Chapter 7

Sound Waves
 Sound Waves
In this chapter we will study sound waves and
concentrate on the following topics:

Speed of sound waves

Relation between displacement and pressure amplitude
Interference of sound waves
Sound intensity and sound level
Beats
The Doppler effect
Reflection, refraction and transmission
The human Ear
UltraSounds 2
A wave is defined as a disturbance that is self-sustained and
propagates in space with a constant speed
Waves can be classified in the following three categories:
1. Mechanical waves. These involve motions that are governed by
Newton’s laws and can exist only within a material medium such as
air, water, rock, etc. Common examples are: sound waves, seismic
waves, etc.
2. Electromagnetic waves. These waves involve propagating
disturbances in the electric and magnetic field governed by Maxwell’s
equations. They do not require a material medium in which to
propagate but they travel through vacuum. Common examples are:
radio waves of all types, visible, infra-red, and ultra-violet light, x-
rays, gamma rays. All electromagnetic waves propagate in vacuum
with the same speed c = 300,000 km/s
3. Matter waves. All microscopic particles such as electrons,
protons, neutrons, atoms etc have a wave associated with them
governed by Schroedinger’s equation. 3
 Transverse and Longitudinal waves
Waves can be divided into the following two categories
depending on the orientation of the disturbance with

respect to the wave propagation velocity v .

If the disturbance associated with a particular wave is

perpendicular to the wave propagation velocity, this
wave is called "transverse". An example is given
in the upper figure which depicts a mechanical wave
that propagates along a string. The movement of each
particle on the string is along the y -axis; the wave itself
propagates along the x-axis.
A wave in which the associated disturbance is parallel to the wave propagation
velocity is known as a "lonitudinal wave". An example of such a wave is given
in the lower figure. It is produced by a piston oscillating in a tube filled with
air. The resulting wave involves movement of the air molecules along the

axis of the tube which is also the direction of the wave propagation velocity v . 4
Consider the transverse wave propagating along
the string as shown in the figure. The position of
any point on the string can be described by a
function y = h( x, t ). Further along the chapter
we shall see that function h has to have a specific
form to describe a wave. Once such suitable
function is: y ( x, t ) = ym sin ( kx - ωt )
Such a wave which is described by a sine
(or a cosine) function is known as
"harmonic wave".
The various terms that appear in the expression
for a harmonic waveare identified in the lower figure
Function y ( x, t ) depends on x and t. There are two
ways to visualize it. The first is to "freeze" time
(i.e. set t = to ). This is like taking a snapshot of the
wave = . y y ( x, to ) The second is to set
at t to=
x = xo . In this case y = y ( xo , t.) 5
 y ( x, t ) = ym sin ( kx − ωt )
The amplitude ym is the absolute value of the
maximum displacement from the equilibrium
position.
The phase is defined as the argument ( kx − ωt )
of the sine function.
The wavelength λ is the shortest distance
between two repetitions of the wave at
a fixed time.
We fix t at t = 0. We have the condition: y ( x1 , 0) = y ( x1 + λ , 0) →
ym sin (=
kx1 ) ym sin  k ( x1 +=
λ )  ym sin ( kx1 + k λ )
2π
Since the sine function is periodic with period 2π → k λ = 2π → k =
λ
A period T is the time it takes (with fixed x ) tthe sine function to complete
one oscillation. We take x =0 → y (0, t ) =y (0, t + T ) →
2π
− ym sin (ωt ) =
− ym sin ω ( t + T )  =
− ym sin (ωt + ωT ) → ωT =→
2π ω =
T 6
 ω The speed of a traveling wave
v= In the figure we show two snapshots of a harmonic wave
k
taken at times t and t + ∆t. During the time interval ∆t
the wave has traveled a distance ∆x. The wave speed
∆x
v= . One method of finding v is to imagine that
∆t
we move with the same speed along the x-axis. In this
case the wave will seem to us that it does not change.

=
Since y ( x, t ) ym sin ( kx − ωt ) this means that the argument of the sine function
is constant. kx − ωt = constant. We take the derivative with respect to t.
dx dx ω dx ω
k − ω =0 → = The speed v = =
dt dt k dt k
A harmonic wave that propagates along the negative x-axis is described by the equation:
ym sin ( kx + ωt ) . The function y ( x, t ) =
y ( x, t ) = h ( kx − ωt ) describes a general wave that
propagates along the positive x-axis. A general wave that propagates along the
x, t ) h ( kx + ωt )
negative x-axis is described by the equation: y (=
7
Wave speed on a stretched string
Below we will determine the speed of a wave that
propagates along a string whose linear mass density
is µ . The tension on the string is equal to τ .
Consider a small section of the string of length ∆.

ω 𝜆𝜆
v= =
𝑇𝑇
= 𝜆𝜆𝜆𝜆
k

τ
v=
µ

8
 Interference of waves
Consider two harmonic waves of the same amplitude
and frequency which propagate along the x-axis. The
two waves have a phase difference φ . We
will combine these waves using the principle of
superposition. The phenomenon of combing waves
is knwon as interference and the two waves are
said to interfere. The displacement of the two waves
are given by the functions: y1 ( x, t ) = ym sin ( kx − ωt )
and y2 ( x, t ) = ym sin ( kx − ωt + φ ) . y′ = y1 + y2
y′ ( x, t ) ym sin ( kx − ωt ) + ym sin ( kx − ωt + φ )
=
 φ  φ
=y′ ( x, t )  2 ym cos  sin  kx − ωt + 
 2  2
The resulting wave has the same frequency as
the original waves, and its amplitude
φ φ
ym′ = 2 ym cos Its phase is equal to
2 2 9
Constructive interference
The amplitude of two interefering waves is given by:
φ
ym′ 2=ym cos It has its maximum value if φ 0
2
In this case ym′ = 2 ym
The displacement of the resulting wave is:
 φ
y′ ( x, t ) = [ 2 ym ] sin  kx − ωt + 
 2
This phenomenon is known as
fully constructive interference

10
Destructive interference
The amplitude of two interefering waves is given by:
φ
ym′ 2=ym cos It has its minimum value if φ π
2
In this case ym′ = 0
The displacement of the resulting wave is:
y ′ ( x, t ) = 0
This phenomenon is known as
fully destructive interference

11
Intermediate interference
The amplitude of two interefering waves is given by:
φ
ym′ = 2 ym cos When interference is neither fully
2
constructive nor fully destructive it is called
intermediate interference
2π
An example is given in the figure for φ =
3
In this case ym′ = ym
The displacement of the resulting wave is:
 π
= [ m] 
y ′ ( x, t )
y sin kx − ω t + 
 3 
Note : Sometimes the phase difference is
expressed as a difference in wavelength λ
In this case remembre that:
2π radians ↔ 1λ
12
y′ ( x, t ) = [ 2 ym sin kx ] cos ωt

Standing Waves : Consider the superposition of two waves that have the same
frequency and amplitude but travel in opposite directions. The displacements
of two waves are: y1 ( x, t ) =
ym sin ( kx − ωt ) , y2 ( x, t ) =
ym sin ( kx + ωt )
′ ( x, t )
The displacement of the resulting wave y= y1 ( x, t ) + y2 ( x, t )
y′ (=
x, t ) ym sin ( kx − ωt ) + ym sin ( kx +=
ωt ) [ 2 ym sin kx ] cos ωt
This is not a traveling wave but an oscillation that has a position
dependent amplitude. It is known as a standing wave.
13
The displacement of a standing wave is given by the equation:
y′ ( x, t ) = [ 2 ym sin kx ] cos ωt
The position dependant amplitude is equal to 2ym sin kx

Nodes : These are defined as positions where the standing

wave amplitude vanishes. They occur when= kx n= π n 0,1, 2,
2π λ
→ x= nπ → xn = n n= 0,1, 2,...
λ 2

Antinodes : These are defined as positions where the standing

wave amplitude is maximum.
 1
They occur when kx =  n +  π n = 0,1, 2,...
 2
2π  1  1λ
→ x=  n +  π → x=′  n +  n= 0,1, 2,...
λ
n
 2  2 2
Note 1 : The distance between ajacent nodes and antinodes is λ /2
Note 2 : The distance between a node and an ajacent antinode14is λ /4
 Standing waves and resonance
Consider a string under tension on which is clamped
A B at points A and B separated by a sistance L. We send
a harmonic wave traveling the thr right. the wave is
reflected at point B and the reflected wave travels to
A B the left. The left going wave reflects back at point A
and creates a thrird wave traveling to the right. Thus
we have a large number of overlapping waves half
A of which travel to the right and the rest to the left.
B

For certain frequencies the interference produces a standing wave. Such a

standing wave is said to be at resonance. The frequencis at which the standing
wave occurs are known as the resonant frequencies of the system.

15
 Resonances occur when the resulting standing wave
satisfies the boundary condition of the problem.
A B These are that the Amplitude must be zero at point A
and point B and arise from the fact that the string is
clamped at both points and therefore cannot move.
The first resonance is shown in fig.a. The standing
A B
λ1
wave has two nodes at points A and B. Thus L =
2
→ λ1 = 2 L. The second standing wave is shown
A B in fig.b. It has three nodes (two of them at A and B)
λ
In this case L= 2  = λ → λ2 = L
2
The third standing wave is shown in fig.c. It has four nodes (two of them at A and B)
λ 2
=
In this case L 3=  λ → λ 3 = L The general expression for the resonant
2 3
2L v v
wavelengths is: λn = n= 1, 2,3, ... the resonant frequencies =
fn = n
n λn 2L
16
 Sound
Most of the information about our physical surroundings comes to us through
our senses of hearing and sight.

In both cases we obtain information about objects without being in physical
contact with them.

The information is transmitted to us in the first case by sound, in the second

case by light.

Although sound and light are very different phenomena, they are both waves.

 A wave can be defined as a disturbance that carries energy from one place to
another without a transfer of mass.

The energy carried by the waves stimulates our sensory mechanisms.

In this part, we will first explain briefly the nature of sound and then review
some general properties of wave motion applicable to both sound and light.

Using this background we will examine the process of hearing and some
other biological aspects of sound.

Light will be discussed later.

 Properties of Sound
Sound is a mechanical wave produced by vibrating bodies.

For example, when an object such as a tuning fork or the human vocal cords
is set into vibrational motion, the surrounding air molecules are disturbed and
are forced to follow the motion of the vibrating body.

The vibrating molecules in turn transfer their motion to adjacent molecules

causing the vibrational disturbance to propagate away from the source.

When the air vibrations reach the ear, they cause the eardrum to vibrate; this
produces nerve impulses that are interpreted by the brain.
All matter transmits sound to some extent, but a material medium is needed
between the source and the receiver to propagate sound.

This is demonstrated by the well-known experiment of the bell in the jar.

When the bell is set in motion, its sound is clearly audible.

As the air is evacuated from the jar, the sound of the bell diminishes and
finally the bell becomes inaudible.
The propagating disturbance in the sound-conducting medium is in the form
of alternate compressions and rarefactions of the medium, which are initially
caused by the vibrating sound source.

These compressions and rarefactions are simply deviations in the density of

the medium from the average value.

In a gas, the variations in density are equivalent to pressure changes.

Two important characteristics of sound are intensity, which is determined by
the magnitude of compression and rarefaction in the propagating medium, and
frequency, which is determined by how often the compressions and rarefactions
take place.

Frequency is measured in cycles per second, which is designated by the unit

hertz after the scientist Heinrich Hertz.

The symbol for this unit is Hz. (1 Hz = 1 cycle per second.)

The vibrational motion of objects can be highly complex (see next figure),
resulting in a complicated sound pattern.
Still, it is useful to analyze the properties of sound in terms of simple
sinusoidal vibrations such as would be set up by a vibrating tuning fork (see
next figure).

The type of simple sound pattern shown is called a pure tone.

When a pure tone propagates through air, the pressure variations due to the
compressions and rarefactions are sinusoidal in form.
If we were to take a “snapshot” of the sound at a given instant in time, we
would see pressure variations in space, which are also sinusoidal.

(Such pictures can actually be obtained with special techniques.)

In such a picture the distance between the nearest equal points on the sound
wave is called the wavelength λ.

The speed of the sound wave v depends on the material that propagates the
sound.

In air at 20◦C, the speed of sound is about 3.3×104 cm/sec, and in water it is
about 1.4×105 cm/sec.
In general, the relationship between frequency,
wavelength, and the speed of propagation is given by
the following equation:
This relationship between frequency, wavelength, and speed is true for all
types of wave motions.

The pressure variations due to the propagating sound are superimposed on the
ambient air pressure.

Thus, the total pressure P in the path of a sinusoidal sound wave is of the
form

where Pa is the ambient air

pressure (which at sea level at 0◦C
is 1.01×105Pa=1.01×106 dyn/cm2),
Po is the maximum pressure change
due to the sound wave, and f is the
frequency of the sound.
The amount of energy transmitted by a sinusoidal sound wave per unit time
through each unit area perpendicular to the direction of sound propagation is
called the intensity I and is given by

Here ρ is the density of the medium, and v is the speed of sound propagation.
 Sound waves are mechanical longitudinal
waves that propagate in solids liquids and
gases. Seismic waves used by oil explorers
propagate in the earth’s crust. Sound waves
generated by a sonar system propagate in the
sea. An orchestra creates sound waves that
propagate in the air.

The locus of the points of a sound wave that has the same displacement
is called a “wavefront”. Lines perpendicular to the wavefronts are
called “rays” and they point along the direction which the sound wave
propagates. An example of a point source of sound waves is given in
the figure. We assume that the surrounding medium is isotropic i.e.
sound propagates with the same speed for all directions. In this case the
sound wave spreads outwards uniformly and the wavefronts are spheres
centered at the point source. The single arrows indicate the rays. The
double arrows indicate the motion of the molecules of the medium in
which sound propagates. 28
 B Bulk modulus
v= If we apply an overpressure ∆p on an object
ρ
of volume V , this results in a change of volume ∆V as shown
in the figure. The bulk modulus of the compressed material
∆p
is defined as: B = − SI unit: the Pascal
∆V / V
Note : The negative sign denotes the decrease in volume
when ∆p is positive.
The speed of sound
Using the above definition of the bulk modulus and combining it with
Newton's second law one can show that the speed of sound in a
homogeneous isotropic medium with bulk modulus B and density ρ
B
is given by the equation: v =
ρ
pV
Note 1 : ∆V = Bulk modulus is smaller for more compressible
B
media. Such media exhibit lower speed of sound.
Note 2 : Denser materials (higher ρ ) have lower speed of sound 29
Traveling sound waves.
Consider the tube filled with air shown in the figure.
We generate a harmonic sound wave traveling to the
right along the axis of the tube. One simple method
is to place a speaker at the left end of the tube and
drive it at a particular frequency. Consider an air
element of thickness ∆x which is located at position
x before the sound wave is generated. This is known
as the "equlibrium position" of the element. Under
these conditions the pressure inside the tube is constant
In the presence of the sound wave the element
oscillates about the equlibrium position. At the same
time the pressure at the location of the element
oscillates about its static value. The sound wave
in the tube can be described using one of two
parameters:
30
 ( vυω ) sm
∆pm = Traveling sound waves.
One such parameter is the distance s ( x, t ) of the
element from its equilibrium position
s ( x, t ) sm cos ( kx − ωt ) . The constant sm is
=
the displacement amplitude of the wave. The
angular wavenumber k and the angular frequency ω
hase the same meaning as in the case of the transverse
waves studied in chapter 16.
The second possibility is to use the pressure variation
∆p from the static value. ∆p ( x, t ) =
∆pm sin ( kx − ωt )
The constant ∆p m is the wave's pressure amplitude.
The two amplitudes are connected by the equation:
∆ΔP =
pmmax (=vυω
ρ v )ωs smax
m

Note : The displacement and the pressure variation

have a phase difference of 90°. As a result when
one parameter has a maximum the other has a
minimum and vice versa. 31
 2π Interference
φ
= ∆L
λ Consider two point sources of sound waves S1 and S2
shown in the figure. The two sources are in phase and
emit sound waves of the same frequency.
Waves from both sources arrive at point P whose
distance from S1 and S2 is L1 and L2 respectively.
The two waves interfere at point P.

φ1 kL1 − ωt
At time t the phase of sound wave 1 arriving from S1 at point P is =
φ2 kL2 − ωt
At time t the phase of sound wave 2 arriving from S2 at point P is =
In general the two waves at P have a phase difference
2π
φ = φ2 − φ1 = kL2 − ωt − ( kL1 − ωt ) = k L2 − L1 = L2 − L1
λ
The quantity L2 − L1 is known as the "path length difference" ∆L
2π
φ
between the two waves. Thus = ∆L
λ
Here λ is the wavelength of the two waves.
32
 Constructive intereference.
The wave at P resulting from the interference of the
two waves that arrive from S1 and S2 has a maximum
amplitude when the phase difference φ = 2π m
2π
= m 0,1, 2,... . →= ∆L 2π m → ∆L = mλ
λ
∆L =0, λ , 2λ ,...
Destructive intereference.
The wave at P resulting from the interference of the two waves that arrive
from S1 and S2 has a miniimum amplitude when the phase difference
2π
π ( 2m + 1)
φ= m=
0,1, 2,... . → ∆L π ( 2m + 1) →
=
λ
 1
∆L =m + λ ∆L =λ / 2, 3λ / 2, 5λ / 2,...
 2

ΔL equal to an integral multiple of λ → constructive interference

ΔL equal to a half-integral multiple of λ → destructive interference

33
 Intensity of a sound wave
Consider a wave that is incident normally on a surface
of area A. The wave transports energy. As a result
power P (energy per unit time) passes through A.
We define at the wave intensity I the ratio P / A
P
I= SI units: W/m 2
A
The intensity of a harmonic wave with displacement amplitude smis given by:
 ρ vω 2  2  1  2
= I   m
s . In terms of the pressure =
amplitude I   ∆pm
 2   2ρv 
Consider a point source S emitting a power P in the form of sound waves
of a particular frequency. The surrounding medium is isotropic so the waves
spread uniformly. The corresponding wavefronts are spheres that have S as
P
their center. The sound intensity at a distance r from S is: I =
4π r 2
1
The intensity of a sound wave for a point sources is proportional to 2
r 34
The decibel
The auditory sensation in humans is proportional to the logarithm of the
sound intensity I . This allows the ear to percieve a wide range of
sound intensities. The threshold of hearing I o is defined as the lowest
sound intensity that can be detected by the human ear. I 0 = 10−12 W/m 2
The sound level β is defined in such a way as to mimic the response
 I 
of the human ear. β = 10 log   β is expressed in decibels (dB)
 Io 
We can invert the equation above and express I in terms of β as:
I= I o ×10(
β /10 )

Note 1 : = =
For I I o we have: β 10
= log1 0
Note2 : β increases by 10 decibels every time I increases by a factor of 10
For example β =
40 dB corresponds to I 104 I o

35
 Sound standing waves in pipes
Consider a pipe filled with air that is open at both ends.
Sound waves that have walengths that satisfy a particular
relation with the length L of the pipe setup standing waves
that have sustained amplitudes.

The simplest pattern can be set up in a pipe that is open at both ends as shown in fig.a.
In such a pipe standing waves have a antinode (maximum) in the dispacement amplitude
The amplitude of the standing wave is plotted as function of distance in fig.b.
The pattern has an node at the pipe center since two adjacent antinodes are separated
by an anode (minimum). The distance between two adjacent antinodes is λ /2.
v v
Thus L = λ / 2 → λ = 2 L Its frequency f= =
λ 2L
The standing wave of fig.b is known as the "fundamnetal mode"
or "first harmonic" of the tube.
Note : Antinodes in the displacement amplitude correspond to nodes in the
pressure amplitude. This is because sm and ∆pm are 90° out of phase. 36
 2L
λn = Standing waves in tubes open at both ends
n The next three standing wave patterns are
2L
shown in fig.a. The wavelength λn =
n
where n = 1, 2, 3, ... The integer n is
known as the harmonic number
nv
The corresponding frequencies f n =
2L

2L
λn =
Standing waves in tubes open at one end n +1/ 2
and closed at the other
The first four standing wave patterns are
shown in fig.a. They have an antinode at the
open end and an node at the closed end.
2L
The wavelength λn =
n +1/ 2
37
Beats.
If we listen to two sound waves of equal amplitude and frequencies
f1 and f 2 ( f1 > f 2 and f1 ≈ f 2 ) we perceive them as a sound of frequency
f1 + f 2
f av = . in addition we also perceive "beats" which are variations in the
2
intensity of the sound with frequency fbeat= f1 − f 2 . The displacements of the
=
two sound waves are given by the m cos ω1t , and s2
equations: s1 s= sm cos ω2t.
These are plotted in fig.a and fig.b.
Using the principle of superposition we can determine the resultant displacement as:
 ω − ω2    ω1 + ω2  
s = s1 + s2 = sm ( cos ω1t + cos ω2t ) = 2 sm cos  1  
t cos   t
 2    2  
ω1 − ω2 ω + ω2
s [= 2 sm cos ω ′t ] cos ωt where ω ′ and ω = 1
2 2
Since ω1 ≈ ω2 → ω >>> ω ′ω′
38
 Tbeat

fbeat= f1 − f 2

T'
ω1 − ω2 ω1 + ω2
s [ 2sm cos ω ′t ] cos=
ωt where ω ′ = and ω
2 2
The displacement s is plotted as function of time in the figure. We can regard
it as a cosine function whose amplitude is equal to 2 sm cos ω ′t .
The amplitude is time dependent but varies slowly with time. The amplitude
exhibits a maximum whenever cos ω ′t is equal to either +1 or -1 which happens
twice within one period of the cos ω ′t function.
 ω − ω2 
Thus the angual frequancy of the beats ωbeat= 2ω=′ 2  1 = ω1 − ω2
 2 
2πωbeat =
The frequancy of the beats fbeat = 2πω1 − 2πω2 =−f1 f 2
39
 The Doppler effect
Consider the source and the detector of sound waves
shown in the figure. We assume that the frequency
of the source is equal to f .

We take as the reference frame that surrounding air through which the sound waves
propagate. If there is relative motion between the source and the detector then the
detector perceives the frequancy of the sound as f ′ ≠ f . If the source or the
detector move towards to each other f ′ > f . if on the other hand the source or
the detector move away from each other f ′ < f . This is known as the "Doppler"
v ± vD
effect. The frequecy f ′ is given by the equation: f ′ = f . Here vS and vD
v ± vS
are the speeds of the source and detector with respect to air, respsctively.
When the motion of the detector or source is towards each other the sign of the speed
must give an upward shift in frequency. If on the other hand the motoion is away from
each other the sign of the speed must give a downward shift in frequency.
The four possible combinantions are illustrated in the next page.
40
 v + vD
=f′ f f′> f
v − vS

v − vD
=f′ f f′< f
v + vS

v − vD
f′= f
v − vS
v ± vD
f′= f
v ± vS
v + vD
f′= f
v + vS 41
 Reflection and Refraction
When a wave enters one medium from another, part of the wave is reflected
at the interface, and part of it enters the medium.

If the interface between the two media is smooth on the scale of the
wavelength (i.e., the irregularities of the interface surface are smaller than λ),
the reflection is specular (mirrorlike).

If the surface has irregularities that are larger than the wavelength, the
reflection is diffuse.

An example of diffuse reflection is light reflected from paper.

If the wave is incident on the interface at an angle, the direction of
propagation of the transmitted wave in the new medium is changed (see next
figures).

This phenomenon is called refraction.

The angle of reflection is always equal to the angle of incidence, but the angle
of the refracted wave is, in general, a function of the properties of the two
media.

The fraction of the energy transmitted from one medium to another depends
again on the properties of the media and on the angle of incidence.

For a sound wave incident perpendicular to the interface, the ratio of

transmitted to incident intensity is given by

where the subscripted quantities are the

velocity and density in the two media.
The solution of last equation shows that when sound traveling in air is
incident perpendicular to a water surface, only about 0.1% of the sound energy
enters the water; 99.9% is reflected.

The fraction of sound energy entering the water is even smaller when the
angle of incidence is sloping.

Water is thus an efficient barrier to sound.

 Interference.

When two (or more) waves

travel simultaneously in the
same medium, the total
disturbance in the medium is at
each point the vectorial sum of
the individual disturbances
produced by each wave.

This phenomenon is called

interference.
For example, if two waves are
in phase, they add so that the
wave disturbance at each point in
space is increased.

This is called constructive

interference (see Fig. a).
If two waves are out of phase by
180◦, the wave disturbance in the
propagating medium is reduced.

This is called destructive

interference (Fig. b).

If the magnitudes of two out-of-

phase waves are the same, the
wave disturbance is completely
canceled (Fig. c).
A special type of interference is produced by two waves of the same
frequency and magnitude traveling in opposite directions.

The resultant wave pattern is stationary in space and is called a standing

wave.

Such standing sound waves are formed in hollow pipes such as the flute.

It can be shown that, in a given structure, standing waves can exist only at
specific frequencies, which are called resonant frequencies.
 Diffraction
Waves have a tendency to spread as they propagate through a medium.

As a result, when a wave encounters an barrier, it spreads into the region
behind the barrier.

This phenomenon is called diffraction.

The amount of diffraction depends on
the wavelength:

The longer the wavelength, the greater is

the spreading of the wave.

Significant diffraction into the region

behind the barrier occurs only if the size of
the barrier is smaller than the wavelength.
For example, a person sitting behind a column in an auditorium hears the
performer because the long wavelength sound waves spread behind the column.

But the view of the performance is blocked because the wavelength of light is
much smaller than the column, and, therefore, the light does not diffract into the
region behind the column.
Objects that are smaller than the wavelength do not produce a significant
reflection.

This too is due to diffraction.

The wave simply diffracts around the small barrier, much as flowing water
spreads around a small stick.

Both light waves and sound waves can be focused with curved reflectors and
lenses.

There is, however, a limit to the size of the focused spot.

It can be shown that the diameter of the focused spot cannot be smaller than
about λ/2.

These properties of waves have important consequences in the process of

hearing and seeing.
 Hearing and the Ear
The sensation of hearing is produced by the response of the nerves in the ear
to pressure variations in the sound wave.

The nerves in the ear are not the only ones that respond to pressure, as most
of the skin contains nerves that are pressure-sensitive.

However, the ear is much more sensitive to pressure variations than any other
part of the body.
Next figure is a drawing of the human ear. (The ear construction of other
earthly vertebrates is similar.)

For the purposes of description, the ear is usually divided into three main
sections: the outer ear, the middle ear, and the inner ear.

The sensory cells that convert sound to nerve impulses are located in the
liquid-filled inner ear.

The main purpose of the outer and middle ears is to conduct the sound into
the inner ear.
The outer ear is composed of an external flap called the pinna and the ear
canal, which is terminated by the tympanic membrane (eardrum).

In many animals the pinna is large and can be rotated toward the source of the
sound; this helps the animal to locate the source of sound.

However, in humans the pinna is fixed and so small that it does not seem to
contribute significantly to the hearing process.
The ear canal of an average adult is about 0.75 cm in diameter and 2.5 cm
long, a configuration that is resonant for sound waves at frequencies around
3000 Hz.

This accounts in part for the high sensitivity of the ear to sound waves in this
frequency range.

For an animal to recognize sound, the sound has to be coupled from air to the
sensory cells that are in the fluid environment of the inner ear.

We showed earlier that direct

coupling of sound waves into a
fluid is inefficient because
most of the sound energy is
reflected at the interface.

The middle ear provides an

efficient conduction path for
the sound waves from air into
the fluid of the inner ear.
The middle ear is an air-
filled cavity that contains a
linkage of three bones called
ossicles that connect the
eardrum to the inner ear.

The three bones are called

the hammer, the anvil, and the
stirrup.

The hammer is attached to

the inner surface of the
eardrum, and the stirrup is
connected to the oval
window, which is a
membrane-covered opening
in the inner ear.
When sound waves produce vibrations in the eardrum, the vibrations are
transmitted by the ossicles to the oval window, which in turn sets up pressure
variations in the fluid of the inner ear.

The ossicles are connected to the walls of the middle ear by muscles that also
act as a volume control.

If the sound is excessively loud, these muscles as well as the muscles around
the eardrum make stronger and reduce the transmission of sound to the inner
ear.
The middle ear serves yet another purpose.

It isolates the inner ear from the disturbances produced by movements of the
head, chewing, and the internal vibrations produced by the person’s own voice.

To be sure, some of the vibrations of the vocal cords are transmitted through
the bones into the inner ear, but the sound is greatly attenuated.

We hear ourselves talk mostly by the sound reaching our eardrums from the
outside.

This can be illustrated

by talking with the ears
plugged.
The Eustachian tube connects the middle ear to the upper part of the throat.

Air leaks in through this tube to maintain the middle ear at atmospheric
pressure.

The movement of air through the Eustachian tube is helped by swallowing.

A rapid change in the external air pressure such as may occur during an
airplane flight causes a pressure imbalance on the two sides of the eardrum.

The resulting force on the eardrum produces a painful sensation that lasts
until the pressure in the middle ear is adjusted to the external pressure.

The pain is especially severe and

prolonged if the Eustachian tube is
blocked by swelling or infection.
The conversion of sound waves into nerve impulses occurs in the cochlea,
which is located in the inner ear.

The cochlea is a spiral cavity shaped like a snail shell.

The wide end of the cochlea, which contains the oval and the round windows,
has an area of about 4 mm2.

The cochlea is formed into a spiral with about 2 and 3/4 turns.

If the cochlea were uncoiled, its length would be about 35 mm.
Inside the cochlea there are three parallel ducts; these are shown in the highly
simplified drawing of the uncoiled cochlea in next figure.

All three ducts are filled with a fluid.

The vestibular and tympanic canals are joined at the apex of the cochlea by a
narrow opening called the helicotrema.

The cochlear duct is isolated from the two canals by membranes.

One of these membranes, called the basilar membrane, supports the auditory
nerves.
The vibrations of the oval window set up a sound wave in the fluid filling the
vestibular canal.

The sound wave, which travels along the vestibular canal and through the
helicotrema into the tympanic canal, produces vibrations in the basilar
membrane which stimulate the auditory nerves to transmit electrical pulses to
the brain.

The excess energy in the sound wave is dissipated by the motion of the round
window at the end of the tympanic canal.
 Performance of the Ear
The nerve impulses bring to mind in the brain the subjective sensation of
sound.

Loudness, pitch, and quality are some of the terms we use to describe the
sounds we hear.

It is a great challenge for physiologists to relate these subjective responses

with the physical properties of sound such as intensity and frequency.

Some of these relationships are now well understood; others are still subjects
for research.
In most cases, the sound wave patterns produced by instruments and voices
are highly complex.

Each sound has its own characteristic pattern.

It would be impossible to evaluate the effect of sound waves on the human
auditory system if the response to each sound pattern had to be analyzed
separately.

Luckily the problem is not that complicated.

 About 150 years ago, J. B. J. Fourier, a French mathematician, showed that

complex wave shapes can be analyzed into simple sinusoidal waves of different
frequencies.

In other words, a complex wave pattern can be constructed by adding

together a sufficient number of sinusoidal waves at appropriate frequencies and
amplitudes.

Therefore, if we know the response of the ear to sinusoidal waves over a

broad range of frequencies, we can evaluate the response of the ear to a wave
pattern of any complexity.
An analysis of a wave
shape into its sinusoidal
components is shown in
next figure.

The lowest frequency

in the wave form is
called the fundamental,
and the higher
frequencies are called
harmonics.
Next figure, shows the sound pattern for a specific note played by various
instruments.

It is the harmonic content of the sound that differentiates one sound source
from another.
For a given note played by
the various instruments
shown in next figure.

 the fundamental frequency

is the same but the harmonic
content of the wave is
different for each instrument.
 Frequency and Pitch
The human ear is capable of detecting sound at frequencies between about 20
and 20,000 Hz.

Within this frequency range, however, the response of the ear is not uniform.

The ear is most sensitive to frequencies between 200 and 4000 Hz, and its
response decreases toward both higher and lower frequencies.

There are wide variations in the frequency response of individuals.

Some people cannot hear sounds above 8000 Hz, whereas a few people can
hear sounds above 20,000 Hz.

Furthermore, the hearing of most people

deteriorates with age.
The sensation of pitch is related to the frequency of the sound.

The pitch increases with frequency.

Thus, the frequency of middle C is 256 Hz, and the frequency of the A above
is 440 Hz.

There is, however, no simple mathematical relationship between pitch and

frequency.
 Intensity and Loudness
The ear responds to an huge range of intensities.

At 3000 Hz, the lowest intensity that the human ear can detect is about 10−16
W/cm2.

The loudest tolerable sound has an intensity of about 10−4 W/cm2.

These two extremes of the intensity range are called the threshold of hearing
and the threshold of pain, respectively.

Sound intensities above the threshold of pain may cause permanent damage
to the eardrum and the ossicles.
The ear does not respond linearly than another does not bring to mind a
million times higher sensation of loudness sound intensity; that is, a sound
which is a million times more powerful.

The response of the ear to intensity is closer to being logarithmic than linear.

Because of the nonlinear response of the ear and the large range of intensities
involved in the process of hearing, it is convenient to express sound intensity on
a logarithmic scale.

On this scale, the sound intensity is measured relative to a reference level of
10−16 W/cm2 (which is approximately the lowest audible sound intensity).
The logarithmic intensity β is measured in units of decibel (dB) and is defined
as

Thus, for example, the logarithmic intensity of a sound wave with a power of
10−12 W/cm2 is
Intensities of some common sounds are listed in next table.
At one time, it was believed that
the ear responded logarithmically to
`sound intensity.

 Referring to next table, a

logarithmic response would mean
that, for example, a busy street
sounds only six times louder than the
rustle of leaves even though the
power of the street sounds is a
million times greater.

Although it has been shown that

the intensity response of the ear is
not exactly logarithmic, the
assumption of a logarithmic
response still provides a useful guide
for assessing the sensation of
loudness produced by sounds at
different intensities.
The sensitivity of the ear is remarkable.

 At the threshold of hearing, in the range of 2000–3000 Hz, the ear can detect
a sound intensity of 10−16 W/cm2.

This corresponds to a pressure variation in the sound wave of only about

2.9×10−4 dyn/cm2.

Compare this to the background atmospheric pressure, which is 1.013×106

dyn/cm2.

This sensitivity appears even more remarkable when we realize that the
random pressure variations in air due to the thermal motion of molecules are
about 0.5×10−4 dyn/cm2.

Thus, the sensitivity of the ear is close to the final limit at which it would
begin to detect the noise fluctuations in the air.

The displacement of the molecules corresponding to the power at the

threshold of hearing is less than the size of the molecules themselves.
The sensitivity of the ear is partly due to the mechanical construction of the
ear, which amplifies the sound pressure.

Most of the mechanical amplification is produced by the middle ear.

The area of the eardrum is about 30 times larger than the oval window.

Therefore, the pressure on the oval window is increased by the same factor.

Furthermore, the ossicles act as a lever with a mechanical advantage of about

2.
Finally, in the frequency range around 3000 Hz, there is an increase in the
pressure at the eardrum due to the resonance of the ear canal.

In this frequency range, the pressure is increased by another factor of 2.

Thus, the total mechanical amplification of the sound pressure in the 3000-Hz
range is about 2×30×2=120.

Because the intensity is proportional to pressure squared (see next equation),

the intensity at the oval window is amplified by a factor of about 14,400.
The process of hearing cannot be fully explained by the mechanical
construction of the ear.

The brain itself plays an important role in our perception of sound.

For example, the brain can effectively filter out ambient noise and allow us to
separate meaningful sounds from a relatively loud background noise.

(This feature of the brain allows us to have a private conversation in the midst
of a loud party.)

The brain can also completely contain sounds that appear to be meaningless.

Thus, we may lose awareness of a sound even though it still produces

vibrations in our ear.

The exact mechanism of interaction between the brain and the sensory organs
is not yet fully understood.
 Bats and Echoes
The human auditory organs are very highly developed; yet, there are animals
that can hear even better than we can.

Notable among these animals are the bats.

They emit high-frequency sound waves and detect the reflected sounds
(echoes) from surrounding objects.

Their sense of hearing is so acute that they can obtain information from
echoes which is in many ways as detailed as the information we can obtain with
our sense of sight.

The many different classes of bats use

echoes in various ways.

The Vespertilionidae family of bats

emit short chirps as they fly.
The chirps last about 3×10−3 sec (3 msec) with a time interval between chirps
of about 70 msec.

Each chirp starts at a frequency of about 100×103 Hz and falls to about

30×103 Hz at the end. (The ears of bats, of course, respond to these high
frequencies.).

 The silent interval between chirps allows the bat to detect the weak echo
without interference from the primary chirp.

Most probably the interval between the chirp and the return echo allows the
bat to determine its distance from the object.

It is also possible that differences in the

frequency content of the chirp and the echo
allow the bat to estimate the size of the object.

With a spacing between chirps of 70 msec, an

echo from an object as far as 11.5 m can be
detected before the next chirp.
As the bat comes closer to the object (such as an obstacle or an insect), both
the duration of and the spacing between chirps decrease, allowing the bat to
localize the object more accurately.

In the final approach to the object, the duration of the chirps is only about 0.3
msec, and the spacing between them is about 5 msec.

Experiments have shown that with echo location bats can avoid wire
obstacles with diameters down to about 0.1 mm, but they fail to avoid finer
wires.

This is in agreement with our discussion of

wave diffraction.

Other animals, such as porpoises, whales, and

some birds, also use echoes to locate objects, but
they are not able to do so as well as bats.
 Clinical Uses of Sound
The most familiar clinical use of sound is in the analysis of body sounds with
a stethoscope.

This instrument consists of a small bell-shaped cavity attached to a hollow

flexible tube.

The bell is placed on the skin over the source of the body sound (such as the
heart or lungs).

The sound is then conducted by the pipe to the ears of the examiner who
evaluates the functioning of the organ.
A modified version of the stethoscope consists of two bells that are placed on
different parts of the body.

The sound picked up by one bell is conducted to one ear, and the sound from
the other bell is conducted to the other ear.

The two sounds are then compared.

With this device, it is possible, for example, to listen simultaneously to the

heartbeats of the fetus and of the pregnant mother.
 Ultrasonic Waves
With special electronically driven crystals, it is possible to produce
mechanical waves at very high frequencies, up to millions of cycles per second.

These waves, which are simply the extension of sound to high frequencies,
are called ultrasonic waves.

Because of their short wavelength, ultrasonic waves can be focused onto

small areas and can be imaged much as visible light.
Ultrasonic waves penetrate tissue and are scattered and absorbed within it.

Using specialized techniques called ultrasound imaging, it is possible to form

visible images of ultrasonic reflections and absorptions.

Therefore, structures within living organisms can be examined with

ultrasound, as with X-rays.

Ultrasonic examinations are safer than X-rays and often can provide as much
information.

In some cases, such as in the examination of a fetus and the heart, ultrasonic
methods can show motion, which is very useful in such displays.
The frequency of sound detected by an observer depends on the relative
motion between the source and the observer.

This phenomenon is called the Doppler effect.

It can be shown that if the observer is stationary and the source is in motion,
the frequency of the sound f ′ detected by the observer is given by

where f is the frequency in the absence of motion, v is the speed of sound,

and vs is the speed of the source.

The minus sign in the denominator is to be used when the source is

approaching the observer, and the plus sign when the source is receding.
Using the Doppler effect, it is possible to measure motions within a body.

One device for obtaining such measurements is the ultrasonic flow meter,
which produces ultrasonic waves that are scattered by blood cells flowing in the
blood vessels.

The frequency of the scattered sound is altered by the Doppler effect.

The velocity of blood flow is obtained by comparing the incident frequency

with the frequency of the scattered ultrasound.
Within the tissue, the mechanical energy in the ultrasonic wave is converted
to heat.

With a sufficient amount of ultrasonic energy, it is possible to heat selected

parts of a patient’s body more efficiently and evenly than can be done with
conventional heat lamps.

This type of treatment, called diathermy, is used to relieve pain and promote
the healing of injuries.

It is actually possible to destroy tissue with very high-intensity ultrasound.

Ultrasound is now routinely used to destroy kidney and gall stones

(lithotripsy).
• Intensity of the incident signal Ii.
•
•
Intensity of the reflected signal Ir.
The density of the materials is ρ1 and ρ2 1
• The speed of the signal in medium1 is c1.
• The speed of the signal in medium2 is c2.

where c1 is close to c2. 2

Example: Two children are at opposite ends of an iron pipe. One strikes an end
of the pipe with a stone. What is the ratio of times it takes the sound waves in
air and in iron to reach the second child?

v (iron) = 5120 m/s

v (air) = 344 m/s
v= distance/time
t(air)/ t(iron) = v (iron)/ v (air) =5120/344=14.9
Example: A typical young adult has a hearing range from 20 Hz to 20,000 Hz.
What are the wavelengths of sound waves in air corresponding to these two
frequencies?

v (air) = 344 m/s

λ= v/f
λ1= v/f1 = 344/20= 17.2 m
λ2= v/f2 = 344/20000= 1.72
Example: A bat can hear sound at frequencies up to 120,000 Hz. What is the
wavelength of sound in air at this frequency?

v (air) = 344 m/s

λ= v/f = 334/120000 = 2.87x10-3 m
Example: The maximum amplitude ΔP of a sound wave that is tolerable to a
human ear is about 28 Pa.
a. What fraction is ΔP of normal atmospheric pressure?
b. What intensity of sound does ΔP correspond to in air at room temperature?

v (air) = 344 m/s and P=1.013x105 Pa

ρ (air) = 1.2 kg/m3

a) ΔP/P= 28/1.013x105 Pa

b) I= (28)2/ (2x1.2x344) = 0.95 W.m-2

Example: The low-frequency speaker of a powerful stereo set has a surface
area of 0.05 m2 and produces 1 W of acoustical power.
a. What is the intensity at the speaker?
b. If the speaker projects sound uniformly into the forward hemisphere, at what
distance from the speaker is the intensity 0.1 W/m2?

a) I = P/A = 1/0.05 = 20 W/m2

b) A=A/2 = 0.5 x 4πR2= 2πR2

I = P/2πR2 and I= 0.1 W/m2 and P= 1 W

Then R = 1.26 m
Example: If the average intensity level of each of two radios is 45 dB, what is
the average intensity level when both radios are turned on?

The intensity of one radio is Ir

The intensity level for each radio β=45 dB =10 log(Ir/Io)
Both of radios turned on Ir+ Ir= 2Ir
The intensity level for both radios β1= 10 log (2 x Ir/Io)
β1= 10 log (2) + 10 log (Ir/Io) = 3 + β = 3 + 45 = 48
The intensity Ir increased to the double and the intensity level increased by 3 dB
Example:
Example: The densities of two types of muscle tissue are 1026 and 1068
kg/m3. What is the ratio of the intensities of the reflected and incident waves if
the wave passes from the more dense to the less dense medium?
Assume that the sound velocities are the same.

where c1 is close to c2.

1
Ir/Ii = (1068-1026)2/(1068+1026)2
= 0.0004
Ir = 0.0004 Ii 2
Ir = 0.04 % Ii
While this ratio is very small, the reflected sound is still measurable.
Example: If the intensity of sound from a jet engine is 10 W/m2 at a distance of
30 m, how far away from the jet do you have to be for the intensity to be 0.1
W/m2?

I1 = 10W/m2 At r1= 30 m
I2 = 0.1W/m2 At r2= ??? M
I1 = P/A1 Then P= I1 x A1 = I1 x 4πr12 = 1.13 x 105 W
Where I2 = P/ 4πr22 Then r2= 300 m
Example: A crying child emits sound with an intensity of 8.0 ×10-6 W/m2.
a) What is the intensity level in decibels for the child’s sounds?
b) Suppose that two children are crying with the same intensity. What is the
intensity level in decibels for the two children crying together?
c) How long does it take you to hear the children crying if you are 100 m from
them when they start crying?

A) The intensity level β =10 log(I/Io)

Where the intensity of hearing Io= 10 -12 W/m2 Then β = 69 Db
B) I1 = 2I = 16.0 ×10-6 W/m2 Then β1 = 0 log(I1/Io) = 72 dB
C) v=d/t and d = 100 m and v= 344 m/s in air then t=d/v= 100/344 = 0.29 m/s.
1. As a certain sound wave travels through the air, it produces pressure variations (above and
below atmospheric pressure) given by ∆P=1.27 sin (πx-340πt) in SI units. Find (a) the amplitude
of the pressure variations, (b) the frequency, (c) the wavelength in air, and (d) the speed of the
sound wave.

Solution:

103
2. A sinusoidal sound wave moves through a medium and is described by the displacement
wave function s(x,t)=2.00 cos (15.7x- 858t) where s is in micrometers, x is in meters, and t is in
seconds. Find (a) the amplitude, (b) the wavelength, and (c) the speed of this wave. (d)
Determine the instantaneous displacement from equilibrium of the elements of the medium at
the position x=0.05 m at t=3 ms. (e) Determine the maximum speed of the element’s oscillatory
motion.

Solution:

104
3. Two traveling sinusoidal waves are described by the wave functions

Where x, y1, and y2 are in meters and t is in seconds. (a) What is the amplitude of the resultant
wave function y1 + y2? (b) What is the frequency of the resultant wave function?

Solution:

105
4. Two transverse sinusoidal waves combining in a medium are described by the wave functions

Where x, y1, and y2 are in centimeters and t is in seconds. Determine the maximum transverse
position of an element of the medium at (a) x=0.250 cm, (b) x=0.500 cm, and (c) x=1.50 cm. (d)
Find the three smallest values of x corresponding to antinodes

Solution

106
Solution

107
5. In the arrangement shown in Figure P18.24, an object can be hung from a string (with linear
mass density μ = 0.002 kg/m) that passes over a light pulley. The string is connected to a
vibrator (of constant frequency f ), and the length of the string between point P and the pulley is
L=2.00 m. When the mass m of the object is either 16.0 kg or 25.0 kg, standing waves are
observed; no standing waves are observed with any mass between these values, however. (a)
What is the frequency of the vibrator? Note: The greater the tension in the string, the smaller
the number of nodes in the standing wave. (b) What is the largest object mass for which
standing waves could be observed?

108
Solution

109
6. A student uses an audio oscillator of adjustable frequency to measure the depth of a water
well. The student hears two successive resonances at 51.5 Hz and 60.0 Hz. How deep is the
well?

Solution

110
Solution

111
7. An Ethernet cable is 4.00 m long. The cable has a mass of 0.200 kg. A transverse pulse is
produced by plucking one end of the taut cable. The pulse makes four trips down and back
along the cable in 0.800 s. What is the tension in the cable?

Solution

112
 Pb. 40
A stationary motion detector sends sound waves of frequency 0.150
MHz toward a truck approaching at a speed of 45.0 m/s. What is the
frequency of the waves reflected back to the detector?
Solution of Pb. 40:

𝑣𝑣 ± 𝑣𝑣𝐷𝐷 𝑣𝑣 + 𝑣𝑣𝐷𝐷 ′′
𝑣𝑣 ± 𝑣𝑣𝐷𝐷
′ ′
𝑣𝑣
𝑓𝑓 ′ = 𝑓𝑓 = 𝑓𝑓 & 𝑓𝑓 = 𝑓𝑓 = 𝑓𝑓
𝑣𝑣 ∓ 𝑣𝑣𝑆𝑆 𝑣𝑣 𝑣𝑣 ∓ 𝑣𝑣𝑆𝑆 𝑣𝑣 − 𝑣𝑣𝑆𝑆
 Pb. 8
A sound source A and a reflecting surface B move directly toward
each other. Relative to the air, the speed of source A is 29.9 m/s,
the speed of surface B is 65.8 m/s, and the speed of sound is
329 m/s. The source emits waves at frequency 1200 Hz as
measured in the source frame. In the reflector frame, what are
the:
a) Frequency
b) And the wavelength of the arriving sound waves?
In the source frame, what are the:
c) frequency and
d) wavelength of the sound waves reflected back to the source?
Solution of Pb. 8: