Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering

EECE105L

Department of ECE

Dr. Mahesh Kumawat

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Evaluation Components

• Mid Term : 15 Marks

• End Term : 40 Marks
• Lab : 20 Marks
• Assignment : 10 Marks
• Quiz :15 Marks

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Module 1

Basic Circuit Theory:

 Charge is an electrical property of the atomic particles of which matter consists, measured in coulombs
(C).

 The law of conservation of charge states that charge can neither be created nor destroyed, only
transferred. Thus the algebraic sum of the electric charges in a system does not change.

 The electronic charge e = −1.602 × 10−19 C.

 Current: Electric current is the time rate of change of charge, measured in amperes (A).

𝑑𝑞 1 ampere = 1 coulomb/second
𝑖=
𝑑𝑡

 If the current does not change with time, but remains constant, we call it a direct current (dc). An
alternating current (ac) is a current that varies sinusoidally with time.

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 Voltage (or potential difference) is the energy required to move a unit charge from one point to
another point, measured in volts (V).
𝑑𝑤
𝑣=
𝑑𝑞
 The resistance R of an element denotes its ability to resist the flow of electric current; it is measured in
ohms (Ω).
𝑙
𝑅=𝜌
𝐴

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 A short circuit is a circuit element with resistance approaching zero.
 An open circuit is a circuit element with resistance approaching infinity.

 Conductance is the ability of an element to conduct electric current; it is measured in siemens (S).
1 𝑖
𝐺= =
𝑅 𝑣
 Ohm's law states that the current through a conductor between two points is directly proportional to
the voltage across the two points.

𝑣∝𝑖 𝑣 = 𝑖𝑅

i-v characteristic of a linear resistor

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 An ideal current source generates a current that is independent of the voltage changes across it.

 An ideal voltage source maintains a fixed voltage drop across its terminals independent of the current
changes across it.

 An ideal dependent (or controlled) source is an active element in which the source quantity is controlled by
another voltage or current.

 Four possible types of dependent sources:

1. Voltage-controlled voltage source (VCVS)
2. Current-controlled voltage source (CCVS)
3. Voltage-controlled current source (VCCS)
4. Current-controlled current source (CCCS)
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 If the current does not change with time, but remains constant, we call it a direct current (dc).

 A time-varying current is called alternating current (ac). A common form of time-varying current is
the sinusoidal current.

 Power is the time rate of expending or absorbing energy, measured in watts (W).

𝑑𝑤 𝑑𝑤 𝑑𝑞
𝑝= = ⋅ = 𝑣𝑖
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑞 𝑑𝑡

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Resistors Connected in Series

𝑅 =𝑅 +𝑅 +𝑅

 The total resistance of a series configuration is the sum of the individual resistances

 More resistors in series combination, the greater the resistance, no matter what the value of
the resistor is.
Resistors Connected in Parallel

 Two or more resistors are in parallel if they have two points in common.
1 1 1 1
  
R eq R 1 R 2 R 3
 Req is always smaller than the resistance of the smallest resistor in the parallel
combination

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 Voltage Divider Rule

 Current through the circuit I is given by

𝑉
𝐼=
𝑅
 Voltage drop across resistors R1, R2, R3:
V1=I.R1 V2=I.R2 V3=I.R3

i.e., 𝑅 𝑅 𝑅
𝑉 = 𝑉 𝑉 =
𝑉 𝑉 = 𝑉
𝑅 𝑅 𝑅
𝑅 𝑅 𝑅
𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅 + 𝐼𝑅 + 𝐼𝑅 = + + 𝑉
𝑅 𝑅 𝑅
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Current Division

𝑅 𝑅 𝑅
𝑅 =
𝑅 𝑅 +𝑅 𝑅 +𝑅 𝑅

 Total Current flowing through the circuit:

𝑉
𝐼=
𝑅
 Current I1 through R1 is:
𝑉 𝑅 𝑅
𝐼 = i.e., 𝐼 = 𝐼
𝑅 𝑅 𝑅 + 𝑅 𝑅 + 𝑅 𝑅

𝑅 𝑅 𝑅 𝑅
 Similarly, 𝐼 = 𝐼 𝐼 = 𝐼
𝑅 𝑅 +𝑅 𝑅 +𝑅 𝑅 𝑅 𝑅 +𝑅 𝑅 +𝑅 𝑅

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Delta-Wye (Δ-Y) and Wye-Delta (Y-Δ) Transformations

Delta-Wye (Δ-Y)
𝑅 𝑅
𝑅 =
𝑅 +𝑅 +𝑅
𝑅 𝑅
𝑅 =
𝑅 +𝑅 +𝑅
𝑅 𝑅
𝑅 = Two forms of the same network: (a) Y and (b) T.
𝑅 +𝑅 +𝑅

Wye-Delta (Y-Δ)
𝑅 𝑅 +𝑅 𝑅 +𝑅 𝑅
𝑅 =
𝑅
𝑅 𝑅 +𝑅 𝑅 +𝑅 𝑅
𝑅 =
𝑅 Two forms of the same network: (a) Δ and (b) Π.
𝑅 𝑅 +𝑅 𝑅 +𝑅 𝑅
𝑅 =
𝑅

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12
Nodes Branches and Loops

 A branch represents a single element such as a voltage source or a resistor

 A node is the point of connection between two or more branches

 A loop is any closed path in a circuit i.e., a loop is a closed path formed by starting at a node, passing
through a set of nodes, and returning to the starting node without passing through any node more than
once.

 A network with b branches, n nodes, and l independent loops will satisfy the fundamental theorem of
network topology:

b=l+n-1

In Fig:
Branches?
Nodes?
Independent loops?

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Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL)

 Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL) states that the algebraic sum of currents entering a node (or a closed
boundary) is zero.

𝑖 =0

 The sum of the currents entering a node is equal to the sum of the currents leaving the node.

 By this law, currents entering a node may be regarded as positive, while currents leaving the node may be
taken as negative or vice versa.

i2 i1+(-i2)+(-i3)+i4+(-i5)=0
i1 i3
i1+i4= i2+i3+ i5
i4
i5

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 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL)

 Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL) states that the algebraic sum of all voltages around a closed path(or loop) is
zero.

𝑣 =0

 In any closed loop, sum of voltage drops is equal to the sum of voltage rises

The sign on each voltage depends on the polarity of the terminal

encountered first. The loop may be considered either clockwise or
counterclockwise. Suppose, we start with the voltage source v1
and go clockwise around the loop; then voltages would be −v1,
+v2, +v3, −v4, and +v5, in that order. For example, as we reach
branch 3, the positive terminal is met first; hence we have +v3.
For branch 4, we reach the negative terminal first; hence, −v4.

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Nodal Analysis

 Nodal analysis provides a general procedure for analyzing circuits using node voltages as the circuit
variables.

 Steps required for Nodal Analysis:

1. Select a node as the reference node. Assign voltages v1, v2, . . . , vn−1 to the remaining (n − 1) nodes. The
voltages are referenced with respect to the reference node.
2. Apply KCL to each of the (n − 1) nonreference nodes. Use Ohm’s law to express the branch currents in
terms of node voltages.
3. Solve the resulting simultaneous equations to obtain the unknown node voltages.

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Mesh Analysis

 A mesh is a loop which does not contain any other loops within it.

 Mesh analysis provides another general procedure for analyzing circuits, using mesh currents as the circuit
variables. Using mesh currents instead of element currents as circuit variables is convenient and reduces the
number of equations that must be solved simultaneously.

 Steps required for Mesh Analysis:

1. Assign mesh currents i1, i2, . . . , in to the n meshes.

2. Apply KVL to each of the n meshes. Use Ohm’s law to express the voltages in terms of the mesh currents.
3. Solve the resulting n simultaneous equations to get the mesh currents.

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While Solving Numerical Problem You may use Scientific Calculators

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21
Network Theorems

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Voltage and Current Sources and Transformations
Voltage Sources

 Ideal voltage sources can produce as much current as is needed to provide power to the rest of the
circuit.

 An ideal voltage source has zero internal resistance.

 A real voltage source is modeled as an ideal voltage source in series with a resistor.

 There are limits to the current and output voltage from the source.

Ideal Voltage Source Real Voltage Source

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Voltage and Current Sources….continued
 When RL = ∞ no current flows through the load, the practical source is open-circuited and the terminal
voltage, or open-circuit voltage, is VOC= 12 V.

 When RL = 0, short-circuiting the load terminals, then a load current or short-circuit current, ILsc = ∞, would
flow.

𝑣 =𝑣 −𝑖 𝑅

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Current Sources

 An ideal current source can produce as much voltage as is needed to provide power to the rest
of circuit

 An ideal current source has infinite internal resistance connected in parallel.

 A real current sources is modeled as an ideal current source in parallel with a resistor.

 Limitations on the maximum voltage and current.

Ideal Current Source Real Current Source

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Voltage and Current Sources….continued
 When RL = ∞ no current flows through the load, the practical source is open-circuited and the open circuit
current is zero.

 When RL = 0, short-circuiting the load terminals, then a load current or short-circuit current, ILsc = ∞, would
flow.

𝑣
𝑖 =𝑖 −
𝑅

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Source Transformations
 An equivalent circuit is one in which the i-v characteristics are identical to that of the original circuit.

 RL in both circuits must be identical.

𝑉 𝑅
𝐼 = 𝐼 = 𝐼
𝑅 +𝑅 𝑅 +𝑅

The two practical sources are electrically equivalent if

𝑅 =𝑅 and 𝑉 =𝑅 𝐼

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Problem1. Use source transformations to reduce the circuit to a single voltage source in series with a
single resistor.

Hints: First convert voltage sources into current sources

Req=5.714Ω, Veq=22.856 V

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Thevenin’s Theorem

 Any two-terminal, linear bilateral dc network can be replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting of a voltage
source and a series resistor

 Thevenin’s theorem establishes an equivalence at the terminals

 Internal construction and characteristics of the original network and the Thevenin equivalent are generally
entirely different

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To Find RTH
1. Find that portion of the network across which the Thevenin equivalent circuit needs to be found.
2. Load resistor RL is temporarily removed from the network.
3. Mark the terminals of the remaining two-terminal network (say A and B).
4. Identify all voltage and current sources and retain their internal resistances if any.
5. Replace the voltage sources by short circuits.
6. Replace the current sources by open circuits.
7. Find the resistance between terminal A and B.

The resistance between A and B is called as Thevenin’s resistance RTH

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To Find VTH

1. In the original circuit, remove the load resistor (RL) connected between the marked terminals (A and
B).

2. Find the open-circuit voltage (VTH) between the marked terminals (A and B). VAB is Thevenin voltage,
denoted by symbol VTH.

3. Draw the Thevenin equivalent circuit by keeping VTH, RTH and the load resistor (RL) in series

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Problem1 Using Thevenin’s theorem, find the voltage across and current through the 12 Ω resistor.

To Find RTH
Step 1: Find that portion of the network across which the Thevenin equivalent circuit needs to be
found. (Identifying the load as 12  resistor, marking the nodes A and B)
Step 2: Load resistor RL is temporarily removed from the network.
Step 3: Mark the terminals of the remaining two-terminal network (say A and B).

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Step 4: Identify all voltage and current sources and retain their internal resistances if any. There is only
one voltage source 18 V, with zero internal resistance
Step 5: Replace the voltage sources are replaced by short circuits (as there is only one voltage source in
this example, replace it with a short circuit)
Step 6: Replace the current sources by open circuits (as there are no current sources, we won’t act on this
step)
Step 7: Find the resistance between terminal A and B

RTH=4+(6||3)=?

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To Find VTH

Step 1: In the original circuit, remove the load resistor (RL) connected between the marked terminals
(A and B).
Step 2: Find the open-circuit voltage (VTH) between the marked terminals (A and B). VAB is Thevenin
voltage, denoted by symbol VTH.

1. Voltage across 3 Ω resistance is equal to voltage

between terminals A and B.
2. This is due to the fact that current through 4 Ω is zero.
Hence voltage across is 4  zero.
3. Use voltage divider formula to get voltage across 3 Ω
resistor.

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Step 3: Draw the Thevenin equivalent circuit by keeping VTH, RTH and the load resistor (RL) in series

1. Use voltage divider formula to get voltage

across 12 Ω resistor. (what was asked in the
question)

2. Current through the 12 Ω resistor. (what was asked in

the question)

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Problem2 Using Thevenin’s theorem, find the voltage across and current through the 7 kΩ resistor.

To Find RTH
Step 1: Find that portion of the network across which the Thevenin equivalent circuit needs to be found.
(Identifying the load as 7 kΩ resistor, marking the nodes A and B)
Step 2: Load resistor RL is temporarily removed from the network.
Step 3: Mark the terminals of the remaining two-terminal network (say A and B).

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Step 4: Identify all voltage and current sources and retain their internal resistances if any. There is only one
current source 18 mA, with zero internal resistance
Step 5: Replace the voltage sources are replaced by short circuits (as there are no voltage sources, we
won’t act on this step)
Step 6: Replace the current sources by open circuits (as there is only one current source, in this example,
replace it with a open circuit)
Step 7: Find the resistance between terminal A and B

RTH=2+4=6 kΩ

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To Find VTH

Step 1: In the original circuit, remove the load resistor (RL) connected between the marked
terminals (A and B).

Step 2: Find the open-circuit voltage (VTH) between the marked terminals (A and B). VAB is Thevenin
voltage, denoted by symbol VTH.

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1. Voltage across 4 kΩ resistance is equal to voltage between
terminals A and B.
2. This is due to the fact that current through 2 k Ω is
zero. Hence voltage across 2 kΩ is zero.
3. Voltage across 12 kΩ and 4 kΩ is given by
V=IR=18mA×(4 kΩ+12 kΩ )=288V

4. Using voltage divider formula, voltage across 4 kΩ is given by

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Step 3: Draw the Thevenin equivalent circuit by keeping VTH, RTH and the
load resistor (RL) in series

1. Use voltage divider formula to get voltage

across 7 k resistor. (what was asked in the
question)

2. Current through the 7 kΩ resistor. (what was

asked in the question)
38.77
𝐼 = = 5.54𝑚𝐴
7

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Norton’s Theorem

Norton’s theorem states that a linear two-terminal circuit can be replaced by an equivalent circuit
consisting of a current source IN in parallel with a resistor RN, where IN is the short-circuit current
through the terminals and RN is the input or equivalent resistance at the terminals when the
independent sources are turned off.

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To Find RN
1) Remove that portion of the network across which the Norton’s equivalent circuit needs to be found.
2) Load resistor RL is temporarily removed from the network.
3) Mark the terminals of the remaining two-terminal network (say A and B).
4) Identify all voltage and current sources and retain their internal resistances if any.
5) Replace the voltage sources by short circuits
6) Replace the current sources by open circuits
7) Find the resistance between terminal A and B

The process of finding RTH and RN is exactly same. Hence RTH = RN

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To Find IN

1. Consider the original circuit

2. Short the load resistor (RL) connected between the marked terminals (A and B).
3. Find the short-circuit current (IN) through the marked terminals (A and B).
4. IN is called as Norton’s current source.
5. Draw the Norton’s equivalent circuit by keeping IN, RN and the load resistor (RL) in parallel

Identify that VTH, RTH and IN, RN form a source transformation for the same equivalent
circuit with RTH = RN

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Problem1 Using Norton’s theorem, find the voltage across and current through the 12 Ω resistor.

To Find RN
Step 1: Find that portion of the network across which the Norton equivalent circuit needs to be found.
(Identifying the load as 12 Ω resistor, marking the nodes A and B)
Step 2: Load resistor RL is temporarily removed from the network.
Step 3: Mark the terminals of the remaining two-terminal network (say A and B).

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Step 4: Identify all voltage and current sources and retain their internal resistances if any. There is only
one voltage source 18 V, with zero internal resistance
Step 5: Replace the voltage sources are replaced by short circuits (as there is only one voltage source in
this example, replace it with a short circuit)
Step 6: Replace the current sources by open circuits (as there are no current sources, we won’t act on this
step)
Step 7: Find the resistance between terminal A and B

RN=4+(6||3)=6 Ω

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