TITLE: “DEVELOPMENT AND PERFORMANCE EVALUATION OF FIBERBOARD FROM

BANANA STEM, RICE STRAW, AND PINEAPPLE LEAF”

MEMBERS: ARDINES, ALQUEEN

CABASAG, ROWEN

GUZMAN, LAIZA

RAPADA, NORIEL

SEREŇO, RIGYN

SUMBILON, JUSTIN CLARK

[1] stated that rice straw's high silica content and the wax-like materials that cover its
surface make it a problematic biomass for industrial use. Rice straw silica improved water
resistance during the manufacturing of binderless boards, which are thought to be
environmentally beneficial as they don't include synthetic resins. On the other hand, the wax-like
materials had a negative impact on self-bonding. The purpose of this study was to determine
how steam treatment affected the self-bonding of binderless boards made of rice straw.
[1] Y. Kurokochi and M. Sato, ―Steam treatment to enhance rice straw binderless board
focusing hemicellulose and cellulose decomposition products,‖ Journal of Wood
Science, vol. 66, no. 1, Feb. 2020, doi: 10.1186/s10086-020-1855-8. Available:
https://doi.org/10.1186/s10086-020-1855-8

[2] investigated in their study the mechanical and physical properties of binderless
banana pseudo-stem particleboard (BBP) and the effect of laminates. Three types were
produced: oil palm veneer laminated BBP, layered banana leaf laminated BBP, and BBP
without lamination. Results showed laminated BBP improved MOR and MOE.
[2] M. A. Jamaludin, S. A. Bahari, M. N. Zakaria, and U. A. Azizan, ―Improvement of
binderless banana Pseudo-Stem particleboard properties via natural laminating
materials,‖ Solid State Phenomena, vol. 305, pp. 23–27, Jun. 2020, doi:
10.4028/www.scientific.net/ssp.305.23.Available:https://www.scientific.net/SSP.305.23#r
eference-panel-element
 [3] enhanced the features of fiberboard by the use of thermosetting resins (urea-
formaldehyde, phenol-formaldehyde, polyurethane, and melamine), and the fibers were chosen
based on their availability and protein characteristics. Furthermore, ammonium chloride, wax,
and resin were also utilized. The MDF boards were made from different fibers like rubber wood,
empty fruit bunch, pineapple leaf, bagasse (sugarcane), bananas stem and midrib, canola
straw, bamboo and rice straw, etc. Here, we've talked about the characteristics of several MDF
panels made with diverse fiber types. This will enable the researchers to examine the
mechanical characteristics of different fiber boards with the aid of additional MDF study.
[3] N. Pugazhenthi and P. Anand, ―A Review on Mechanical Properties of Medium Density
Fiberboard Prepared from Different Fiber Materials,‖ in Lecture notes in mechanical
engineering, 2020, pp. 321–333. doi: 10.1007/978-981-15-3631-1_28. Available:
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-3631-1_28

[4] emphasized that the development of the fiberboard composite, which was created
using recycled polystyrene foam and pineapple leaf fiber, is the goal of this study. In order to
reach the green-material research, polystyrene foam was recycled using D-limonene, a green
essential oil, as a solvent. For the matrix solution, the weight ratio of the pineapple leaf fiber to
the D-limonene solvent was 6:10. A 30 mm length of pineapple leaf fiber was manufactured with
a regulated diameter within the range of 0.037-0.72 mm. The fiber ratio weight levels were
adjusted to 0%, 16.67%, 25%, and 50% in conjunction with a matrix. In order to assess the
composite specimens' tensile qualities, modulus of elasticity, elongation at break, water
absorption, and surface topography, tests were conducted on them. According to the results,
composites containing 50% pineapple fiber reinforcements have the highest tensile strength and
elastic modulus, but they lose water absorption and elongation at breakage. Nonetheless,
depending on the anticipated properties for each application, the set of test data, fiberboard,
could be generated in different polystyrene foam: pineapple leaf fiber ratio.

[4] P. Sutakhote, L. Nuchsopa, M. Duangpruksa, and S. Sartpreecha, ―Development of

fiberboard from polystyrene foam recycling - Pineapple leaf fiber composites,‖ AIP
Conference Proceedings, Jan. 2020, doi: 10.1063/5.0023646. Available:
https://pubs.aip.org/aip/acp/article/2279/1/100001/784026/Development-of-fiberboard-
from-polystyrene-foam
 [5] found out that in order to alleviate the shortage of wood raw materials, rice straw
fibers were used instead of wood, hot pressing was used to make rice straw fiberboard,
attention was paid to the factors affecting the preparation of rice straw fiberboard, and process
parameters were optimized. The preparation technology of rice straw fiberboard was studied,
the pretreatment and modification of rice straw were carried out, the bonding mechanism was
analyzed, and the selection of adhesives and sizing technology was studied.
[5] S. Zhang, ―Study on the preparation process of rice straw fiberboard for packaging,‖ IOP
Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science, vol. 233, p. 052031, Feb. 2019,
doi: 10.1088/1755-1315/233/5/052031. Available: https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-
1315/233/5/052031

[6] stated that in order to determine the effects of varying fiber lengths on the properties
of the composite board as a result of the ideal design mix from variations of cementitious
materials, this experimental study focuses on the physical property characterization of rice straw
composite boards with cementitious materials. A range of rice straw sizes, including mixed, 10
mm, and 30 mm, were utilized. The ASTM criteria were followed in the characterisation of the
boards. According to the physical property results, the long fibers absorb water the least
(6.90%). Additionally, short fibers had an impact on the relative density of 1396.15 kg/m3 and
the shrinkage characteristic of 7.20%. The study's findings showed that rice straw composite
boards combined with cementitious materials might be used in place of ornamental drywall
panels.

[6] D. Cruz and M. Crisella, ―Physical properties of rice straw composite board using
cementitious materials,‖ Social Science Research Network, Jan. 2020, doi:
10.2139/ssrn.3597784.Available:https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3
597784

[7] determined the impact of the particle board reinforcing composition on heat reduction
by creating a particle board reinforced by pineapple leaf fiber waste and HVS paper waste. In
this study, the percentages of pineapple leaf fiber waste and HVS paper waste that were used
with resin glue were 100%:0%, 70%:30%, 50%:50%, 30%:70%, and 0%:100%. All of the
chemicals are combined, printed onto a mold, and then allowed to dry before being used to
make this particle board. An examination of the temperature differential served as the basis for
the test. The best particle board reinforcing composition for lowering heat is 100% waste from
pineapple leaf fibers and 0% waste from HVS paper.
[7] O. Oktavia, D. Lestari, R. K. Rokar, and W. B. Kurniawan, ―Particle board heat insulation
pineapple leaf fiber waste and hvs paper as an alternative to improve indoor
environmental quality,‖ Jambura Physics J., vol. 5, no. 1, pp. 49–56, 2023, doi:
https://doi.org/10.34312/jpj.v5i1.18778.Available:https://ejurnal.ung.ac.id/index.php/jpj/art
icle/view/18778

[8] made binderless particleboard (BPB) using bagasse and rice straw as raw materials.
The purpose of this study is to assess BPB's mechanical and physical characteristics.
Considering their fundamental characteristics, we determine which raw material would be most
suitable for the synthesis of BPB. Bagasse, rice straw, and mixtures of the two in 40:60 and
50:50 ratios are used to make BPBs. We calculate and compare the various BPBs' modulus of
elasticity (MOE), modulus of rupture (MOR), internal bonding (IB) strength, water absorption,
and thickness swelling properties. Findings indicated that the kind of particles or combinations
of particles in the BPB had a major impact on every property.
[8] M. A. Jamaludin, S. A. Bahari, M. N. Zakaria, and N. S. Saipolbahri, ―Influence of Rice
Straw, Bagasse, and their Combination on the Properties of Binderless Particleboard,‖
Journal of the Korean Wood Science and Technology, vol. 48, no. 1, pp. 22–31, Jan.
2020, doi: 10.5658/wood.2020.48.1.22. Available:
https://www.woodj.org/archive/view_article?pid=wood-48-1-22

[9] presented a new environmentally friendly mechanical method for producing rice straw
fibers. To create rice straw fibers as a substitute raw material for medium density fiberboard
production, a large-scale manufacturing method was created. The suggested method reduces
electricity usage and does away with the need for dangerous chemicals, in contrast to traditional
methods. Additionally, improved fibers with reduced silica concentration and improved water
absorption capabilities were attained. Using an energy-dispersive X-ray spectrophotometer and
a scanning electron microscope, the generated fibers were fully characterized as materials.
After testing, it was determined that the generated fiberboards' mechanical and physical
characteristics satisfied EN 622, EN 317, and EN 310 standards.
[9] A. M. El-Kassas and A. H. Elsheikh, ―A new eco-friendly mechanical technique for
production of rice straw fibers for medium density fiberboards manufacturing,‖
International Journal of Environmental Science and Technology, vol. 18, no. 4, pp. 979–
988, Aug. 2020, doi: 10.1007/s13762-020-02886-8. Available:
https://doi.org/10.1007/s13762-020-02886-8

[10] stated that in order to ascertain the impact of pressing temperature and resin
content on the density (D), moisture (M), water absorption (WA), water swelling (WS), module of
rupture (MOR), modules of elasticity (MOE), and formaldehyde content (FC) of particle board
made of banana pseudo-stem, this research study employs full factorial design and response
surface methodology.
[10] A. Barragán-Lucas, C. Llerena-Miranda, M. Quijano-Avilés, I. Chóez-Guaranda, L. C.
Maldonado-Guerrero, and P. Manzano-Santana, ―Effect of resin content and pressing
temperature on banana pseudo-stem particle boards properties using full factorial
design.,‖ 2019. Available: https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Effect-of-resin-content-
and-pressing-temperature-on-Barrag%C3%A1n-Lucas-Llerena-
Miranda/b8de92b640738ad40a7e86cac637f6d1f05539a5

[11] remarked that wet processing and semi-chemical pulping are the methods utilized in
this study. The adhesive content was established at 20 weight percent, and the mixture ratios of
starch/citric acid were set at 100/0, 0/100, and 12/88 (w/w). For twenty-five minutes, the board
was hot-pressed at 170°C. The MDF was produced with a target density of 0.6 g/cm3 and
dimensions of 10 x 15 x 0.9 cm. Subsequently, the JIS A 5905 2003 standard was followed in
testing the physical characteristics of fiberboard. In comparison to MDF bonded with cassava
peel starch alone, the results demonstrated that MDF bonded with citric acid and cassava peel
starch had a good influence on the physical qualities.
[11] N. Hikmah, D. Susanto, and E. Suganda, ―Physical properties of medium density
fiberboard from pineapple leaf fiber (PALF) with cassava peel starch and citric acid,‖ AIP
Conference Proceedings, Jan. 2021, doi: 10.1063/5.0064651. Available:
https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2021AIPC.2376d0012H/abstract#:~:text=Pineapple%2
0leaf%20is%20one%20of,medium%20density%20fiberboard%20(MDF).
 [12] claimed that the physical characteristics of Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene (ABS)
composites reinforced with banana pseudo stems (BPS), such as moisture content, water
absorption, thickness swelling, thermal stability, and dimensional stability, are investigated in
this work.
[12] M. M. Ahmed, T. Attia, A. a. A. El-Wahab, R. Elgamsy, and M. H. A. El-Latif,
―Assessment of the physical properties of banana pseudo stem/ABS composites,‖ IOP
Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering, vol. 634, no. 1, p. 012023, Oct.
2019, doi: 10.1088/1757-899x/634/1/012023. Available: https://doi.org/10.1088/1757-
899x/634/1/012023

[13] emphasized that this study looks into how roughness affects rice straw
particleboard's (RSP) tactile qualities following sandpaper sanding. The surface roughness
characterisation parameters are considerably influenced by the sanding process, according to
the results. Additionally, the study discovered that the RSP specimens with sanding had higher
tactile and visual psychological values. The results broaden the area of RSP products study by
offering insights on environmental variables in furniture and interior design.
[13] X. Xiong, Y. YingYing, Y. Niu, and L.-T. Zhang, ―Research on the effects of roughness on
the tactile properties of rice straw particleboard surface,‖ Science of Advanced Materials,
vol. 12, no. 6, pp. 795–801, Jun. 2020, doi: 10.1166/sam.2020.3741.
Available:https://www.ingentaconnect.com/contentone/asp/sam/2020/00000012/000000
06/art00003

[14] remarked that this paper reviews straw bale buildings' durability, thermal and
acoustic insulation properties, and reviews previous research. It emphasizes the benefits of
straw bales, their potential for improved living comfort, and the need for further investigation.
[14] S. Cascone, R. Rapisarda, and D. Cascone, ―Physical Properties of straw bales as a
construction material: a review,‖ Sustainability, vol. 11, no. 12, p. 3388, Jun. 2019, doi:
10.3390/su11123388. Available: https://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/11/12/3388
 [15] reported that in addition to various chemical, physical, and morphological
characteristics, the mechanical and thermal strength of pineapple leaf fibers were investigated.
In order to comprehend the economic significance and sustainability of pineapple leaf fibers, a
brief summary of their origin and cultivation has also been provided. In order to improve its
application as a sustainable, environmentally friendly, and potentially useful composite material,
it aims to compile all previous research on the characteristics, extraction, hybridization, and
processing methods of pineapple leaf fibers in one convenient location. Owing to their high
cellulosic content, pineapple leaf fibers exhibit excellent mechanical properties, which is why
they are used in the building and automotive industries.

[15] J. Jain and S. Sinha, ―Pineapple Leaf Fiber Polymer Composites as a promising tool for
sustainable, eco-friendly composite material: review,‖ Journal of Natural Fibers, vol. 19,
no. 15, pp. 10031–10052, Oct. 2021, doi: 10.1080/15440478.2021.1993478. Available:
https://doi.org/10.1080/15440478.2021.1993478

[16] identified that among the rhizomatous plants, pineapple and banana are cultivated
in 129 different nations worldwide. It ranks as the fourth most significant food crop worldwide.
The oldest records of the usage of banana stems as a source of fiber date back to the 13th
century. In banana farms, the stems and trunks are discarded once the bananas are collected.
Every year, billions of tons of stems and leaves are discarded. Natural fiber's most valuable
qualities are its non-carcinogenicity and biodegradability, which make it fashionable again while
also offering financial savings. Annual production of natural fibers approaches 30 million tons,
which are utilized in numerous manufacturing processes [Jawaid and Khalil 2011].

[16] The adaptability of ( 2020-01-06) Majlish, F,. Design and Fabrication of Combined Fiber
Extracting Machine for banana steamsand pineapple leaf.
http://lib.buet.ac.bd:8080/xmlui/handle/123456789/5808.

[17] stated that engineers are focusing more on sustainable biomaterials made from
natural fiber sources due to the demand for renewable resources and ecologically favorable
materials. Because the biomaterials for BPS fibers are made from agricultural waste, processing
BPS fibers overall is less expensive than processing synthetic fibers. With the focus now being
on gradually weaning off of synthetic fibers, natural fibers come from sustainable and
environmentally favorable sources. Natural fibers have several advantages over synthetic ones,
such as being completely burned, biodegradable, non-toxic, and non-irritating to the skin.
[17] Abideen, O., Olu, O., Olusegun, A., Temidayo, O., Murid, H., (2023). Banana pseudo
stem fiber, hybrid composites and applications: A review.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hybadv.2023.100101.

[18] mentioned that the vegetable fiber’s obtained from plants are known as natural
fibers. They are mostly composed of cellulose and can be utilized as reinforcement or filler in
polymer matrices. These fibers are classified as follows based on their strength, stiffness, and
extraction location: (i) leaf fibers, which are hard fibers derived from the leaves or leaf stalks of
various perennial, monocotyledonous plants; (ii) stem or bast fibers, which occur in the phloem
and are usually low in elongation and recovery from stretch (jute, ramie, flax, banana, kenaf,
hemp); (iii) seed and fruit fibers are attached to hairs, or in the form of a bundle or encased in a
husk (coconut, cotton, kapok); (iv) Wood fiber is extracted from trees and used to make
hardboard and paperboard (Eucalyptus, pine, beech, birch); (v) grass fibers are found in stems
and leaves (bagasse, elephant grass, bamboo); and (vi) straw fibers are an agricultural by-
product that are taken from the stalks of cereal plants after the grains have been removed
(barley, wheat, oat, rice, corn). These widely accessible plant fibers provide a number of
advantages, including consistent quality, low cost, low weight, and nontoxicity.
[18 ] Kiruthika, A.V. A review of leaf fiber reinforced polymer composites. J. Eng. Appl.
Sci. 71, 24 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s44147-024-00365-2.

[19] stated that farmers around the world are discarding and wasting tons of agricultural
waste without any further use. Because burning agricultural wastes releases toxic gases into the
atmosphere, the constant generation of wastes could be a major contributor to environmental
pollution and even global warming. In addition to agricultural trash, a large amount of non-
biodegradable and non-recyclable electronic waste pollutes the environment [2]. Since the
majority of the compounds in electronic waste are carcinogens, they could be a serious health
risk to humans. One possible way to transform trash into valuable resources seems to be the
conversion of agricultural waste into useful raw materials for the materials engineering sectors.
Additionally, because agricultural waste is widely accessible, it presents an appealing possibility
for large-scale usage, practically free, and renewable. agricultural wastes can reduce the
pressure on the environment since the demand for synthetic materials could also be reduced.
[19] Nurhafizah A.T. Y., Rudra, D.G. A., Natasha A., Nor H. A., Norazwina, Z.,
and Mohamad S.A. K., "Utilization of Pineapple Leaf in Fiber-Based Dielectric
Composite Material and Its Elemental Composition Analyses," Progress In
Electromagnetics Research M, Vol.117,163-175,2023. doi:10.2528/PIERM23040402

[20] discussed because they meet the necessary requirements and transfer strength to
the matrix constituent, fibers are a significant class of reinforcements that can influence and
improve the desired qualities of the matrix constituent. Chemical treatment has a significant
impact on the fiber-matrix bond and has demonstrated superior interfacial adhesion qualities
between the fiber and matrix, which has accelerated the global industrial use of these fibers.
and make them appropriately suitable to the packaging, aerospace, building, and automobile
industries, among others.
[20] Kumar, D. and Mohanraj, P., Review on Natural Fiber in Various Pretreatment
Conditions for Preparing Perfect Fiber (February 2017). Asian Journal of Applied
Science and Technology (AJAST), Vol. 1, Issue 2, pg. 66-78, March 2017, Available at
SSRN: https://ssrn.com/abstract=2941103

[21] Enhancing the use of waste resources and advancing the circular economy
concept by utilizing agro-waste from fruits and vegetables, crop residues, process residues, and
animal waste for sustainable development and an eco-friendly environment. Biofuels made from
agricultural waste could eventually make a major contribution to the world's fuel needs. using
efficient methods for pretreatment and extraction.
[21] R.K. SathishKumar, R. Sasikumar,R.K. SathishKumar, R. Sasikumar, Thulasidhas
Dhilipkumar. (2024) https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2023.140536.

[22] emphasized that one low-cost way to lessen the negative effects of air pollution
issues could be to replace synthetic reinforcements with reinforcement made of natural fibers.
Natural fibers also have the benefit of acting as carbon sinks. Foams that insulate against heat
and sound can also be made from natural fibers. due to natural fibers' hygroscopic nature. Fig.
displays the most common natural fibers used in building, including hemp, coconut, bamboo,
sisal, wheat straw, rice husk, pineapple, jute, and banana. 1. Natural fibers can be utilized for
buildings in a variety of ways, including fabric, rebars, laminates, strips, and chopped fibers.
natural fibers from agricultural waste, such as straw.

[22] Recent advances in the use of natural fibers in Civil Engineering Structures.
Kusum,S., Vasant A. M., Venkatesh R.K.,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2023.134364.

[23] discussed that the loss of forest resources and resulting restrictions in wood
supply have brought increased attention to the use of alternative materials, such as natural
fibers and biomass, to substitute wood in wood-based businesses. These factors have drawn a
lot of attention to the use of natural fibers and biomass in the manufacturing of MDF in recent
years . Annual-type plants and agricultural leftovers include bagasse, rice straw, wheat straw,
kenaf, and oil.

[23] An overview on development of environmental friendly medium density board.

T.C. Lee., N.A.S. Mohd Pu'ad., M.A. Selimin., H.Z. Abdullah., M.I. Idris.,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2020.05.679.

[24] identified that natural fibers are a good substitute for synthetic reinforcement in
polymeric composites due to their similar mechanical properties, low cost of production, good
thermal and acoustic qualities, and environmentally benign processing. The outstanding
qualities of NFPCs make them a promising option for load-bearing applications. Many of the
natural fibers and their polymer mixtures appear to have a vast amount of untapped potential. In
addition, research must be done on the several native species that provide a variety of natural
fibers. Future research could concentrate on the synergistic effects of different natural fibers and
hybrid polymer composites. To increase the range of uses for NFPCs, the problems of moisture
absorption and thermal stability must be resolved.
[24] Rajiv Kumar, Mir Irfan Ul Haq, Ankush Raina & Ankush Anand (2019) Industrial
applications of natural fibre-reinforced polymer composites – challenges and
opportunities, International Journal of Sustainable Engineering, 12:3, 212-220.
https://doi.org/10.1080/19397038.2018.1538267.

[25] mentioned that the numerous factors, including the volume percentage of the
fibers, fiber aspect ratio, fiber-matrix adhesion, stress transfer at the interface, and orientation,
affect the properties of natural fiber reinforced composites. The majority of research on natural
fiber composites focuses on the effects of different fiber treatments, the use of external coupling
agents, and the mechanical properties as a function of fiber content. For the composites'
mechanical qualities to be improved, both the matrix and fiber properties are crucial. While the
modulus depends on the fiber qualities, the tensile strength is more sensitive to the matrix
properties. While fiber concentration, fiber wetting in the matrix phase, and high fiber aspect
ratio impact tensile modulus, strong interfaces, low stress concentrations, and fiber orientation
are necessary to increase tensile strength..

[25] Study of mechanical properties of polyropylene natural fiber composite. Danish,

A.B.,(2020) https://136.232.12.194:8080/jspui/bitstream/123456789/177/1

[26] maintained that the thermal and mechanical properties of a number of natural and
synthetic polymer-based composites have been covered in this section. Though the field of
study on biodegradable polymers is still in its infancy, interest in them is expanding daily. Due to
their many intriguing qualities and growing popularity, these eco-composites are expensive and
thus prohibitive for people from all socioeconomic classes to use in daily life. Thus, one of the
goals for future research should be to reduce costs by looking into a highly available supply and
a practical way to produce something with fewer components.

[26] Shahruzzaman, M., Biswas, S., Islam, M. M., Islam, M. S., Rahman, M. S., Haque, P., &
Rahman, M. M. (2019). Furniture: Eco-Friendly Polymer Composites
Applications. Encyclopedia of Polymer Applications, 1st ed.; Mishra, M., Ed, 1517-1547.
https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Shanta-Biswas/publication/335587549.
 [27] mentioned that in tropical areas, pineapple leaf fiber is quite prevalent and easy to
separate from the leaves. The use of pineapple leaf fiber in composite materials offers a new,
sustainable, and recyclable source of resources. The primary problem with PALF, however, is
that it is hydroscopic, which presents a significant obstacle to the use of fiber as a reinforcing
material in polymer composites. In order to achieve good interfacial adhesion of PALF with
polymers in the manufacturing of polymer composites, surface modification of PALF is
necessary. When creating composite goods for various uses, PALF can completely or partially
replace synthetic fibers.

[27] CHittappa, H. C. A Reviewof the Pineapple Leaf Fiber Variants, Structure, Physical
Properties and Chemical Composition. https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Preetham-
Tukaram-R/publication/376455071.

[28] stated that there are now shortages and restrictions on natural building materials
as a result of the construction industry's growth. Numerous studies have looked into the
construction material's ecological impact. Building construction and use account for about 40%
of total CO2 emissions; 15% of these emissions are related to the manufacturing of building
materials. As such, it has become imperative that the building sector adopt a more
environmentally friendly method of constructing buildings. Reusing unwanted agricultural waste
can help reduce environmental pollution and protect natural resources, making it a feasible
option for sustainable building materials.

[28] Sangmesh, B., Patil, N., Jaiswal, K. K., Gowrishankar, T. P., Selvakumar, K. K., Jyothi,
M. S., ... & Kumar, S. (2023). Development of sustainable alternative materials for the
construction of green buildings using agricultural residues: A review. Construction and
Building Materials, 368,130457. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2023.130457.

[29] indicate agro-trash, also known as agricultural garbage, is thought to make up 15% of
all waste produced in Asia. Malaysia produced 0.122 kg of agricultural waste per person per day
in 2009, and by 2025, it is expected to produce 0.210 kg. This phenomena is one of the main
causes of pollution in the world, not only contributing to air and water pollution but also to global
warming.
[29] Giamasrow, R. D., Azman, A. N., Zainol, N., Karim, M. S. A., & Yusof, N. A. T. (2023).
Effect of carbon composition on permittivity performance of dielectric material from
agricultural waste. Materials Today: Proceedings.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2023.130457.

[30] claimed that natural fibers are strong, lightweight, relatively inexpensive, abundant, and
renewable; their use as a building material is not new; in fact, it dates back to the Persian
civilization in ancient Iran, where numerous cities and towns still house ancient monuments and
adobe buildings. One significant problem with natural fibers is the dearth of information on their
mechanical properties in the literature, which is further complicated by the absence of standard
procedures for their selection, collection, treatment, processing, and post-processing. The
characteristics of natural fibers are primarily determined by the type of plant, growth
environment, age, and extraction technique. The structural uses of non-fungible reinforcing
composites (NFRCs) were investigated, as well as the restrictions on the usage of natural
fibers. Realizing that theoretical strengths may not be achievable, at least not for some time,
has partly subdued the initial euphoria surrounding natural-fiber composites.

[30] Chauhan, V., Kärki, T., & Varis, J. (2022). Review of natural fiber-reinforced engineering
plastic composites, their applications in the transportation sector and processing
techniques. Journal of Thermoplastic Composite Materials, 35(8), 1169-1209.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0892705719889095
TITLE: “MECHANICAL AND DURABILITY PROPERTIES OF PAVEMENT BLOCKS
MANUFACTURED WITH WASTE STYROFOAM AND RECYCLED GLASS CULLET”

MEMBERS: ARDINES, ALQUEEN

CABASAG, ROWEN

GUZMAN, LAIZA

RAPADA, NORIEL

SEREŇO, RIGYN

SUMBILON, JUSTIN CLARK

[1] stated that glass possesses several properties that make it attractive for construction
applications as an aggregate. These include its durability (resistance to biodegradation,
chemicals, and water), efficient drainage (low water absorption and high hydraulic conductivity),
and adaptability (temperature-dependent flexibility and variable particle size). Additionally, the
abundance and variety of glass compositions make it a readily available resource. Due to these
advantages, researchers in civil engineering have been exploring glass as a viable substitute for
traditional aggregates, aiming for both improved construction practices and eco-friendly waste
management solutions for glass.

[1] Epure, C., Munteanu, C., Istrate, B., Harja, M., & Buium, F. (2023). Applications of
recycled and crushed glass (RCG) as a substitute for natural materials in various
fields—A review. Materials, 16(17), 5957. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16175957

[2] pointed out that due to its chemical stability, inherent strength, and ability to block
gas, recycled glass cullet (crushed glass) is a promising material to replace aggregate in
construction projects. Researchers at The Hong Kong Polytechnic University have been
exploring ways to turn waste glass into a valuable asset for concrete products, including
decorative mortars, paving stones, and even self-leveling concrete. Their studies show positive
results, suggesting several potential applications for recycled glass in various concrete
products.
[2] Lu, J. X., & Poon, C. S. (2019). Recycling of waste glass in construction materials.
In New trends in eco-efficient and recycled concrete (pp. 153-167). Woodhead
Publishing. https://rb.gy/1mxbwi

[3] aimed to create eco-friendly precast concrete paving blocks by incorporating waste
glass. They used crushed glass (cullet) as aggregate and finely ground glass powder (GP) as a
partial replacement for cement. The good news is that the strength of the paving blocks held
steady even with increasing amounts of cullet. Even better, the combination of cullet and GP
helped reduce water absorption and shrinkage within acceptable limits. An additional benefit of
the GP was its ability to prevent a negative reaction (Alkali–silica reaction (ASR) expansion) that
can occur when using crushed glass.

[3] Lu, J. X., Zheng, H., Yang, S., He, P., & Poon, C. S. (2019). Co-utilization of waste glass
and glass powder in precast concrete products. Construction and Building
Materials, 223, 210-220.
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0950061819316605

[4] claimed that adding glass powder (GP) to concrete pavers increased shrinkage, but it
remained within acceptable limits. They then tested two types of concrete paver (M30 and M40)
with and without GP. They found that replacing 30% of the cement with GP in both types
significantly improved their compressive strength. This suggests that using GP in concrete
pavers is a viable option for the construction industry. It not only strengthens the pavers but also
helps manage waste glass and promotes a circular economy.

[4] Paul, D., Bindhu, K. R., Matos, A. M., & Delgado, J. (2022). Eco-friendly concrete with
waste glass powder: A sustainable and circular solution. Construction and building
materials, 355, 129217.
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0950061822028732

Based on the conducted experiments and acquired data by [5], it can be inferred that the
utilization of glass powder, featuring a particle size of 16 μm, is optimal for the creation of a
material similar to soil cement or gravel cement. This material can be used as a base layer or
sub-base for road surfaces, with little shrinkage cracking, or as an environmentally friendly
pavement, particularly suitable for peri-urban roads and park roads, where it can be used
without coating.
[5] Más-López, M. I., García del Toro, E. M., Luizaga Patiño, A., & García, L. J. M. (2020).
Eco-friendly pavements manufactured with glass waste: Physical and mechanical
characterization and its applicability in soil stabilization. Materials, 13(17), 3727.
https://www.mdpi.com/1996-1944/13/17/3727

[6] investigated the use of non-recycled glass in concrete mixes for rigid pavements
(inflexible surfaces) in their study. The modified concrete maintained the same compressive
strength as regular concrete. The researchers tested the strength of concrete made with and
without recycled glass and found similar results at 7 and 28 days for M30 grade concrete (data
shown in tables and charts). The study also explored replacing fine aggregate in concrete with
varying amounts of crushed glass (15% was one example). Tests confirmed that using crushed
glass reduces concrete density, making it lighter. This also lowers the unit weight of the
concrete. Interestingly, water absorption decreased with more glass content. The workability
(ease of use) and durability of the concrete also improved with increased glass content.
However, there were some drawbacks. The flexural strength (resistance to bending) decreased
with more glass. While strength increased from 7 to 28 days (around 20-25% increase), it wasn't
significantly different. Overall, the weight of the concrete mix with crushed glass was
significantly lower (around 10%) compared to the standard M30 mix.

[6] Frederick, F. F. (2019). Experimental Study on Transformation of Building Material

Waste into Pavement Blocks. Think India Journal, 22(14), 12891-12900.
https://thinkindiaquarterly.org/index.php/think-india/article/view/16294/11376

[7] experimented with five recycled materials in concrete paving blocks: crushed
concrete (coarse and fine particles), crushed glass, crumb rubber, and ground slag. Testing
these materials at different levels showed that using recycled concrete, in both coarse and fine
forms, weakens the blocks and makes them absorb more water. To avoid this weakening effect,
the study suggests limiting recycled concrete to 60% for larger pieces (coarse aggregate) and
20% for finer particles (fine aggregate) in the block mix. Interestingly, crushed glass appears to
be a beneficial addition. Including crushed glass as a coarse aggregate actually strengthens the
paving blocks and helps them absorb less water.

[7] Wang, X., Chin, C. S., & Xia, J. (2019). Material characterization for sustainable
concrete paving blocks. Applied Sciences, 9(6), 1197. https://www.mdpi.com/2076-
3417/9/6/1197

[8] observed how waste plastic is finding new life in various sectors, including
construction materials, fuel production, and household goods like clothing. However, the use of
waste plastic in construction has gained significant interest. This approach offers a two-fold
benefit: it diverts plastic waste from landfills and reduces reliance on virgin construction
materials, leading to a more sustainable construction industry with a smaller environmental
footprint.

[8] Lamba, P., Kaur, D. P., Raj, S., & Sorout, J. (2022). Recycling/reuse of plastic waste as
construction material for sustainable development: a review. Environmental Science and
Pollution Research, 29(57), 86156-86179. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-16980-y

[9] noted that plastics can be categorized as thermoplastic (remoulded) or thermosetting

material based on their physical characteristics. These two types of plastic contribute 80% and
20%, respectively, to the overall generation of plastic waste. Thermoplastic materials that can
be recycled and are used to make plastic paver blocks include polyethylene terephthalate
(PETE or PET), high-density polyethylene (HDPE), polyvinyl chloride (PVC), low density
polyvinyl chloride (LDPE), polypropylene (PP), polystyrene or Styrofoam (PS). Plastic is
gathered from a variety of sources and used to make plastic paver blocks.

[9] Ghuge, J., Surale, S., Patil, B. M., & Bhutekar, S. B. (2019). Utilization of waste plastic in
manufacturing of paver blocks. System, 6(04), 1967-1970. https://shorturl.at/fmKU8

[10] observed that while plastic is a major environmental concern because it doesn't
break down, it turns out certain types can actually be helpful in road building! Specifically, waste
plastics like polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP), and polystyrene (PS) have properties that
make them good binding agents in asphalt. These plastics soften at temperatures around 110°C
to 130°C and don't release harmful gasses during that process. (Adding these plastics as a
coating to the rocks used in road construction creates a stronger, more durable surface. This
improved strength helps prevent problems like cracks, potholes, and uneven surfaces that
commonly form on asphalt roads. These "plastic roads" seem like a great alternative to
traditional asphalt, especially in hot and humid areas that see a lot of rain.) Overall, using waste
plastic as an additive or even a replacement for some of the rock in asphalt shows promise as a
more sustainable and longer-lasting option for road construction.

[10] Rashid, G. M. H., Tabassum, A., & Mahfuj, R. (2021). A review report on the utilization of
plastic wastes in road construction. J Transp Syst, 6, 1-8. https://shorturl.at/opX07

[11] investigated the feasibility of creating paving blocks from a mix of waste plastic,
used oil, and styrofoam. The process involved collecting and preparing these materials, followed
by heating, mixing, molding, demolding, drying, and finally, laboratory testing. Six different
material ratios were tested. The findings showed that a 67% plastic waste and 33% used oil
mixture achieved the highest compressive strength (63.2 MPa) and lowest water absorption
(2.4%), making it suitable for high-traffic areas like roads (meeting quality A standards). While a
combination of 40% plastic waste, 50% used oil, and 10% styrofoam resulted in the best overall
compressive strength (26.0 MPa) with moderate water absorption (5.2%), this composition is
better suited for applications like parking lots (meeting quality B standards).

[11] Arifandi, M. M., Dermawan, Y., Rahardja, I. B., & Mahfud, A. (2021). Paving Block
Investigation Using Waste Plastic, Used Oil, And Styrofoam with Different
Variables. Journal of Applied Sciences and Advanced Technology, 4(1), 1-6.
https://jurnal.umj.ac.id/index.php/JASAT/article/view/10253

[12] claimed in their study of concrete blocks made with recycled plastic that the
strongest blocks were those that were 26% plastic and 74% sand. This suggests that recycled
plastic can be a major ingredient in making strong paving stones. While these plastic pavers
aren't as strong as traditional concrete ones, they could still be used in areas with low traffic, like
gardens, sidewalks, and bike lanes.
[12] Kashyap, H., Rahman, F., Tashnim, N., Kashyap, K., Deb, S., & Swargiary, D. (2022,
April). Experimental Study on Low-Cost and Lightweight Building Materials Developed
Using Waste Materials. In International Conference on Emerging Global Trends in
Engineering and Technology (pp. 111-118). Singapore: Springer Nature Singapore.
https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-981-99-4362-3_12

[13] tackled the challenge of plastic and Styrofoam waste, which take a very long time to
break down naturally. The researchers investigated using these wastes in brick production and
how they affect the compressive strength of the bricks. They conducted an experiment and
compared the compressive strength of regular concrete bricks to bricks containing plastic and
Styrofoam waste. Statistical analysis confirmed that adding plastic and Styrofoam waste actually
increased the average compressive strength (to 44.62 kg/cm2). This suggests that using plastic
and Styrofoam waste in brick making could be a viable alternative for waste disposal, reducing
the environmental pollution caused by traditional methods like burning or landfilling.

[13] Diah, N. (2021, April). The Effect of Addition of Plastic Waste and Styrofoam Waste
Against Powerful Concrete Brick Press. In First International Conference on Health,
Social Sciences and Technology (ICOHSST 2020) (pp. 212-215). Atlantis Press.
https://www.atlantis-press.com/proceedings/icohsst-20/125955543

[14] observed in their series of tests that plastic paver blocks absorb very little water, set
quickly (around 20 minutes), and wear slowly (less than 3% wear). A test walkway made with
these blocks performed well. They are also good for the environment because they use recycled
plastic (almost 2 kg per block) and cost less to make (up to 35% less) than concrete pavers.
The research also developed a way to measure how sustainable these blocks are considering
how much energy they take to make, how much they cost over time, and if they can be reused.
They even considered additional factors like fire safety and how easy they are to work with.

[14] Tempa, K., Chettri, N., Thapa, G., Gyeltshen, C., Norbu, D., Gurung, D., & Wangchuk,
U. (2022). An experimental study and sustainability assessment of plastic waste as a
binding material for producing economical cement-less paver blocks. Engineering
Science and Technology, an International Journal, 26, 101008.
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2215098621001208
 [15] examined how Expanded Polystyrene (EPS), a lightweight material commonly used
in construction, can be used to make lighter concrete. EPS is typically in a bead form and can
be mixed with cement to reduce the weight of the concrete from 950 kg/m³ to 1350 kg/m³. The
study tested how this EPS concrete performs in terms of compression, flexibility, shrinkage, and
creep. They considered factors like water content, amount of EPS, curing time, and compaction.
Based on the testing, the researchers created a method for designing these lightweight concrete
mixes. The results showed that replacing some of the aggregate in concrete with EPS beads is
a good way to use recycled materials in construction and dispose of EPS waste. They found
that using EPS beads is more effective than using larger EPS pieces. This EPS concrete is
lighter than standard concrete and maintains good strength. This research provides a valuable
approach for using waste materials in construction projects and opens the door for exploring
how other waste materials might be used as well.

[15] Moon, A. S., & Patel, A. (2021). Sustainable construction using eps beads in light weight
blocks to form innovative foam concrete as a green building material. In IOP Conference
Series: Materials Science and Engineering (Vol. 1017, No. 1, p. 012009). IOP
Publishing. https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1757-899X/1017/1/012009/pdf

[16] noted that there has been a lot of research done on the use of glass waste in
cement and concrete preparation. The purpose of their study was to determine whether a
cement created with a pozzolanic binder composed of left glass waste was suitable for use as
paving material by analyzing its mechanical and physical properties. For the purpose of creating
the research material, the following ratios were determined to be ideal: 84.68% limestone
aggregate, 8% pozzolanic binder (a waste glass product with a particle size of 16 µm), and
7.32% water. The granulometry of the aggregate, plasticity index, compact ability, support
capacity, resistance to the action of water, structural capacity, stiffness, and durability tests were
carried out in order to characterize the resultant material. The testing was carried out in
compliance with Spanish regulatory requirements. The material obtained with the use of glass
waste as a pozzolanic binder exceeded the specifications needed for a traditional cement used
as a pavement material, according to the results obtained. Moreover, using glass powder as a
starting material reduces waste, which helps to conserve the environment.
[16] M. Isabel Más-López, Eva M. García del Toro,* Alfredo Luizaga Patiño, and L. Jaime
Marco García (2020 Aug 24) Eco-Friendly Pavements Manufactured with Glass Waste:
Physical and Mechanical Characterization and Its Applicability in Soil Stabilization,
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7504097/

[17] claimed that the use of insulation layers is appropriate for the pavement design
process in cold climates under certain, difficult soil, humidity, and temperature circumstances.
Foam glass aggregates are recycled glass aggregates with a coarse size and consistent
grading. They have intriguing engineering qualities for applications in cold climates because of
their separated millimetric alveoli and lightweight design. To effectively estimate the long-term
layer and pavement behavior, however, a thorough understanding of their mechanical
performance as granular layer is necessary. This study developed an empirical transfer function
that can be employed as part of a mechanistic-empirical pavement design strategy using an
environmental and heavy vehicle simulator as well as an experimental pavement constructed in
an indoor test pit.

[17] Jean-Pascal Bilodeau, Pauline Segui, Erdrick Perez, Guy Doré (Received 14 June 2023,
Revised 12 December 2023, Accepted 15 January 2024, Available online 17 January
2024, Version of Record 18 January 2024). Empirical transfer functions for foam glass
aggregates insulation used in flexible pavement layered
systems.https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2214391224000102#s0025

[18] examined the use of recycled waste glass (RWG) instead of regular rocks (quarried
aggregates) in concrete. There’s no clear answer yet on how much RWG and its properties
(size, shape, texture, etc.) affect concrete's performance in its mixed (fresh) and hardened
states. RWG can both improve and worsen workability, strength, and other properties
depending on these factors. Smooth, angular glass particles with low water absorption seem to
be best for workability and reducing water absorption in hardened concrete. The reaction
between RWG and concrete can significantly improve strength, but the ideal combination of
RWG particle size, shape, and glass type (chemistry) needs further study. A major concern is a
reaction (ASR) that can cause cracks in concrete with RWG. While RWG particle size seems to
influence ASR, there's no clear answer on how much or what size RWG to use to avoid this
problem. Optimizing particle size distribution and using specific additives might helper concrete
seems to be more resistant to sulfate and chloride attacks, as well as drying shrinkage, making
it promising for harsh environments. Overall, using RWG in concrete has potential benefits and
drawbacks. More research is needed to optimize RWG processing and minimize negative
effects like ASR.

[18] K.K.W. Premathilaka, D.S. Liyanapathirana, C.J. Leo, P. Hu (2023) Application of

recycled waste glass to replace traditional quarried aggregates: A comprehensive
review. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2352710224004145#sec8

[19] stated that research shows how replacing small amounts of cement or fine
aggregate with glass waste that contains smaller fractions can be beneficial; nevertheless, the
results that are obtained are still inconsistent, indicating that the ideal mixing formula is yet
unknown. In order to conduct a thorough assessment of the viability of utilizing cullet as a
recycling aggregate for the creation of unusual concrete, more extensive research on the
subject is necessary. Cullet waste is a completely valuable substance that can be recycled and
used again to make concrete. Recycled material can be used in place of cement and fine
aggregate since it doesn't biodegrade.

[19] Aleksandra Powęzka, Paweł Ogrodnik, Jacek Szulej and Mariusz Pecio (2021). Glass
Cullet as Additive to New Sustainable Composites Based on Alumina Binder.
https://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/14/12/3423

[20] used silicon cutting waste (SCW) from loose aggressive slurry chopping as the
foaming agent to make foam glass from waste bottle glass. Investigations were conducted into
the effects of influencing factors, including sintering temperature, glass powder particle size,
SCW dosage, heating rate, and holding time. In order to compare the created foam glass with
that made using silicon carbide (SiC) reagent as the foaming agent, the microstructure, bulk
density, compressive strength, porosity, and thermal conductivity of the foam glass were
examined. The resulting foam glass had a compressive strength of 4.1 MPa, bulk density of
0.56 g/cm3, porosity of 78%, and thermal conductivity of 0.16 W/m·k; these properties met
standards for thermal insulation materials under ideal conditions of sintering temperature of 775
°C, glass powder particle size of 0.15 mm, SCW dosage of 1 wt% (the D50 of SiC in SCW was
approximately 10 μm), heating rate of 10 °C/min, and holding time of 30 min. In comparison,
using SiC reagent with a D50 of ca. The ideal sintering temperature was found to be 900 °C at
22 μm, which generated foam glass with a bulk density of 0.67 g/cm3, a porosity of 73%, a
compressive strength of 5.4 MPa, and a thermal conductivity of 0.2 W/m·k. Foam glass with
advantageous qualities can be created at relatively low temperatures by utilizing SCW as the
foaming agent. Furthermore, it is possible to simultaneously achieve the waste valorization of
SCW and waste bottle glass.

[20] Li Pang Wang, Pin Wei Tseng, Kai Jyun Huang, Yan Jhang Chen (April 2023). Foam
glass production from waste bottle glass using silicon cutting waste of loose abrasive
slurry sawing as foaming agent.
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0950061823010577

[21] observed that glass waste is a major environmental concern when it comes to
construction materials and is disposed of in landfills. However, CWG has not been extensively
employed internationally in applications involving the construction of concrete or asphalt. In
addition, there are still obstacles that prohibit CWG from being utilized as a fine aggregate in
concrete. These include the severity of expansions of the Alkali-silica reaction (ASR) in CWG-
containing concrete and our incomplete understanding of these reactions. This document
provides a summary of earlier research on the reuse of CWG as an aggregate in unbound base
and subbase applications, lightweight engineering material, cementitious material, and concrete
and asphalt mixtures. CWG has the potential to be used as an aggregate in building materials,
according to the results of the literature review. The properties of foamed waste glass concrete,
ultra-lightweight fiber reinforced concrete containing expanded waste glass, and the use of
glass powder as a filler in asphalt all need more research to resolve contradictions. Concrete
containing CWG as fine aggregate also needs to be studied.

[21] Abbas Mohajerani, John Vajna, Tsz Ho Homan Cheung, Halenur Kurmus, Arul
Arulrajah, Suksun Horpibulsuk; Practical recycling applications of crushed waste glass in
construction materials: A review
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0950061817318068
 [22] emphasized that our world generates a massive amount of waste every year, most
of which isn't recycled. Recycling itself can also be energy-intensive and have environmental
drawbacks. Traditional waste disposal methods like landfills are overflowing and pose a growing
threat. This research proposes a solution: using waste materials in concrete production. This
approach could not only reduce waste but also improve concrete's properties. The cement and
glass industries are particularly problematic because they use a lot of energy, resources, and
release significant greenhouse gases. Landfills aren't a good option for waste glass either, since
it doesn't decompose. However, waste glass has potential as an eco-friendly alternative in
concrete due to its chemical makeup and ability to react with concrete (pozzolanic
properties).This study examines existing research on using recycled glass in concrete. It
analyzes the underlying mechanisms involved and considers different types of waste glass. The
research looked at how using recycled glass affects the fresh properties, durability, strength,
electrical properties, thermal properties, and microstructure of concrete. Overall, this review
aims to improve our understanding of using recycled glass in concrete production. It identifies
areas needing further study and explores how different types of glass impact the performance
and durability of concrete and cement products.

[22] Neha Maurya, Yuvraj Srivastav, Sumit Rawat, Yash Ranjan, Risha Srivastava, Bishnu
Kant Shukla, S. Varadharajan (2023), Reinforcing civil infrastructure with waste glass-
enhanced concrete: A comprehensive review of properties, performance and
applications. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S2214785323040506

[23] stated that Governments in cities are facing an increased environmental burden due
to the large-scale production of waste glass and construction waste. This study looked into
using recycled fine aggregates (RFA) and glass cullet (RGC) together in cement mortars.
Evaluations were conducted on the cement mortars' mechanical, durable, and microstructure
qualities. The experimental findings demonstrated that, from a mechanical and durability
perspective, it was possible to reuse RGC and RFA in mortars made of cement in a synergistic
manner. Due to the improvement of the interfacial transition zone, the microhardness of the
paste matrix, and the refinement of the pore constructions, the replacement of RFA for RGC
improved the compressive strength of cement mortars. It is encouraging that decreased drying
shrinkage and alkali-silica reaction expansion could be seen when RGC and RFA are mixed in
cement mortars. Specifically, using RGC and RFA together as 100% fine aggregates in the
mortars significantly increased the cement mortars' resistance to acid.

[23] Jian-Xin Lu, Peiliang Shen, Haibing Zheng, Baojian Zhan, Hafiz Asad Ali, Pingping He,
Chi Sun Poon (2020). Synergetic recycling of waste glass and recycled aggregates in
cement mortars: Physical, durability and microstructure performance.
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0958946520301244

[24] found out that a comprehensive comparative analysis that focuses on the
mechanical and durability characteristics of waste glass, ceramic, and rubber used as fine
aggregates in high-performance concrete (HPC) is conspicuously absent. Thus, the primary
goal of this comparative research study is to investigate the application of waste rubber, glass,
and ceramic as RFA in the creation of green concrete in order to address environmental and
health concerns. This strategy seeks to offer a sustainable resolution and may successfully
lower the amount of waste produced worldwide.

[24] Md Sabbrojjaman, Yue Liu, T. Tafsirojjaman (2024). A comparative review on the

utilisation of recycled waste glass, ceramic and rubber as fine aggregate on high
performance concrete: Mechanical and durability properties.
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2666165924000528#abs0010

[25] claimed that the use of low-carbon, energy-intensive, and ecologically friendly
materials is necessary for a responsible approach to sustainable development. Using glass
trash in favor of fine natural aggregate is a good idea. The impact of incorporating glass cullet
into mortar's mechanical characteristics was investigated for this reason. Used was glass
aggregate produced from recycled post-consumer waste glass, primarily bottles used in the
packaging of food, medications, and cosmetics. There were four distinct contents of fine glass
cullet used in this experimental work: 5, 10, 15, and 20 weight percent of fine aggregate. A
study was conducted on the compressive, flexural, and split tensile strengths. In addition, the
Poisson coefficient and modulus of elasticity were found. The mechanical qualities of mortar are
improved by the addition of glass sand aggregate. The split tensile strength improvement that
was achieved had the least impact when compared in strength. Seldom has the acquired effect
been documented for the enhanced analyzed characteristics of the glass sand aggregate
content. Furthermore, it was found that the density of mortar dropped as the amount of recycled
glass sand aggregate increased. Furthermore, the correlations between features of mortar
including aggregate made of glass sand were noted.

[25] Marcin Małek, Waldemar Łasica , Mateusz Jackowski and Marta Kadela (May 2020).
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/343007629_Effect_of_Waste_Glass_Addition_
as_a_Replacement_for_Fine_Aggregate_on_Properties_of_Mortar

[26] successfully created lightweight building materials with good properties using
recycled green glass and common red soil. Here's the key takeaway: They mixed crushed green
glass with red soil (5-16%) and heated it at a lower temperature (800°C) to create a foamy
material with air pockets. By changing the amount of red soil and heating time, they could
control the weight, strength, and size of the air pockets in the material. The final product is
lightweight, strong (high compressive strength), and well-insulated (high porosity). It even
achieved a strength-to-weight ratio similar to commercial products, making it a good option for
affordable building materials. Depending on the pore structure, these materials could potentially
be recycled for use as insulation. This study highlights the potential of using recycled materials
and lower processing temperatures to create strong, lightweight, and sustainable building
materials.

[26] Amel Sadji, Mohamed Redda Boudchicha, Aicha Ziouche, Abdelkader Filali & Slimane
Achour ( Febuary 2023). Glass-ceramic foams from waste glass and natural red
soil.https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s41779-023-00852-4

[27] suggested adding crumbled Styrofoam (EPS) to soil to make embankments lighter
and eco-friendlier. Tests showed that the more Styrofoam you add, the lighter the soil mixture
becomes. This is good because lighter embankments put less stress on the ground below,
reducing the risk of warping or sinking. However, there's a trade-off. Styrofoam also weakens
the soil's ability to hold weight (CBR value). While small amounts of styrofoam (up to 0.4%) are
still strong enough for building embankments, using too much (0.6% or more) makes the soil too
weak. Overall, using recycled Styrofoam in embankments shows promise as a sustainable way
to deal with waste. But it's important to find the right balance between lightness and strength for
each project.
[27] Aditia Febriansya, Iskandar, Dewi Amalia, Risma Nur Indah, and Yulia Widyaningsih.
Environmental implications of styrofoam waste and its utilization as lightweight fill
material for embankment construction, https://www.e3s-
conferences.org/articles/e3sconf/pdf/2024/09/e3sconf_issat2024_07036.pdf

[28] developed in their study a new, eco-friendly building material called foamed alkali-
activated glass (FAAG) made from recycled glass. They achieved this by mixing crushed glass
with aluminum powder at a low temperature (80°C). They experimented with different amounts
of aluminum powder to find the perfect mix, which turned out to be 10%. This FAAG is
lightweight, water-resistant, and a good insulator. Tests showed it's also surprisingly strong,
97% stronger than existing commercial products. The secret ingredient seems to be the
aluminum powder, which helps create air pockets in the material (foaming) and strengthens it
through a chemical reaction. Overall, this study shows promise for a sustainable building
material with good performance.

[28] Shaoqin Ruan, Gediminas Kastiukas, Shuang Liang, Xiangming Zhou (September
2020), Waste Glass Reuse in Foamed Alkali-Activated Binders Production: Technical
and Environmental Assessment.
https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fmats.2020.581358/full

[29] tested crushed waste glass (WG) from bottles to see if it could partially replace
cement in cement. They ground the glass to a fine powder like cement (PSD) but grinding with
water (AGWG) didn't work well. They checked the glass makeup and how strong the mortar was
with WG or AGWG replacing 10% of the cement. Here’s the key takeaway: The glass powder
lowered the mortar's strength, probably because of fibers from the bottle labels. Burning the
glass to remove the fibers might fix this strength problem. (They didn't test this yet.) Surprisingly,
mortars with 10% regular WG (WG700) were just as strong as the normal mortar recipe (REF
mortar). The glass powder mortars also seemed to resist cracks and water better than the
normal mortar, except for one test. Grinding the glass with water (AGWG) seems unnecessary
and might hurt the mortar's strength.Overall, waste glass has potential as a cement
replacement, but they need to find a cheap and eco-friendly way to process it to remove the
fibers.
[29] Ana Mafalda Matos and Joana Sousa-Coutinho (2024), Feasibility of Non-
Remanufactured Waste Bottle Glass as Supplementary Cementitious Material.
https://www.mdpi.com/2076-3417/14/5/2004

[30] studied how crushed waste glass (0 to 1200 microns) affects lightweight concrete
(foamed geopolymer composites). They tested different amounts and particle sizes of the glass
mixed with the concrete. The amount and size of the glass fragments significantly impact the
concrete's density and how much water it absorbs. Smaller glass particles or using more glass
creates more evenly distributed air pockets (pores) throughout the concrete, making it lighter.
The finer the glass particles and the more glass used, the larger the overall surface area of the
concrete becomes. This can be beneficial for certain applications. Surprisingly, adding 20-30%
of the uncrushed and unwashed glass (average particle size 550 microns) actually increased
the concrete's strength by 80% compared to using no glass at all. Utilizing waste glass in this
way is environmentally friendly and cost-effective because it requires less energy to process the
materials. These lightweight concretes show promise for applications such as prefabricated
building components or outdoor pavements. Tests also showed that the leached materials
wouldn't be classified as hazardous waste. Future research will focus on how these concretes
perform in terms of fire resistance and environmental factors.

[30] Celina Ziejewska, Agnieszka Grela and Marek Hebda (2023), Influence of Waste Glass
Particle Size on the Physic-Mechanical Properties and Porosity of Foamed Geopolymer
Composites Based on Coal Fly Ash, https://www.mdpi.com/1996-1944/16/5/2044
TITLE: “DATA – DRIVEN DECISION MAKING FOR TRAFFIC MANAGEMENT: A CAPACITY
ANALYSIS AND TRAFFIC LIGHT SYSTEM RECOMMENDATION FOR THE INTERSECTION
ALONG QUEZON AVE. CORNER RIZAL AVE. CENTRAL BARANGAY, DIPOLOG CITY”

MEMBERS: ARDINES, ALQUEEN

CABASAG, ROWEN

GUZMAN, LAIZA

RAPADA, NORIEL

SEREŇO, RIGYN

SUMBILON, JUSTIN CLARK

[1] stated that the traffic congestion is a growing problem in cities, especially when
accidents occur. This is because the number of cars is rising faster than the infrastructure can
handle. This problem has many negative consequences, including economic harm, more
accidents, increased pollution, wasted time, and health issues. To address this, cities can use
traffic management systems (TMS). These systems use various tools to improve traffic flow and
safety. TMS gather data from different sources, identify potential problems that could slow traffic
down, and then take steps to control them. This article will discuss the different types of TMS,
their benefits and challenges, and how they can be used in the future.

[1] De Souza, A. M., Brennand, C. A., Yokoyama, R. S., Donato, E. A., Madeira, E. R., &
Villas, L. A. (2017). Traffic management systems: A classification, review, challenges,
and future perspectives. International Journal of Distributed Sensor Networks, 13(4),
1550147716683612. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/1550147716683612

[2] claimed that for many years, traffic lights have been employed to control traffic
flow. Although they have a useful function, their fundamental theory of functioning is largely
ineffective because traffic congestion is still a serious issue today. By proposing an image-
based Smart Traffic Management System (STMS), this research aims to address this problem.
The system uses cameras that take pictures of the road conditions on-the-fly, process them
using an image processing algorithm to determine the traffic density, and then automatically
modify the service timings at intersections. Mathematical models were developed, analytical
comparisons were performed, and experimental simulations were carried out to assess the
efficacy of the strategy.

[2] Ajayi, O., Bagula, A., Isafiade, O., & Noutouglo, A. (2020). Effective management of
delays at road intersections using smart traffic light system. In e-Infrastructure and e-
Services for Developing Countries: 11th EAI International Conference, AFRICOMM
2019, Porto-Novo, Benin, December 3–4, 2019, Proceedings (pp. 84-103). Springer
International Publishing. https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-030-41593-8_7

[3] stated that the ways to improve traffic flow at intersections. It examines different
traffic management techniques, traffic light controls, and even intersection redesign. Before
trying these ideas in the real world, the researchers recommend using computer simulations to
see if they'll actually work. The study then presents real-world examples where different
techniques were used to reduce traffic delays, accidents, and congestion. The results show that
these simulations can be very helpful in designing intersections that will work well in the future,
even if they can't be built right now. Overall, the study concludes that this simulation software is
a powerful tool for traffic engineers and should be part of their regular toolbox.

[3] Lashkari, M., Narulkar, S. M., & Kaushal, S. C. A REVIEW PAPER ON EXAMINING
TRAFFIC OPRATIONS AT MULTI-LEGGED INTERSECTION OPERATING UNDER
HETROGENEOUSTRAFFICCONDITIONS.https://www.irjmets.com/uploadedfiles/paper/
issue_12_december_2023/47615/final/fin_irjmets1703604776.pdf

[4] identified that traffic lights are crucial for managing intersections, keeping traffic
and pedestrians moving safely and efficiently. As city traffic grows heavier, congestion becomes
a problem. This study explored the link between traffic signals and flow, finding that adjusting
green light times impacts overall flow and wait times. Optimizing these times based on real-time
traffic data significantly improved flow and reduced delays. However, the best timing can
change depending on factors like the time of day, traffic volume, and the specific intersection
layout. These findings can be used to improve traffic signals, both temporarily and permanently,
and can inform traffic management decisions. Further research could explore other strategies
like adaptive signal control and traffic demand management to further ease city traffic
congestion.
[4] คำ . (2023). A Study of Sam Yan Intersection Traffic Signal
Management Optimization. กำ ก โย ำ ำ ค 28, 28, TRL48-1.
https://conference.thaince.org/index.php/ncce28/article/view/2133

[5] claimed that the passage talks about making traffic lights safer and traffic flow
smoother. With new technology, we can rethink how traffic lights and other systems work. This
project has two goals: 1) make traffic lights safer for regular drivers by preventing red-light
running accidents, and 2) develop a more efficient system for self-driving cars that might not
need to stop at intersections altogether. The paper will explain how to prove that a new traffic
light system is safe and won't cause crashes. It will also discuss what's needed to design a
system for self-driving cars at intersections, but focus more on the safer traffic light system.
[5] Kauffman, K. Modeling Safer Traffic Light Transitions and an Intersection Control System
for AutonomousVehicles. https://lfcps.org/course/lfcps20/projects/kkauffma.pdf

[6] showed that traffic jams have gotten worse in recent years, especially in densely
populated cities. This is causing more car pollution and making it harder for cities to function
smoothly. There are many reasons for this, including not enough roads, too many cars, bad
planning, and poorly timed traffic lights. This paper focuses on how to improve traffic light
timing. By using real-time traffic data, traffic lights could adjust their cycles automatically, which
would significantly reduce traffic congestion. To achieve this, the paper proposes a new method
based on Q-Learning that optimizes traffic light timing to minimize average wait times for
drivers, while still being efficient.

[6] Chu, H. C., Liao, Y. X., Chang, L. H., & Lee, Y. H. (2019). Traffic light cycle configuration
of single intersection based on modified Q-Learning. Applied Sciences, 9(21), 4558.
https://www.mdpi.com/2076-3417/9/21/4558

[7] suggested that for random vehicle trip data are applied to an intersection network in
order to execute an intersection simulation, which makes the data unrealistic. In order to
overcome this problem, we compare the comparability of two distinct approaches for combining
real turning movement count (TMC) data for intersection analysis and simulation in this study.
Based on estimated traffic metrics including travel time, density, lane density, occupancy, and
normalised waiting time, intersection studies and comparisons are carried out. Improvements in
vehicle travel time are obtained to better fit the actual traffic demand, and new traffic signal
designs are suggested based on the actual critical turning movements. This is because the
critical edge of each intersection network is recognised based on a higher normalised waiting
time.

[7] Shokrolah Shirazi, M., Chang, H. F., & Tayeb, S. (2022). Turning Movement Count Data
Integration Methods for Intersection Analysis and Traffic Signal Design. Sensors, 22(19),
7111. https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8220/22/19/7111

[8] pointed out that the ensure adaptive traffic safety at a smart intersection, a crucial
first step is evaluating the safety risks for the near future. A data-driven approach for adaptive
operational interventions is presented in this study, which can assess simulated safety risks fast.
Data based on disputes was produced using a traffic micro simulation model in order to build a
machine learning model. The identification of safety risk was achieved by using conflict
indicators, such as time to collision (TTC) and post encroachment time (PET). Risk indices for
adaptive processes were assessed using supervise learning models like linear regression and
machine learning models like random forest and extreme Gradient Boosting (XGBoost). After
training nine models in total, it was discovered that XGBoost performed better than the other
methods, achieving an accuracy of 0.87 percent.
[8] Chan, L., Nassir, N., Bagloee, S., Sarvi, M., & Yazdani, M. (2022, September). Data-
driven evaluation model of safety risks at signalised intersection. In Australasian
Transport Research Forum (ATRF), 43rd,2022, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia.
https://australasiantransportresearchforum.org.au/wp-
content/uploads/2022/05/ATRF2022_Resubmission_27.pdf

[9] identified that the traffic signal control framework that gives the best control policies
priority on important nodes in road networks in order to increase the traffic efficiency of city-wide
road networks. Using this paradigm, we first identify the key nodes through a data-driven
method. Critical nodes are defined as those that, in the event of their failure, would result in a
sharp decline in the road network's traffic efficiency. Using a tripartite graph based on vehicle
trajectories, this method analyses the dynamic of road networks and is able to precisely locate
the essential nodes across the city from a global viewpoint. Second, we present a unique deep
reinforcement learning-based traffic signal control strategy for the identified important nodes.
This strategy can learn the optimal policy by continuously interacting with the traffic signal.
[9] Xu, M., Wu, J., Huang, L., Zhou, R., Wang, T., & Hu, D. (2020). Network-wide traffic
signal control based on the discovery of critical nodes and deep reinforcement
learning. Journal of Intelligent Transportation Systems, 24(1), 1-10.
https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/15472450.2018.1527694

[10] stated that this research describes a method for controlling traffic signals at a single
intersection, relying on expert knowledge. This method can adjust the timing of the lights (red,
yellow, and green) based on how much traffic there is at any given time. The system figures out
whether to keep the current green light on longer or switch to a different direction based on the
traffic situation. Using data collected by sensors at the intersection, the system calculates the
best signal timing to match the current traffic flow.

[10] Pranevičius, H., & Kraujalis, T. (2019). Knowledge based traffic signal control model for
signalized intersection. Transport, 27(3), 263-267.
https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.3846/16484142.2012.719545

[11] observed that to reduce traffic congestion, especially in complex circumstances,

competent traffic signal engineers are essential in performing manual traffic signal control (TSC)
operations. The amount of congestion mitigation, however, is highly dependent on individual
engineering practice skill, and the process itself takes a long time. Therefore, learning the
expertise of traffic engineers is a cost-effective way to improve your ability to solve problems
related to a large-scale urban traffic network. This research proposes a data augmented deep
behavioural cloning (DADBC) strategy to mimic traffic engineer problem solving abilities. The
approach is based on a conceptual framework called the parallel learning (PL) framework,
which uses machine learning methods to solve complex system decision-making challenges.
The DADBC technique uses a generative adversarial network (GAN) to improve a hybrid
demonstration.
[11] Li, X., Ye, P., Jin, J., Zhu, F., & Wang, F. Y. (2021). Data augmented deep behavioral
cloning for urban traffic control operations under a parallel learning framework. IEEE
Transactions on Intelligent Transportation Systems, 23(6), 5128-5137.
https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/abstract/document/9339895
 [12] stated that the even while these studies might offer valuable understandings of the
circumstances people face, they are unable to offer concrete solutions for improving the issue.
For example, data mining and transportation communities have both looked closely into traffic-
related issues in urban areas, such as traffic demand prediction and traffic congestion.
Investigating ways to reduce congestion and meet demand, however, is a pertinent subject in
light of the existing mismatch between supply and demand. In many disciplines, decision-
making has been a contentious academic topic. For example, techniques from control theories
and transportation engineering have been applied to the area of transportation to regulate traffic
signals. Additionally, I have used the created techniques in a variety of fields, such as
journalism, traffic signal control, and urban traffic forecast.
[12] Zheng, G. (2020). Data-Driven Decision Making in Spatial Temporal Tasks (Doctoral
dissertation, The Pennsylvania State University).
https://www.proquest.com/openview/a9c747e8fe392bb15cd5208f2a99cb52/1?pq-
origsite=gscholar&cbl=18750&diss=y

[13] identified that this study presents an adaptive traffic signal control (ATSC) system
based on digital twin (DT) technology to enhance user satisfaction and signalised intersection
performance. To create the two DT-based ATSC algorithms, DT1 (Digital Twin 1) and DT2
(Digital Twin 2), real-time vehicle trajectory data, future traffic demand projection, and parallel
simulation technique are specifically taken into consideration. Whereas DT2 uses the delay of
every vehicle that happened in every approach connected to the subject junction as well as the
immediate adjacent intersection, DT1 uses the delay that every car encountered from all
approaches connected to the subject intersection.
[13] Dasgupta, S., Rahman, M., & Jones, S. (2023). Harnessing Digital Twin Technology for
Adaptive Traffic Signal Control: Improving Signalized Intersection Performance and User
Satisfaction. arXiv preprint arXiv:2309.16673. https://arxiv.org/abs/2309.16673

[14] declare that the global traffic congestion is becoming a more serious issue as a
result of an increase in the number of vehicles and metropolitan population. It could appear that
building more roads with more capacity will help to relieve traffic. But building more roads may
just be a band-aid solution; this is especially true if the additional capacity is provided to drivers
at no cost. The primary objective of this section is to gain an understanding of traffic engineering
and management issues using crowdsourced data, rather than solely theoretical writings. This
section generally aids in comprehending the issues, difficulties, specifications, and effectiveness
of social media data in traffic management through the use of data mining techniques. First, an
attempt is made to learn about the important regions.
[14] Noaeen, M. (2021). Managing urban traffic networks using data analysis, traffic theory,
and deep reinforcement learning (Doctoral dissertation, University of Calgary (Canada)).
https://www.proquest.com/openview/c072e430b69552db672d5b4571c5b5fb/1?pq-
origsite=gscholar&cbl=18750&diss=y

[15] stated that with self-driving cars becoming a reality, there's a growing need for
smarter systems to manage intersections where these vehicles interact. Researchers are
actively exploring this area, and this paper summarizes the different approaches proposed so
far. The study focuses on both intersections with traffic lights and those without, considering
scenarios with only self-driving cars and mixed traffic with human drivers as well.The authors
reviewed research papers published between 2008 and 2019 and identified four main
categories of intelligent intersection management systems: rule-based, optimization-based,
hybrid (combining elements of both), and machine learning-based. They then compared how
well each approach meets goals like traffic flow, safety, environmental impact, and passenger
comfort. This analysis helped them pinpoint key challenges in existing methods and propose
new directions for future research.

[15] Namazi, E., Li, J., & Lu, C. (2019). Intelligent intersection management systems
considering autonomous vehicles: A systematic literature review. IEEE Access, 7,
91946-91965. https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/abstract/document/8756239

[16] stated that using double dueling deep Q networks, Is one of the well-known deep
reinforcement learning techniques, this paper suggests a decentralized adaptive signal control
algorithm for network level control based on a multi-agent framework. According to the system,
that a reinforcement learning agent regulates the lights at each unique intersection using high-
resolution, real-time traffic data. To cut down on the amount of time that vehicles must wait, it is
uses convolutional neural networks to extract pertinent information from the precise locations of
the vehicles, and it chooses the right signal phase every second. Control agents communicate
information about traffic and signal conditions with one another in order to coordinate efforts and
improve network performance.

[16] Gong, Y., Abdel-Aty, M., Cai, Q., & Rahman, M. S. (2019). Decentralized network level
adaptive signal control by multi-agent deep reinforcement learning. Transportation
Research Interdisciplinary Perspectives, 1, 100020.:
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S259019821930020X.

[17] made used of extensive taxi GPS trajectory data to examine patterns of traffic
congestion at a crossroads in both directions. Urban traffic bottlenecks occur at intersections,
where various traffic flows merge and change directions. GPS data has not yet been used to
investigate crowded turning directions at road intersections. Consequently, this paper offers a
method for turning-level traffic congestion detection from taxi GPS trajectories. The suggested
method finds three different intensities of congested trajectory segments by examining aspects
of GPS trajectories and filtering legitimate trajectory segments. After that, it uses a clustering
technique to identify congestion occurrences in each turning direction. In conclusion, this study
examines and analyzes the level of congestion, the duration of congestion, and the length of the
queue for each turning direction at a crossroads.

[17] Kan, Z., Tang, L., Kwan, M. P., Ren, C., Liu, D., & Li, Q. (2019). Traffic congestion
analysis at the turn level using Taxis' GPS trajectory data. Computers, Environment and
Urban Systems, 74, 229-243.: https://rb.gy/k2jr4r

[18] pointed out many methods were used to control the traffic light systems, depending
on several methods like deep learning and machine learning. The main advantage of the fuzzy
logic method is its high speed compared with neural networks that needs a high processing
power and may not work in real time, neural networks try to predicate the number of the cars
depending on the previous data. While fuzzy logic is able to work with real time data fed by the
image processing system. As a result of the proposed, the system was working in a real time
showing how the number of cars were changing and how the traffic light is responding each
change in cars numbers, and how the streets directions are moving. In the same manner, the
Image processing system increases the value of the system specially in traffic in jam cities
which can decrease the accidents situation and the time delay too. This system can develop to
take the ambulance cars as a third fuzzy set that must open with a top priority that the street
with an ambulance car must open immediately and with medium priority with fire trucks and
police cars and a minimum priority with other cars.

[18] Gdeeb, R. T. (2023). A Controlling Traffic Light system using Fuzzy logic. Journal of Al-
Qadisiyah for computer science and mathematics, 15(3), Page-141.:
https://www.iasj.net/iasj/download/c9a541248c5b5cd3.

[19] observed that we look into the viability of our suggested approach for assessing
gaze information close to traffic. Table 3 and Table 4 show the subjects' gaze information from
our proposed method; we investigated the relationship between the gaze information and the
three-level subjective evaluation (0/0.5/1) by the driving school instructors. The subjects were
22 general drivers (two were 80–89 years old, four were 70–79 years old, six were 60–69 years
old, three were 50–59 years old, five were 40–49 years old) and they drove for six to fifteen
minutes in the driving school course. The traffic signal area was the only location used for
evaluation. The following questions were used to make a subjective evaluation: they
concentrated on left and right safety and signal confirmation. We suggested using the
experimental methodology from our earlier study in this paper. The suggested technique
extracted the video and eye data at a traffic light intersection using GPS data. Additionally, we
used image processing and eye data to expand the capabilities of our system for evaluating a
driver's ability to operate an automobile.

[19] Shimauchi, T., Sakurai, K., Tate, L., & Tamura, H. (2020). Gaze-Based Vehicle Driving
Evaluation of System with an Actual Vehicle at an Intersection with a Traffic
Light. Electronics, 9(9), 1408.: https://shorturl.at/lmBC9

[20] pointed out that the intensity study was carried out at each intersection entry
following the completion of 11 simulations in which the pedestrian traffic intensity was increased
by an additional 50 pedestrians per hour, starting at a value of 0 pedestrians per hour. The
quantity of vehicles turning right at the inlet was counted and compared to each option. Not
every car was able to pass the crossing at the same moment because of the high amount of
foot traffic caused by the growing number of people at the crossing. The traffic intensity of left-
turning vehicles varies with the time of a left turn, as depicted in the graphs below for both
examined intersections. When conducting microsimulation analyses on behalf of public or
private clients, it is imperative to consider the foot traffic at the intersection. Including
pedestrians is crucial to generate reliable data about, for example, capacity and traffic condition
assessment.The quantity of pedestrians directly affects the measurement findings that are
obtained if the signaling systems permit two signal groups to intersect with each other.
Based on eleven micro-scale simulation versions, the impact of pedestrians increases with the
number of vehicles on a given route. The likelihood of improved traffic conditions increases with
the length of the green signal for automobiles. Another factor in the decline of the filter is not
using the filter arrow.

[20] Ziemska-Osuch, M., & Osuch, D. (2022). Modeling the assessment of intersections with
traffic lights and the significance level of the number of pedestrians in microsimulation
models based on the PTV Vissim tool. Sustainability, 14(14), 8945.:
https://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/14/14/8945.

[21] stated that traffic control systems are intended to increase safety while lowering the
number of accidents. effective transportation. As technology develops, it's more critical to
reevaluate standard implementations of safety systems and infrastructure for potential
upgrades. In this undertaking, I examine these two goals, suggesting a traffic signal system that
is safer for manned vehicles and an independent, more effective autonomous vehicle control
system. This essay clarifies the concepts behind the verifiable safety evidence for a reactive
traffic control system that aims to at decreasing crashes caused by running red lights. It also
examines the modeling specifications of an autonomous vehicle intersection control system with
the intention of removing the requirement for Despite the majority of this paper's attention being
on the safer traffic light transition, stop at junctions. This observation of the incoming vehicles'
physical dynamics has also been applied in demonstrating safety at stop signs and informing
drivers when it is safe to continue whether the car should wait or proceed through the junction.
The cooperative intersection, like this one, Sensor data is used by the collision avoidance
system for stop-sign assist (CICAS-SSA) to ascertain overall system security while
acknowledging the many elements that could lead to such a concept, and instead breaks the
model down into more basic systems. In contrast to CICAS-SSA, this project will only pay
attention to the physics-based model, obliging it to overlook elements like response time,
meteorological circumstances, and sensor dependability to create a more straightforward and
more simple to prove model.
[21] Kauffman, K. Modeling Safer Traffic Light Transitions and an Intersection Control
System for Autonomous Vehicles.: https://lfcps.org/course/lfcps20/projects/kkauffma.pdf.

[22] aimed to create a traffic flow prediction system using machine learning.
at junctions. In order to do this, we put various machine learning models into practice and
evaluated their execution. According to the findings, the random forest regressor model
performed better than the others with an R-squared and 0.98 EV rating. An ensemble approach
based on trees called the random forest regressor model builds a large number of decision
trees and then outputs the average forecast made by each tree. Although this algorithm is highly
accurate, its complexity results in longer processing times. With a score of 0.97, the decision
tree regressor model was somewhat less successful than the random forest regressor.
However, it offered a decent compromise between training duration and outcome monitoring.
The enhancing gradient regressor model required additional processing time but performed
similarly to the decision tree regressor. Despite having comparatively lower scores, the K
neighbors regressor and linear regression models performed not radically different from the
others. In order to confirm that the suggested system is effective, we replicated Using a tiny
model, traffic flow at crossings. A traffic density reduction function was employed by the model
to Modify the red and green lights. The suggested method shows encouraging traffic flow
predicting results. at intersections and lessening the jam of vehicles. The decision tree
regressor, at its most exact, provided an excellent trade-off between accuracy and training time.
This system has the potential to be an effective instrument for controlling traffic at significant
intersections, and we expect additional advancement and enhancement in the future.

[22] Moumen, I., Abouchabaka, J., & Rafalia, N. (2023). Adaptive traffic lights based on traffic
flow prediction using machine learning models. International Journal of Electrical and
Computer Engineering (IJECE), 13(5), 5813-5823.: https://shorturl.at/sLMRZ

[23] aimed to provide selection criteria that distinguish between a roundabout and a
crossroads with traffic lights in an urban area. Increasing stakeholders' awareness of the
enhancement of traffic and the avoidance of accidents while maintaining environmental
criterion is the new method for putting ideas for sustainable urban mobility into action. "Vision
Zero" is an a plan to end all incidents that result in significant injuries and fatalities while
boosting safety and equal mobility for everyone. "Vision Zero" has worked well as a model
throughout Europe and is currently being used in significant Canadian and North American
cities. Within this context, the redesign and the simultaneous elimination of traffic are combined
with the renovation of traffic intersections. With the review of the literature on the
international research on roundabouts and the standards by which they can take the place of
traffic signal intersections. Were gathered with a roundabout (single lane). Following a careful
examination of the standards that were gathered, their significance became clear throughout the
process of choosing whether or not to select them. for choosing to create a roundabout. The
process of determining the criteria's eligibility involved the process of Analytic Hierarchy (AHP).
Using the third version of the Super Decisions program, this approach was successfully used at
the intersection of a rural region in Waterloo, Ontario, Canada between Bleams Road and
Queen Street. Conclusions and recommendations were made in relation to the potential for
implementing the approach created by Local Government and included in this paper's
framework Authorities (LGA).

[23] Ammanatidou, P., Palantzas, G., & Nalmpantis, D. SELECTION BETWEEN

SIGNALIZED TRAFFIC LIGHT JUNCTION AND ROUNDABOUT WITH THE USE OF
MULTI‐CRITERIA DECISION ANALYSIS (MCDA).: https://shorturl.at/bmuKM

[24] declared that the comparative simulation findings that were provided show that an
AV can be successfully controlled using all three predictive control systems (MPC, NMPC, and
PMPC) in the scenario when the AV is approaching a traffic light. The primary benefit of the
suggested NMPC rule is its ability to support a nonlinear process model while maintaining
computing efficiency. This is accomplished by using only two first-order lag term parameters,
optimized on the minimal (one-step) control horizon, to describe the vehicle velocity profile.
Consequently, the NMPC approach can be utilized in broader scenarios including nonlinear and
stochastic process/prediction models, such as resolving the AV safe speed control issue while
navigating an unsignalized crossing and dealing with pedestrians. At a far lower computational
cost, the PMPC strategy—in particular, its filtered variation, PMPCf—can approach the NMPC
performance. But because of its structural complexity, it might not be as appealing in more
general examples of nonlinear and/or stochastic dynamics as it is in the AV case study under
consideration.

[24] Cvok, I., Pavelko, L., Ńkugor, B., Deur, J., Tseng, H. E., & Ivanovic, V. (2023). Design
and Comparative Analysis of Several Model Predictive Control Strategies for
 Autonomous Vehicle Approaching a Traffic Light Crossing. Energies, 16(4), 2006.:
https://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/16/4/2006.

According to [25], MATLAB Update 2016a is used to create the simulated version of the
traffic control system. The SIMULINK toolbox/environment is used to retrieve the green light
signal timings (in seconds). Fuzzy traffic controller, which increases the green light time linearly
with increasing traffic values density. This outcome is predicated on a function that Simulink
offers that can be used to investigate the actions of numerous dynamic systems found in the
actual world. When the volume of traffic (0-105 units) is changed within Green light duration
likewise fluctuates across the whole range (0-90 seconds). To get around the drawbacks of the
traditional traffic light system, which uses a hard-coded signal. For timings, "I-TLS," created in
MATLAB's SIMULINK environment, makes use of the Fuzzy Inference System. permits the
system to produce suitable green light timings depending on the input density, which
consequently leads to green light enhancement.

[25] Tiwari, A. A., Thakar, N. H., Shah, U. S., Bhavsar, V. M., & Parmar, S. N. I-TLS
(Intelligent Traffic Light System) By Anatomizing Traffic Density. https://shorturl.at/jxAIK

[26] investigated the dispersed approach to traffic signal and vehicle synchronization at
city intersections. We characterize the cars according to their speed, intended arrival time, and
distance to the intersection. In a similar vein, the lights' scheduled time of switch-off is
described. Gradient-based multi-agent control approaches are employed by the agents, which
can be lights or automobiles, to negotiate their time within this shared framework. The primary
goal of the project is to develop a safety regulating controller that adapts this bargaining tactic to
guarantee safe operation. In order to minimize deviations from the nominal coordinating control,
a quadratic program is used to synthesize the regulator utilizing control barrier certificates. To
demonstrate the reduction in fuel consumption and delay, the control technique is put to the test
in a simulation and contrasted with conventional traffic lights and human-driven behavior. More
thorough simulation studies could be carried out in the future to: (1) evaluate our approach
against several baseline models, such as the Wiedeman driver model or the Intelligent Driver
model; and (2) investigate the effects of additional characteristics, such as various engine types
and vehicle sizes. Furthermore, the system can be expanded to incorporate agent interactions
based on various connection topologies (e.g., taking into account vehicle communication across
numerous intersections and roadways).

[26] Rodriguez, M., & Fathy, H. (2022). Vehicle and traffic light control through gradient-
based coordination and control barrier function safety regulation. Journal of Dynamic
Systems, Measurement, and Control, 144(1), 011104.: https://shorturl.at/cqTU3

[27] suggested that by actively modifying signal systems to reflect current traffic
circumstances, dynamic traffic lights are thought to increase the throughput of road traffic.
However, it is unusual that such control mechanisms can be simply implemented on a large-
scale infrastructure, and the literature's tools are typically focused on extremely basic or
constrained validation scenarios. In this research, we investigate the effects of dynamic traffic
lights on the bus public transit network as well as overall traffic using a city-scale simulation
scenario. In contrast to earlier research, we specifically want to know how dynamic traffic lights
affect public transportation. In fact, most communities that are currently paying more and more
attention to them have little interest in implementing a solution that enhances overall traffic
conditions but interferes with public transportation services. According to the results of our
simulation, dynamic traffic lights have a minor effect on emissions in both general traffic and
traffic including public transportation, but a substantial positive impact on time efficiency. There
is conflicting evidence about how dynamic traffic lights affect road safety. Additionally, we look
into various deployment tactics and demonstrate that installing dynamic traffic lights at the 10%
of signalized intersections that receive the highest traffic is a good compromise between
deployment complexity and network performance.

[27] Mahjri, I., Faye, S., & Khadraoui, D. (2019, October). Impact and Deployment of
Dynamic Traffic Light Control Strategies using a City-wide Simulation Scenari. In 2019
IEEE Intelligent Transportation Systems Conference (ITSC) (pp. 2213-2219). IEEE.:
https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/abstract/document/8916984.

[28] noted that the gate will automatically close, and this system will let pedestrians and
drivers recognize an approaching train. or raise the road barriers to let the train pass so that it
doesn't run into any cars. RFID reader sensor and MFRC522 The level-crossing system is
activated and deactivated by train detection using tags that are fastened to the rail side and the
train carriage. The safety systems and controls at level crossings use ultrasonic sensors to
detect and identify obstacles. Additionally, The circuits governing the automatic warning devices
offer a warning independent of the train's speed on the track. The train must run for at least 30
seconds in order to reach the level crossing. The automatic railway level crossing system was
developed with the intention of reducing level crossing accidents globally. When level crossings
lack active warning systems like mechanical barriers, flashing lights, and sirens, there is a risk
to both trains and pedestrians. And traffic on the roads. By automating barrier gate opening and
closing with RFID and ultrasonic sensors, accidents will be reduced to a greater degree.
However, it might not always be necessary or feasible to remove a railroad crossing using an
expensive grade segregation to enhance the safety of roads and trains. The suggested system
is the most appropriate to be used in the railway sector going forward since it is affordable,
practical, efficient, safe, and customized for level crossing protection.

[28] Nkunzimana, L., Minja, G., Wilfred, C. M., & Didai, M. (2021). Automatic Railway Road
Crossing (RLC) Traffic Light System for Metric Gauge Railway Network in
Tanzania. International Journal of Scientific Research in Computer Science Engineering
and Information Technology, 7(11), 1-9.: https://rb.gy/t7qp7g

[29] aimed that the limits of the officially employed approaches for traffic control are
circumvented by employing image processing techniques utilized to manage traffic flow. The
use of timers in autonomous traffic control earlier had the disadvantage that the time is being
squandered on an empty road by a green light. After being compared to several edge detection
techniques, it was concluded that the most effective image processing method for traffic is the
Threshold Edge Detector technique. control in contrast to conventional methods. Furthermore,
compared to the density-based approach, it is more efficient because economical and less
prone to mistakes. This method eliminates the need for additional gear, like speakers.
pavements with sensors and magnetic loops inserted. Furthermore, different traffic signal times
are assigned. significantly relying on the image matching method of traffic density detection.
The computation's precision duration caused by a single moving camera is dependent upon the
registration position each time the camera is facing the road. Image processing techniques have
been shown to be the most effective means of controlling the traffic light's status change. There
was discussion of the benefits of the suggested approach, such as the decrease in traffic
congestion, improved consistency and time savings in the identification of vehicle presence.
These advantages stem mostly from the application of real-time traffic photos as a way to
visualize reality, offering it superior performance over other systems. depending on the metal
content of the cars being detected. The system performs optimally overall. in contrast to other
comparable systems found in the literature review. Still, more development of the system is
advised to take and handle traffic photo data in erratic illumination scenarios.

[29] Kedwan, F. TRAFFIC LIGHT TIMER ADJUSTMENT SYSTEM USING THRESHOLD

EDGE DETECTION FOR IMAGE PROCESSING: A SOFTWARE ENGINEERING
APPROACH.: https://www.ijcrm.com/publish_article/edition-79/e790936.pdf

[30] stated that traffic management and emergency vehicle movement prioritizing are
two major benefits of using an RFID sensor-based intelligent priority-driven traffic light control
system. Congestion at junctions and delayed emergency response times are two problems that
the system helps to efficiently address by integrating RFID sensors, microcontrollers, and traffic
signal control methods. The technology enables speedier and more efficient response times by
giving emergency vehicles priority access at intersections. Better emergency services are the
outcome, and they may even save lives. The traffic light signals at intersections are dynamically
adjusted by the system in response to priority cars, which improves overall traffic flow. This
contributes to decreasing traffic, avoiding delays, and enhancing the road network's efficiency.
Emergency responders and other road users are safer when the system prioritizes the
movement of emergency vehicles, lowering the dangers associated with aggressive driving. The
system performs real-time data processing and decision-making using RFID sensors and
microcontrollers. This guarantees quick access and shortens response times by prioritizing
emergency vehicles more quickly. By modifying traffic light signals in accordance with the
priority vehicles it detects, the system intelligently controls traffic. This optimization raises the
road network's overall efficacy while enhancing traffic flow and lowering congestion. Without
requiring significant changes, the RFID Sensor-Based Intelligent Priority-Driven Traffic Light
management System can be incorporated into the current traffic management system. The
effective deployment of an intelligent traffic signal management system driven by priorities and
utilizing RFID sensors greatly enhances road safety, traffic flow, and emergency response. The
technology enhances traffic management and builds a more robust transportation network by
granting emergency vehicles priority access to crossings. While there are many benefits to the
ssRFID Sensor-Based Intelligent Priority-Driven Traffic Light Control System, there are also
some areas that need more study to fully understand the system's possible limitations and
expand on its capabilities. Using cutting-edge vehicle identification methods is one such
example. To increase the precision and dependability of vehicle detection, this means
investigating substitute vehicle detection methods that supplement RFID sensors, such as video
analytics, LiDAR, or ultrasonic sensors.

[30] Essien, J., & Uloko, F. (2023). Intelligent 3-Way Priority-Driven Traffic Light Control
System for Emergency Vehicles. Open Journal of Applied Sciences, 13(8), 1207-
1223.:https://www.scirp.org/journal/paperinformation?paperid=126818.