Ch 04: Spatial Information Technology

Geographical Information Systems (GIS)

Introduction
Geographical Information System (GIS) is a technology that provides the means to collect and
use geographic data to assist in the development of Agriculture. The GIS software makes it
possible to synthesize large amounts of different data, combining different layers of information
to manage and retrieve the data in a more useful manner.

Overview of GIS
A Geographical Information System (GIS) is a system for capturing, storing, analyzing and
managing data and associated attributes, which are spatially referenced to the Earth. The
geographical information system is also called as a geographic information system or geospatial
information system.
Geographical Information System can be used for scientific investigations, resource
management, asset management, environmental impact assessment, urban planning,
cartography, criminology, history, sales, marketing, and logistics. For example, agricultural
planners might use geographical data to decide on the best locations for a location specific crop
planning, by combining data on soils, topography, and rainfall to determine the size and location
of biologically suitable areas.

Components of GIS
GIS enables the user to input, manage, manipulate, analyze, and display geographically
referenced data using a computerized system. To perform various operations with GIS, the
components of GIS such as software, hardware, data, people and methods are essential.

1. Software
GIS software provides the functions and tools needed to store, analyze, and display geographic
information. Key software components are (a) a database management system (DBMS) (b)
tools for the input and manipulation of geographic information (c) tools that support geographic
query, analysis, and visualization (d) a graphical user interface (GUI) for easy access to tools.
GIS software are either commercial software or software developed on Open Source domain,
which are available for free.
Currently available commercial GIS software includes Arc/Info, Intergraph, MapInfo, Gram++
etc. Out of these Arc/Info is the most popular software package. And, the open source software
are AMS/MARS etc.

2. Hardware
Hardware is the computer on which a GIS operates. Today, GIS runs on a wide range of
hardware types, from centralized computer servers to desktop computers used in stand-alone or
networked configurations.

3. Data
The most important component of a GIS is the data. Geographic data or Spatial
data and related tabular data can be collected in-house or bought from a commercial data
provider. Spatial data can be in the form of a map/remotely-sensed data such as satellite
imagery and aerial photography. These data forms must be properly geo- referenced
(latitude/longitude). Tabular data can be in the form attribute data that is in some way related to
spatial data. Most GIS software comes with inbuilt Database Management Systems (DBMS) to
create and maintain a database to help organize and manage data.

4. Users
GIS technology is of limited value without the users who manage the system and
to develop plans for applying it. GIS users range from technical specialists who design and
maintain the system to those who use it to help them do their everyday work.

5. Methods
A successful GIS operates according to a well-designed plan and business rules, which are the
models and operating practices unique to each organization.

Functions of GIS
General-purpose GIS software performs six major tasks such as input, manipulation,
management, query and analysis, Visualization.

1. Input
The important input data for any GIS is digitized maps, images, spatial data and
tabular data. The tabular data is generally typed on a computer using relational database
management system software. Before geographic data can be used in a GIS it must be
converted into a suitable digital format. The DBMS system can generate various objects such as
index generation on data items, to speed up the information retrieval by a query. Maps can be
digitized using a vector format in which the actual map points, lines, and polygons are stored as
coordinates.

2. Manipulation
GIS can store, maintain, distribute and update spatial data associated text data. The spatial
data must be referenced to a geographic coordinate systems (latitude/longitude). The tabular
data associated with spatial data can be manipulated with help of data base management
software. It is likely that data types required for a particular GIS project will need to be
transformed or manipulated in some way to make them compatible with the system.

3. Management
For small GIS projects it may be sufficient to store geographic information as computer files.
However, when data volumes become large and the number of users of the data becomes more
than a few, it is advised to use a database management system (DBMS) to help store, organize,
and manage data. A DBMS is a database management software package to manage the
integrated collection of database objects such as tables, indexes, query, and other procedures
in a database.

4. Query
The stored information either spatial data or associated tabular data can be
retrieved with the help of Structured Query Language (SQL). Depending on the type of user
interface, data can be queried using the SQL or a menu driven system can be used to retrieve
map data.

5. Analysis
GIS systems really come into their own when they are used to analyze geographic data. The
processes of geographic analysis often called spatial analysis or geo-processing uses the
geographic properties of features to look for patterns and trends, and to undertake "what if"
scenarios. Modern GIS have many powerful analytical tools to analyse the data. The following
are some of the analysis which are generally performed on geographic data.

A. Overlay Analysis
The integration of different data layers involves a process called overlay. At its simplest, this
could be a visual operation, but analytical operations require one or more data layers to be
joined physically. This overlay, or spatial join, can integrate data on soils, slope, and vegetation,
or land ownership. For example, data layers for soil and land use can be combined resulting in a
new map which contains both soil and land use information. This will be helpful to understand
the different behaviour of the situation on different parameters.

B. Proximity Analysis
GIS software can also support buffer generation that involves the creation of new polygons from
points, lines, and polygon features stored in the database. For example, to know answer to
questions like; How much area covered within 1 km of water canal? What is area covered under
different crops? And, for watershed projects, where is the boundary or delineation of watershed,
slope, water channels, different types water harvesting structures are required, etc.

Data representation
GIS data represents real world objects such as roads, land use, elevation with digital data. Real
world objects can be divided into two abstractions: discrete objects (a house) and continuous
fields (rain fall amount or elevation). There are two broad methods used to store data in a GIS
for both abstractions: Raster and Vector.

A. Raster
A raster data type is, in essence, any type of digital image. Anyone who is familiar with digital
photography will recognize the pixel as the smallest individual unit of an image. A combination
of these pixels will create an image, distinct from the commonly used scalable vector graphics,
which are the basis of the vector model. While a digital image is concerned with the output as
representation of reality, in a photograph or art transferred to computer, the raster data type will
reflect an abstraction of reality. Aerial photos are one commonly used form of raster data, with
only one purpose, to display a detailed image on a map or for the purposes of digitization. Other
raster data sets will contain information regarding elevation, a DEM (digital Elevation Model), or
reflectance of a particular wavelength of light.

B. Vector
A simple vector map, using each of the vector elements: points for wells, lines
for rivers, and a polygon for the lake. In a GIS, geographical features are often expressed as
vectors, by considering those features as geometrical shapes. In the popular ESRI Arc series of
programs, these are explicitly called shape files. Different geographical features are best
expressed by different types of geometry:

I. Points
Zero-dimensional points are used for geographical features that can best be
expressed by a single grid reference; in other words, simple location. For example, the locations
of wells, peak elevations, features of interest or trailheads. Points convey the least amount of
information of these file types.

II. Lines
One-dimensional lines are used for linear features such as rivers, roads, railroads, trails, and
topographic lines.

III. Polygons
Two-dimensional polygons are used for geographical features that cover a particular area of the
earth's surface. Such features may include lakes, park boundaries, buildings, city boundaries, or
land uses. Polygons convey the most amount of information of the file types.

Advantages and disadvantages

There are advantages and disadvantages to using a raster or vector data model to represent
reality. Raster data sets record a value for all points in the area covered which may require
more storage space than representing data in a vector format that can store data only where
needed. Raster data also allows easy implementation of overlay operations, which are more
difficult with vector data. Vector data can be displayed as vector graphics used on traditional
maps, whereas raster data will appear as an image that may have a blocky appearance for
object boundaries. Vector data can be easier to register, scale, and re-project. This can simplify
combining vector layers from different sources. Vector data are more compatible with relational
database environment. They can be part of a relational table as a normal column and processes
using a multitude of operators.

Non-spatial data
Additional non-spatial data can also be stored besides the spatial data represented by the
coordinates of a vector geometry or the position of a raster cell. In vector data, the additional
data are attributes of the object. For example, a forest inventory polygon may also have an
identifier value and information about tree species. In raster data the cell value can store
attribute information, but it can also be used as an identifier that can relate to records in another
table.

Spatial Analysis with GIS

Data modeling
It is difficult to relate wetlands maps to rainfall amounts recorded at different points such as
airports, television stations, and high schools. A GIS, however, can be used to depict two- and
three-dimensional characteristics of the Earth's surface, subsurface, and atmosphere from
information points. For example, a GIS can quickly generate a map with isopleths or contour
lines that indicate differing amounts of rainfall.

Topological modeling
In the past years, were there any gas stations or factories operating next to the swamp? Any
within two miles (3 km) and uphill from the swamp? A GIS can recognize and analyze the
spatial relationships that exist within digitally stored spatial data. These topological relationships
allow complex spatial modeling and analysis to be performed. Topological relationships
between geometric entities traditionally include adjacency (what adjoins what), containment
(what encloses what), and proximity (how close something is to something else).

Networks
If all the factories near a wetland were accidentally to release chemicals into the river at the
same time, how long would it take for a damaging amount of pollutant to enter the wetland
reserve? A GIS can simulate the routing of materials along a linear network. Values such as
slope, speed limit, or pipe diameter can be incorporated into network modeling in order to
represent the flow of the phenomenon more accurately. Network modeling is commonly
employed in transportation planning, hydrology modeling, and infrastructure modeling.

Cartographic modeling
The "cartographic modeling" was (probably) coined by Dana Tomlin in his PhD dissertation and
later in his book which has the term in the title. Cartographic modeling refers to a process where
several thematic layers of the same area are produced, processed, and analyzed. Tomlin used
raster layers, but the overlay method (see below) can be used more generally. Operations on
map layers can be combined into algorithms, and eventually into simulation or optimization
models.

Map overlay
The combination of two separate spatial data sets (points, lines or polygons) to create a new
output vector data set. These overlays are similar to mathematical Venn diagram overlays. A
union overlay combines the geographic features and attribute tables of both inputs into a single
new output. An intersect overlay defines the area where both inputs overlap and retains a set of
attribute fields for each. A symmetric difference overlay defines an output area that includes the
total area of both inputs except for the overlapping area.

Automated cartography
Digital cartography and GIS both encode spatial relationships in structured formal
representations. GIS is used in digital cartography modeling as a (semi) automated process of
making maps, so called Automated Cartography. In practice, it can be a subset of a GIS, within
which it is equivalent to the stage of visualization, since in most cases not all of the GIS
functionality is used.

Data output and cartography

Cartography is the design and production of maps, or visual representations of spatial data. The
vast majority of modern cartography is done with the help of computers, usually using a GIS.
Most GIS software gives the user substantial control over the appearance of the data.

Graphic display techniques

Traditional maps are abstractions of the real world, a sampling of important elements portrayed
on a sheet of paper with symbols to represent physical objects. People who use maps must
interpret these symbols. Topographic maps show the shape of land surface with contour lines;
the actual shape of the land can be seen only in the mind's eye.

GIS software
Originally up to the late 1990s, when GIS data was mostly based on large computers and used
to maintain internal records, software was a stand-alone product. However with increased
access to the Internet and networks and demand for distributed geographic data grew, GIS
software gradually changed its entire outlook to the delivery of data over a network. GIS
software is now usually marketed as combination of various interoperable applications and
APIs.

Data creation
GIS processing software is used for the task of preparing data for use within a GIS. This
transforms the raw or legacy geographic data into a format usable by GIS products. For
example an aerial photograph may need to be stretched using photogrammetry so that its pixels
align with longitude and latitude gradations. This can be distinguished from the transformations
done within GIS analysis software by the fact that these changes are permanent, more complex
and time consuming. Thus, a specialized high-end type of software is generally used by a
skilled person in GIS processing aspects of computer science for digitization and analysis.

Distributed GIS
Distributed GIS concerns itself with Geographical Information Systems that do not have all of
the system components in the same physical location. This could be the processing, the
database, the rendering or the user interface. Examples of distributed systems are web-based
GIS, Mobile GIS, Corporate GIS and GRID computing.

The future of GIS

The GIS applications including public health, crime mapping, national defense, sustainable
development, agriculture, rural development, natural resources, landscape architecture,
archaeology, regional and community planning, transportation and logistics. GIS is also
diverging into location-based services (LBS). LBS allows GPS enabled mobile devices to
display their location in relation to fixed assets (nearest restaurant, gas station, police station),
mobile assets (friends, children, police car) or to relay their position back to a central server for
display or other processing.

Exploring Global Change with GIS

Maps have traditionally been used to explore the Earth and to exploit its resources. GIS
technology, as an expansion of cartographic science, has enhanced the efficiency and analytic
power of traditional mapping. Now, as the scientific community recognizes the environmental
consequences of human activity, GIS technology is becoming an essential tool in the effort to
understand the process of global change. Various map and satellite information sources can
combine in modes that simulate the interactions of complex natural systems.

GIS and Society

With the popularization of GIS in decision making, scholars have began to scrutinize the social
implications of GIS. It has been argued that the production, distribution, utilization, and
representation of geographic information are largely related with the social context. For
example, some scholars are concerned that GIS may not be misused to harm the society. Other
related topics include discussion on copyright, privacy, and censorship. A more optimistic social
approach to GIS adoption is to use it as a tool for public participation.

Summing Up
Geographical Information System (GIS) is the most important and useful system for decision
making in Agricultural sector by the functionaries. GIS will help to ascertain the ground level
realities with the help of spatial data obtained from various resources. In GIS one can integrate
data from various sources such as Remote Sensing Data and Image with that of data of land
records and agricultural census. It would be more appropriate to use GIS applications in agro-
based enterprise to ascertain the scope of activities and monitoring of activities.