protection of
cows, merchandise, and various industries are the nature-born
duties of the Vaishyas. Conscientiousness in menial service is
the nature-born duty of the Sudras. A man attains perfection by
performing those duties which he is able to do.”

This division of duties among the different castes “in accordance with
their nature-born qualities” needs special notice. We find here that
the original distinctions between different classes were made on the
basis of their natural qualifications. “The purpose of the early Hindu
sociologists was to design a society in which opportunity was
allowed to everyone for only such experience as his mental and
spiritual status was capable.” In the beginning, castes were not fixed
by iron barriers, nor were the occupations and professions of the
people hereditary. There was freedom for expansion, and everyone
enjoyed the privilege of rising into the higher scales of social rank
through a demonstration of his power and ability to do so. It is a
curious fact of Hindu history that nearly all of its incarnations,—
namely, Buddha, Rama, Krishna—belonged to the second or military
caste. But the Hindu castes had already lost their flexible natures as
early as the sixth century B.C., when Buddha once again preached
the doctrines of equality to all classes of people. Through the
influence of Buddhist teachings and for over a thousand years during
which Buddhism reigned over India, artificial hereditary caste
divisions among peoples were almost entirely demolished and
forgotten. “Buddha gave to the spirit of caste a death-blow. He
refused to admit differences between persons because of their color
or race. He would not recognize a Brahman because he was born a
Brahman. On the other hand he distinguished between people
according to their intellectual status and moral worth.”[29] He who
possessed the qualities of “peace, self-restraint, self-control,
righteousness, devotion, love for humanity, and divine wisdom” was
alone a true Brahman. To the Buddhist, caste was less important
than character. His Jataka tales preached this doctrine in a simple
but highly eloquent manner:

“It is not right

To call men white
Who virtue lack;
For it is sin
And not the skin
That makes men black.
Not by the cut of his hair,
Not by his clan or birth,
May a Brahmin claim the Brahmin’s name,
But only by moral worth.”[30]

About 600 A. D. however, when Buddhism declined and the

Brahmans regained their power, caste was once again established
on the old hereditary lines. Since that time the influence of the
vicious system has prevailed, except when it was checked by such
teachers as Chaityna who have regularly appeared at critical periods
of the country’s history. Nanak’s influence in modern times has been
the strongest in breaking down the barriers of caste. He was born
near Lahore (Punjab) in the year 1469 A.D. and became the founder
of the Sikh religion. He recognized the equality of all human beings,
irrespective of their color, rank, or sex. In one of his most popular
verses he says:

“One God produced the light, and all creatures are of His
creation. When the entire universe has originated from one
source, why do men call one good and the other bad?”

Even in the present day the followers of Nanak are a tremendous

force in demolishing caste. In a recent general assembly of the Sikhs
held at Amritsar (the official headquarters of the Sikh religion) it was
announced that at all future gatherings of the community, and in all
of its free kitchens everywhere, cooks belonging to the “untouchable”
class shall be freely employed and even given special preference.
As a beginning of this policy the usual pudding offering of the Sikhs
was distributed by “untouchable” men and women to a group of
nearly twenty thousand delegates at the convention. Prior to this,
resolutions condemning “untouchability” had been passed on
innumerable occasions at social service conferences; but never
before had the ages-old custom been trampled upon, in a practical
way, by any other community belonging to the Hindu religion. May
this auspicious beginning inaugurate a triumphant conclusion. It is
sincerely hoped that the leadership of Gandhi and the virile followers
of Nanak in removing the curse of “untouchability” will soon be
recognized by the entire Hindu community. This alone could insure
the enthusiastic Hindu nationalists political economic freedom for
their country. Had it not been for the selfishness of the Brahmans
during the mediæval period,—a selfishness which has tended to
segregate the Hindus into different sections through the strict caste
restrictions of various types,—India would occupy today the
vanguard of the world’s progress instead of the rear. In spite of her
present weakness India possesses, however, within herself a
marvelous reserve force which will enable her to pass through this
crisis. While the haughty West, which has always delighted in
taunting the Hindus for the latter’s caste, has not even begun to
examine her problem of race-conflict, India is already on its way to
solving her own caste problem. Gradually, as the younger generation
among the Hindus gains more power, “untouchability” and its allied
diseases will disappear. Personally, I believe that the leaders of India
are headed in the right direction, and that soon equality among
members of the different castes will be established in the country as
a permanent part of its social structure.
“In the Hindu system, once the people were divided into different
castes, equality of opportunity for all prevailed within their own
castes, while the caste or group as a whole had collective
responsibilities and privileges.” Each caste had its own rules and
code of honor; and so long as a man’s mode of living was
acceptable to his caste-fellows, the rest of the community did not
care about it at all. On the other hand, a man’s status in the outside
world or his wealth made no change in his rank within the caste. I
shall offer an illustration from my own experience. During the
mourning week after the death of a near relative of His Royal
Highness, the ruling Prince of the native State of Kashmir, Her Royal
Highness gave a state reception to the sympathizing friends.
Whereas she greeted the wives of the two highest officials in the
State, the English Resident and the Prime Minister, with a nod of the
head from her seat, Her Royal Highness had to receive standing the
humble housekeeper in my brother’s home, because the latter
belonged to the same caste as the ruling prince. “Society thus
organized can be best described by the term Guild Socialism.”
Another distinctive feature in the study of its caste is the communal
character of Hindu life. Hindu society was established on a basis of
group morality. No set of rules were held binding on all classes alike,
but within a given caste the freedom of the individual was
subordinated to the interest of the caste. Men lived not for their own
interests or comfort, but for the benefit of the community. It was a life
of self-sacrifice, and the concept of duty was paramount. The good
of caste, of race, of nation stood first, and that of the individual
second. Social welfare was placed before the happiness of the
individual. “For the family sacrifice the individual, for the community
the family, for the country the community, for the soul all the world.”
Which of the two ideals, the communism of the Hindu or the
individualism of the Westerner is the better? Says Rabindranath
Tagore: “Europe may have preached and striven for individualism,
but where else in the world is the individual so much of slave?”
On the other hand it must be remembered also that all ideals are
good only so far as they assist the individual to develop his full
manhood, and the moment they begin to hamper him in his natural
growth and thwart his own will they lose their value. So long as the
caste regulations of the Hindus assisted them in their spiritual
development, they were justified. But the moment they began to lose
their original character and became an oppression in the hands of
the priestly classes, who used their authority to stifle the nation’s
spirit, they had lost their usefulness and invited the ridicule and
censure of all intelligent thinkers.
Where finer feelings of fraternal human-fellowship prevailed over
self-interest and individual gain, in such a community no voice cried
in vain at the time of distress. When deaths in the family left small
children parentless, or sickness and misfortunes made homes
penniless, the protection of other members of the caste was always
available for those in need. Orphans and helpless members within
the caste were taken into the homes of caste brothers and carefully
brought up and fed with the rest as members of the family. Here the
lucky and the unlucky were brought up side by side. Thus there has
never arisen in India the necessity of orphanages and poorhouses.
As was said by an eminent English writer:[31] “For to the ripe and
mellow genius of the East it has been always clear that the
defenceless and unfortunate require a home, not a barrack.”
Let us now review the entire subject of caste thus: The Aryan
invaders of India found themselves surrounded by hordes of
aboriginal and inferior races. Under similar conditions the European
invaders of America and Australia exterminated the original
population by killing them off, or converted them into human slaves;
the Hindu Aryans avoided both of these inhumanities by taking the
native inhabitants of the land into their social life. They gave these
inferior peoples a distinct place in the scale of labor, and assigned to
them the duties of menial service, for which alone they were qualified
at the time. Further, to safeguard their superior culture, the Aryan
leaders laid down strict rules against intermarriage with their non-
Aryan neighbors. And as these aboriginals were filthy in their habits
and mostly carrion-eaters, it was also ordained as a measure of
hygienic precaution that the Aryans should not be allowed to drink
the same water or eat food cooked by non-Aryan hands. This was
the beginning of untouchability.
Simultaneously with this racial division rose a functional division
among the Aryan population separating it into three orders of priests,
warriors, and husbandmen. This constituted the four-fold division of
the Hindu caste system—the Aryan inhabitants of the land forming
the first three castes of Brahmans, Khashatriyas, and Vaishyas,
while the non-Aryans constituted the fourth caste of servants or
Sudras. At first these divisions into different castes were flexible and
persons in the lower castes were allowed to rise into the ones higher
by virtue of their merit. We find that most of the historic religious
teachers of the Hindus, namely, Rama, Krishna, and Buddha, came
from the second class.
Gradually, however, the castes began to lose their flexible nature,
and before the birth of Buddha in the year 600 B. C. they had
already acquired a hereditary character. The teachings of Buddhism
had the tendency to break down the hereditary barriers of caste, and
during a thousand years of its reign the people of India had forgotten
their caste boundaries. “Around 600 A. D. Buddhism began to
decline and the Brahman priests gained fresh prestige. They set up
the different castes on the old hereditary lines once again, and,
except for a few local breaks through the appearance of such
leaders as Nanak in Punjab and Chaityna in the South, the spirit of
caste has prevailed throughout Hindu India since the decline of
Buddhism.” The greatest champion of the lower classes who has
appeared in recent times is the peaceful leader of India’s silent
revolution, Mahatma Gandhi. He has spoken and written against
untouchability and its allied evils more bitterly and longer than
against other vital political and economic wrongs of the country. He
has told his countrymen time and again that India’s soul cannot
become pure so long as untouchability stays amongst the Hindus to
defile it. And as a proof of his own sincerity in the matter he has
adopted in his own family an untouchable girl whom he calls the joy
of the household.
The evils of caste are quite manifest. It has tended to divide the
Hindu community into various groups and thus destroyed among
them unity of feeling which alone could insure national strength. Lack
of united power opened the way for foreign invasions, which, again,
has resulted in dragging India down from her former place of glory to
her present state of humiliation and ruin. Yet alongside with the
many evils of India’s caste system several advantages have accrued
from it. Its existence has tended to make the people of India
conservative and tolerant. With the institution of caste they felt so
well fortified within themselves that they did not fear the influx of new
ideas into their midst. India offered a safe and welcome home to the
oppressed minorities from other lands. The Parsis and Jews came
and settled there. They were not merely tolerated but welcomed by
the Hindus, because the latter, assured of their own wonderful
powers of resistance, had nothing to fear from outside influences.
The Hindu caste system may be described as “the social formulation
of defence minus all elements of aggression.” Since the beginning of
her history India has been subjected to numerous invasions, but she
has stood against them successfully. In the cultural sense India,
instead of being conquered, “has always succeeded in conquering
her conquerors.” The invaders belonging to different civilizations and
races have come and disappeared, one after the other; but India still
survives.[32]
Again, in the Hindus’ scheme of the division of labor care was taken
to assign to every man his task and remuneration in such a manner
as to avoid all unnecessary friction among the different classes. Its
value will be readily recognized by those who are familiar with the
evils of modern industrialism, arising from the intense hatred within
the different classes.
Finally, it must be said to the credit of Hindu sociologists that, at
least, they had the courage to face the problem of race-conflict with
a sympathetic mind. The problem was not of their creation. The
diversity of races existed in India before these new Aryan invaders
came into the country. The caste system of the Hindus was the result
of their sincere endeavors to seek a solution of their difficult problem.
Its object was to keep the different races together and yet afford
each one of them opportunity to express itself in its own separate
way. “India may not have achieved complete success in this. But
who else has? It was, at least, better than the best which the West
has thought of so far. There the stronger races have either
exterminated the weaker ones like the Red Indians in America, or
shut them out completely like the Asiatics in Australia and America.”
“Whatever may be its merits,” says Tagore, “you will have to admit
that it does not spring from the higher impulses of civilization, but
from the lower passions of greed and hatred.”

FOOTNOTES:
[25] Max Müller.
[26] Tagore.
[27 Tagore.
[28] Quoted from Otto Rothfield—Women of India.
[29] E. W. Hopkins.
[30] Jataka, 440. Quoted from E. W. Hopkins Ethics of India.
[31] Margaret E. Noble.
[32] Tagore.
 Chapter V
GANDHI—THE MAN AND HIS MESSAGE
Mohandass Karamchand Gandhi is today the acknowledged leader
of three hundred million inhabitants of India. He is the author of the
Non-violent Non-coöperation movement, adopted by the Indian
National Congress as a weapon of passive resistance wherewith to
win India’s freedom. In March, 1922, because of his public activities
in India as a leader of this movement, Gandhi was convicted on the
charge of promoting disaffection towards the British crown, and was
sentenced to six years’ incarceration. He was released from prison,
however, in 1924 by a special order of the British Labor Government.
Since that time he has remained the most powerful and beloved
public figure in the nationalist movement of India.
His movement has aroused great interest among the different
peoples of the world. But the information given to the outside public
has been so vague and disconnected that it has led to very
erroneous conclusions. So much of pure nonsense in the form of
praise and ridicule of Gandhi and his activities has been passed
around that it has become difficult for the earnest student to separate
the real from the fictitious. Therefore it is only fitting that we should
make a careful study of the man and his message.
A sufficient number of scholars, students, missionaries, travelers,
and writers have studied him carefully enough to enable them to
form a reliable opinion. Irrespective of their missions, opinions, and
designations, these investigators all agree as to the magnetic
personality of Gandhi and to the purity of his private and public life.
“His sweet, subtle sense of humor, and his profound confidence in
the ultimate triumph of truth and justice as against falsehood and
oppression never fail to influence and inspire everyone who comes
his way.” Even the very judge who, seven years ago, sentenced him
to six years’ incarceration could not resist the temptation to call him
“a great patriot and a great leader,” and to pay him the tribute: “Even
those who differ from you in politics look up to you as a man of high
ideals and as leading a noble and even saintly life.”
Gandhi, born at Ahmedabad (India) in October, 1869, had all the
advantages of an early education under careful guidance. His father,
Karamchand Gandhi, a wealthy man and a statesman by profession,
combined in himself the highest political wisdom and learning
together with an utter simplicity of manner. He was respected
throughout Deccan, in which (province) he was prime minister of a
native state, as a just man and an uncompromising champion of the
weak. “Gandhi’s mother was an orthodox Hindu lady, with stubborn
religious conceptions. She led a very simple and dignified life after
the teachings of the Hindu Vedas.” She was a very jealous and
affectionate mother and took a deep interest in the bringing up of her
children. Gandhi, the favorite “Mohan” of his parents, was the center
of all the cares and discipline of his loving relatives. He inherited
from his father a determination of purpose and the tenacity of a
powerful will, and from his mother a sense of religious and moral
purity of life. After graduating from a native school in his home town,
he was sent to England to finish his education. He fitted himself for
the bar at the University of London, and on his return to India was
admitted as an advocate of the High Court of Bombay. While still in
London, Gandhi acquired the habit of passing the best part of his
days in solitude. From the temptations of the boisterous London life
he could find escape only when he sat alone by his window, violin in
his lap, and thought of an unconquered spiritual world in his mind. A
product of the early favorable circumstances and all the advanced
education, Gandhi is thus a highly cultured gentleman with finished
manners. He possesses a happy temperament with but a tinge of
melancholy pervading his life and conduct.
As a patriot and leader of an oppressed people struggling for
freedom, Gandhi belongs in the category of the world’s great
liberators with such men as Washington, Lincoln, and Mazzini. As a
saintly person who has dedicated his life to preaching the gospel of
love and truth, and who has actually lived up to his preachings, he
ranks among such of the world’s great sages as Buddha, Jesus, and
Socrates. On the one hand a dangerous political agitator, an untiring
and unresting promoter of a huge mass revolution; yet on the other
an uncompromising champion of non-violence, a saint with the
motto, “Love thine enemies,” Gandhi stands unique, supreme,
unequalled, and unsurpassed.
His theory of a non-violent mass revolution aiming at the
dethronement of a powerful, militaristic government like the British
Bureaucracy in India, though strange and impractical at first thought,
is yet very simple and straightforward.
“Man is born free, and yet,” lamented Rousseau, “he is everywhere
in chains.” “Man is born free, why should he refuse to live free?”
questions Gandhi. Freedom is man’s birthright. With unlimited liberty
in thought and action man could live in perfect peace and harmony
on condition that all men would rigidly observe their own duties and
keep within their own rights. “But men as they are and not as they
should be, possess a certain amount of animal nature. In some it is
subdued, while in others, let loose, it becomes the cause of
disturbance and dislocates all freedom.” To safeguard against the
encroachment of such natures on the “natural rights” and privileges
of others, men have organized themselves into groups called states.
“By so doing, each voluntary member of this state foregoes some of
his personal rights in exchange for certain individual privileges and
communal rights to be secured under its protection. The government
of a country is thus a matter of voluntary choice by its people and is
organized to carry on such functions as shall conduce to the highest
good of the maximum number.” When it becomes corrupt, when
instead of protecting its members from every form of evil and
disorder, it becomes an instrument of the forces of darkness and a
tool of corruption, citizens have an inalienable right to demand a
change in the existing order. They might first attempt peaceful
reform, but should such attempts come to nought, the right of
revolution is theirs. It is indeed their right to refuse their coöperation,
direct or indirect, with a government which has been responsible for
the spiritual decadence and political degeneracy of their country.
Gandhi explains his attitude thus:
 “We must refuse to wait for the wrong to be righted till the
wrong-doer has been roused to a sense of his iniquity. We must
not, for fear of ourselves or others having to suffer, remain
participators in it. But we must combat the wrong by ceasing to
assist the wrong-doer directly or indirectly.
“If a father does an injustice, it is the duty of his children to leave
the parental roof. If the head-master of a school conducts his
institution on an immoral basis, the pupils must leave school. If
the chairman of a corporation is corrupt, the members must
wash their hands clean of his corruption by withdrawing from it;
even so, if a government does a grave injustice, the subject
must withdraw coöperation, wholly or partially, sufficiently to
wean the ruler from his wickedness. In each of the cases
conceived by me, there is an element of suffering whether
mental or physical. Without such suffering, it is impossible to
attain freedom.”
* * *
“The business of every god-fearing person is to dissociate
himself from evil in total disregard of consequences. He must
have faith in a good deed producing only a good result; that in
my opinion is the Gita doctrine of work without attachment. God
does not permit him to peep into the future. He follows truth
although the following of it may endanger his very life. He knows
that it is better to die in the way of God than to live in the way of
Satan. Therefore whoever is satisfied that this Government
represents the activity of Satan has no choice left to him but to
dissociate himself from it....”

For a period of more than twenty-five years, Gandhi coöperated with

the British Empire whenever it was threatened and stood in need.
Though he vehemently criticized it when it went wrong, yet he did not
wish its destruction until his final decision of non-coöperation in
1920. “He felt, that in spite of its abuses and shortcomings, the
system was mainly and intrinsically good.” Gandhi joined in the
World War on the side of the Allies. When the war started, he was in
England, where he organized an Ambulance Corps from among the
group of his compatriots residing there. Later on, in India, he
accepted a position in the British Recruiting Service as an honorary
officer, and strained himself to the breaking point in his efforts to
assist Great Britain.
“Gandhi gave proofs of his loyalty to the Empire and of his faith in
British justice by valuable services also on the occasion of the Anglo-
Boer war (1899) and the Zulu revolt (1906). In recognition of his
services on the two latter occasions he was awarded gold medals,
and his name was each time mentioned in the dispatches. Later, on
his return to India, he was awarded the Kaiser-i-Hind Gold Medal by
Lord Hardinge in recognition of his humanitarian services in South
Africa.” These medals he determinedly, though regretfully, returned
to the Viceroy of India on August 1, 1920. The letter that
accompanied them besides other things contained this statement:

“Your Excellency’s light-hearted treatment of the official crime,

your exoneration of Sir Michael O’Dwyer, Mr. Montague’s
dispatch and above all the shameful ignorance of the Punjab
events and callous disregard of the feelings of Indians betrayed
by the House of Lords, have filled me with the gravest
misgivings regarding the future of the Empire, have estranged
me completely from the present Government and have disabled
me from tendering, as I have hitherto whole-heartedly tendered,
my loyal coöperation.”

His statement in court at the time of his conviction in March, 1922,

when he pleaded guilty, reads:

“From a staunch loyalist and coöperator, I have become an

uncompromising disaffectionist and non-coöperator.... To preach
disaffection towards the existing system of government has
became almost a passion with me.... If I were set free, I would
still do the same. I would be failing in my duty if I did not do so....
I had to submit to a system which has done irreparable harm to
my country, or to incur the mad fury of my people, bursting forth
when they heard the truth from my lips.... I do not ask for mercy.
 I am here to invite and to submit to the highest penalty that can
be inflicted upon me for what in law is a crime, but which is the
first duty of every citizen.... Affection cannot be manufactured or
regulated by law.... I hold it to be a virtue to be disaffected
towards a government which, in its totality, has done more harm
to India than any previous system.... It is the physical and brutal
ill-treatment of humanity which has made many of my co-
workers and myself impatient of life itself.”

The chief distinction between Gandhi and other liberators, the chief
difference between him and other leaders was that he wanted his
countrymen to love their friends, and yet not to hate their enemies.
“Hatred ceaseth not by hatred; hatred ceaseth by love” was his sole
plea to his fellowmen. He enjoined them to love their oppressors, for
through love and suffering alone could these same oppressors be
brought to see their mistakes. Thus, following his public
announcement of the non-coöperation policy he embarked upon an
extensive tour of the country. Wherever he went he preached
disaffection towards the existing government.
Gandhi’s whole political career is inspired by a deep love for his
suffering countrymen. His heart burns with the desire to free his
country from its present state of thraldom and helpless servitude.
India, the cradle of civilization and culture, for ages the solitary
source of light and of wisdom, whence issued the undying message
of Buddhist missionaries, where empires flourished under the careful
guidance of distinguished statesmen, the land of Asoka and Akbar,
lies to-day at the tender mercy of a haughty conqueror, intoxicated
and maddened by the conquest of a helpless people. “Her arts
degenerated, her literatures dead, her beautiful industries perished,
her valor done,” she presents but a pitiful picture to the onlooking
world. Gandhi, the heroically determined son of India, feels the
impulse to save his motherland from the present state of “slow
torture, emasculation, and degradation,” and suggests to his
countrymen the use of the unique yet powerful weapon of peaceful
non-coöperation. Through this slow process of “self-denial” and “self-
purification” he proposes to carry his country forward till the goal of
its political emancipation and its spiritual freedom is fully realized.
Political freedom might be secured by force, but that is not what
Gandhi wishes. Unsatisfied with mere freedom of the body, he soars
higher and strives for a sublimer form of liberty, the freedom of the
soul. To the question, “Shall India follow the stern example of
Europe, and fight out its struggle for political and economic
independence?” Gandhi replies with an emphatic and unqualified
“No.” “What has Europe’s powerful military and material organization
done to insure its future peace?” Romain Rolland answers: “Half a
century ago might dominated right. To-day things are far worse.
Might is right. Might has devoured right.”
No people, no nation has ever won or ever can win real freedom
through violence. “Violence implies the use of force, and the force is
oppressive. Those who fight and win with force, ultimately find it both
convenient and expedient to follow the line of least resistance; and
they continue to rely upon force in time of peace as well, ostensibly
to maintain law and order, but practically to suppress and stifle every
rising spirit. The power may thus change hands, yet leave the evil
process to continue without a moment’s break. Non-violence does
not carry with it this degeneration which is inherent in the use of
violence.” Gandhi is highly eloquent on this score when he says:

“They may forget non-coöperation, but they dare not forget non-
violence. Indeed, non-coöperation is non-violence. We are
violent when we support a government whose creed is violence.
It bases itself finally not on right but might. Its last appeal is not
to reason, nor the heart, but to the sword. We are tired of this
creed and we have risen against it. Let us ourselves not belie
our profession by being violent.”

“One must love one’s enemies while hating their deeds; hate
Satanism while loving Satan” is the principal article of Gandhi’s faith,
and he has proved himself worthy of this lofty profession by his own
personal conduct. Through all the stormy years of his life he has
stood firm in his noble convictions, with his love untainted, his faith
unchallenged, his veracity unquestioned, and his courage
undaunted. “No criticism however sharp, no abuse however bitter,
ever affected the loving heart of Gandhi.” In the knowledge of his life-
long political associates (members of the Indian National Congress
and of other such organizations), Gandhi has never, even in
moments of the most violent excitement, lost control of himself.
When light-hearted criticisms have been showered on his program
by younger and more inexperienced colleagues, when the bitterest
sarcasms have been aimed at him by older associates, he has never
revealed by so much as a tone of his voice the slightest touch of
anger or the slightest show of contempt. His limit of tolerance has
not yet been reached.
During the last ten years of his political life in India when he guided
the destines of his countrymen as leader of a great movement,
Gandhi again gave unmistakable proofs of the vastness of his love
for mankind. That his love is not reserved for his compatriots alone,
but extends even to his bitterest enemies, he revealed clearly
throughout the most critical period of his life. His enemies, the British
bureaucrats, tried to nip his movement in the very bud by using all
the power at their command to discredit him in the eyes of his
countrymen and of the world outside. Calumnies were heaped upon
him from all sides. He was called a “hypocrite,” an “unscrupulous
agitator,” a “disguised autocrat.” The vast number of his followers
were branded as “dumb-cattle,” and hundreds of thousands of them
were flogged, imprisoned, and in some cases even shot for no other
offense than that of wearing the coarse hand-spun “Gandhi cap” and
singing the Indian national hymn. Even in such trying moments he
remained firm in his faith, and loyal to his professions. Evidence as
to the undisturbed, peaceful condition of his mind and spirit is amply
furnished by the following statements which he gave to the Indian
press in those turbulent days:

“Our non-violence teaches us to love our enemies. By non-

violent non-coöperation we seek to conquer the wrath of English
administrators and their supporters. We must love them and
pray to God that they might have wisdom to see what appears
to us to be their error. It must be the prayer of the strong and not
of the weak. In our strength must we humble ourselves before
our maker.
 “In the moment of our trial and our triumph let me declare my
faith. I believe in loving my enemies.... I believe in the power of
suffering to melt the stoniest heart.... We must by our conduct
demonstrate to every Englishman that he is as safe in the
remotest corner of India as he professes to feel behind the
machine gun.”
* * *
“There is only one God for us all, whether we find him through
the Bible, the Koran, the Gita, the Zindvesta or the Talmud, and
He is the God of love and truth. I do not hate an Englishman. I
have spoken much against his institutions, especially the one he
has set up in India. But you must not mistake my condemnation
of the system for that of the man. My religion requires me to love
him as I love myself. I have no interest in living except to prove
the faith in me. I would deny God if I do not attempt to prove it at
this critical moment.”

It must be remembered that all this was at a time when Mr. Gandhi
held undisputed sway over the hearts of his three hundred million
countrymen. Setting aside all precedence his countrymen
unanimously elected Gandhi dictator of the Indian National Congress
with full power to lead the country in emergencies. A word from him
was sufficient to induce the millions of India to sacrifice their lives
without regret or reproach. No man ever commanded the allegiance
of so great a number of men, and felt at the same time so meek.
Through the successive stages of “self-denial” and “self-purification”
he is gradually preparing his countrymen for the final step in his
program, the civil disobedience. Once the country has reached that
state, if his program is carried through, the revolution will have been
accomplished without shedding a drop of blood. Henry David
Thoreau once wrote: “When the officer has resigned office, and the
subject has refused allegiance, the revolution is accomplished.” That
will be the dawn of day, hopeful and bright. The forces of darkness
and of evil will have made room for those of light and of love. But this
will not come to pass unless Gandhi’s policy is literally adopted, and
ultimately triumphs. He explains:

“The political non-violence of the Non-coöperators does not

stand the test in the vast majority of cases. Hence the
prolongation of the struggle. Let no one blame the unbending
English nature. The hardest fiber must melt before the fire of
Love. When the British or other nature does not respond, the fire
is not strong enough.
“If non-violence is to remain the policy of the nation, we are
bound to carry it out to the letter and in the spirit. We must then
quickly make up with the English and the Coöperators. We must
get their certificate that they feel absolutely safe in our midst,
that they regard us as friends, although we belong to a radically
different school of thought and politics. We must welcome them
to our political platform as honored guests; we must receive
them on neutral platforms as comrades. Our non-violence must
not breed violence, hatred, or ill-will.
“If we approach our program with the mental reservation that,
after all, we shall wrest power from the British by force of arms,
then we are untrue to our profession of non-violence.... If we
believe in our program, we are bound to believe that the British
people are not unamenable to the force of affection, as they
undoubtedly are amenable to the force of arms.
“Swaraj is a condition of mind, and the mental condition of India
has been challenged.... India will win independence and Swaraj
only when the people have acquired strength to die of their own
free will. Then there will be Swaraj.”

Gandhi has been bitterly assailed by both friends and foes for having
consented to render assistance to the cause of the World War in
contradiction to his own teachings of non-resistance. Gandhi has
been accused of inconsistency and even his most ardent admirers
often fail to reconcile his doings during the war with the doctrine of
“Ahimsa” (non-violence to any form of life). In his autobiography he
has tried to answer these objections, which we shall now examine.
He writes:

“I make no distinction, from the point of view of ahimsa, between

combatants and non-combatants. He who volunteers to serve a
band of dacoits, by working as their carrier, or their watchman
while they are about their business, or their nurse when they are
wounded, is as much guilty of dacoity as the dacoits
themselves. In the same way those who confine themselves to
attending to the wounded in battle cannot be absolved from the
guilt of war.”

This statement shows that his reasons for going into the war were
different from those of the Quakers, who think it is an act of Christian
love to succor the wounded in war. Gandhi, on the contrary, believes
that the person who made bandages for the Red Cross was as much
guilty of the murder in war as were the fighting combatants. So long
as you have consented to become a part of the machinery of war,
whose object is destruction, you are yourself an instrument of
destruction. And however you may argue the issue you cannot be
absolved from the moral guilt involved. The man who has offered his
services as an ambulance carrier on the battlefield is helping the
war-lords just as much as his brother who carries arms. One is
assisting the cause of the war-lord by killing the enemy, the other by
helping war to do its work of murder more efficiently.
I am reminded of the argument I once had with a very conscientious
friend of mine, who is a stubborn enemy of war and yet who recalls
the following incident in his life with a sorrowful look in his face. One
day while he was living in London, a young friend of his came to say
his farewell before leaving for the front. Poison gas had been just
introduced into the war as a weapon. The combatants were
instructed to procure gas masks before departing, but the supply
was limited, and his young soldier friend had to go without a gas
mask. He left his permit, however, with the request that my friend
should get the mask when the next supply came in and send it to his
regimental address. Two days later the gas mask was mailed to this
boy soldier at the battle front. Before it reached there, however, the
soldier was already dead. On the first day after the arrival of the
regiment, it was heavily gassed by the enemy, and all of those who
had gone without the protective masks were killed. The parcel was
returned to my friend at his London address with the sad news that
his friend was here no more. He was bitterly disappointed that the
mask had not reached the beloved young man in time to save his
life. I interpret the whole affair in this way: In sending a gas mask to
this English soldier, my pacifist friend was conspiring, however
unconsciously, to kill the Germans. He wanted to save his friend
from death, but did he realize that at the same time he was wishing
more deaths on the enemy? He was, in fact, helping to save one
young man in order that this young man might kill more young men
on the other side. How does Gandhi justify his action in joining the
war, then? We shall let him speak once again. He writes:

“When two nations are fighting, the duty of a votary of ahimsa is

to stop the war. He who is not equal to that duty, he who has no
power of resisting war, he who is not qualified to resist war, may
take part in war, and yet whole-heartedly try to free himself, his
nation, and the world from war.
“I had hoped to improve my status and that of my people
through the British Empire. Whilst in England, I was enjoying the
protection of the British fleet, and taking as I did shelter under its
armed might, I was directly participating in its potential violence.
Therefore if I desired to retain my connection with the Empire
and to live under its banner, one of three courses was open to
me: I could declare open resistance against the war, and in
accordance with the law of Satyagraha, boycott the Empire until
it changed its military policy, or I could seek imprisonment by
civil disobedience of such of its laws as were fit to be disobeyed,
or I could participate in the war on the side of the Empire and
thereby acquire the capacity and fitness for resisting the
violence of war. I lacked this capacity and fitness, so I thought
there was nothing for it but for me to serve in the war.”

How far Mr. Gandhi’s explanation can answer the objections of his
critics we shall leave our readers to judge for themselves. The