Force measurement

Sanju Tanwar
Assistant Professor
Centre of Nanotechnology
Rajasthan Technical University, Kota
Introduction
• A force is defined as the reaction between two bodies. This reaction
may be in the form of a tensile force (pull) or it may be a compressive
force (push).
• Force is represented mathematically as a vector and has a point of
application.
• Therefore the measurement of force involves the determination of its
magnitude as well as its direction.
Measurement of force
• The measurement of force may be done by any of the two methods.
i. Direct method: This involves a direct comparison with a known
gravitational force on a standard mass example by a physical
balance
ii. Indirect method: This involves the measurement of the effect of
force on a body. For example.
• Measurement of acceleration of a body of known mass which is subjected to force.
• Measurement of resultant effect (deformation) when the force is applied to an elastic.
• A body of mass “m” in the earth’s gravitational field experiences a force F which is given
by member.
F = ma = W
Methods of force measurement
1. Balancing it against the known gravitational force as a standard mass, either
directly or through a system of levers.
2. Applying the force to some elastic member and measuring the resulting
deflection.
3. Transducing the force to a fluid pressure and then measuring the pressure.
4. Measuring the acceleration of a body of known mass to which the unknown
force is applied.
5. Balancing it against a magnetic force developed by interaction of a current
carrying coil and a magnet.
6. Measuring the change in processing of a gyroscope caused by an applied
torque related to the measured force.
7. Measuring the change in natural frequency of a wire tensioned by the force.
Method 1 : Equal arms beam balance scale
• As shown in figure equal arm beam
balance scale operates on the principle
of moment comparison.
• The moment produced by the unknown
mass or force is compared with that
produced by a gravitational force due to
known standard mass.
• When null balance is obtained the two
weights or forces are equal.
• For null balance w1l1= w2l2
• If equal arms l1= l2, then w1= w2
• This types of instruments generally used
in physics and chemistry labs to measure
the unknown weights.
Method 1 : Even or unequal arms balance scale

• The main disadvantage of equal arms

balance scale is requires a set of
weights at least as heavy as the
heaviest load to be measured.
• There are two arms in that system one
is load arm which is associated with
unknown load and other is power arm
which is associated with known
weights.
• In this scale known weight can be
decreased by increasing length of load
arm, hence heavier load can be
measure with help of small known
mass and large arm.
• For null balance:
w1*length of power arm = w2*length of load arm
Method 1 : Pendulum scale

• The pendulum scale is deflection type

instrument in which the unknown weight is
converted to a torque that is then balanced by
the torque of a fixed standard mass arranged as
pendulum.
• When the unknown weight is applied to the load
rod, sectors tend to rotate due to tension in
loading tubes, and consequently the counter
weight wc swing out.
• The motion of the equilibrium are attained
when the moment due to counter weights is
becomes same as moment due to applied load.
• The motion of the equalizer bar is converted
into an angular movement of the indicator by a
rack and pinion arrangement.
• The deflection of the pointer is calibrated in
terms of applied force.
Method 2 : Elastic force meters

• The elastic deflection transducers are widely used for both static and
dynamic loads of frequency content up to many thousand hertz.
• The elastic elements (spring, rod, cantilever, simply supported beam,
ring, bellows, diaphragm etc.) can be used for measurement of force
directly or indirectly through displacement of elastic limit.
Method 2 : Spring scale
• As shown in figure spring
scale, the unknown weight is
suspended from a hook.
• The deflection of spring with
respect to weight is read on
the scale in terms of the
weight.
• The scale is calibrated on the
basis of the spring.
= .
ℎ ,
is deflection and F is load
Method 2 : Cantilever beams load cell

• It is the simplest type of load cell of

force measurement.
• It measures force based on principle as
‘bending moment developed in the
beam is proportional to applied force’
to the end of beam.
• The deflection at free end is given by
=4 3/ 3

• The strain at fixed end is given by

=6 / 3
Method 2 : Proving ring

• The proving ring is a device used to

measure force. It consists of an elastic ring
of known diameter with a measuring
device located in the center of the ring.
• The devices are made using a ring of metal
with a spring-like consistency.
• Inside the ring there is a screw attached to
a dial with measurements on it and a plate
that vibrates after being struck with
something.
• The contraption in the center works to
show the ring's diameter after it has been
compressed or stretched, which produces
a reliable force measurement that can be
used for other purposes.
Method 2 : Proving ring

• A ring used for calibrating tensile testing

machines.
• It works on the principle of LVDT which
senses the displacement caused by the force
resulting in a proportional voltage.
• It is provided with the projection lugs for
loading.
• An LVDT is attached with the integral internal
bosses C and D for sensing the displacement
caused by application of force.
• When the forces are applied through the
integral external bosses A and B, the
diameter of ring changes depending upon the
application which is known as ring deflection.
Method 2 : Proving ring
 Method 3: Hydraulic load cell
• Hydraulic load cells use a conventional piston and
cylinder device that conveys a change in pressure.
• It is a force-balance method, acting when the
internal filling fluid pressure changes.
• Whenever a force or load is applied in a hydraulic
system, it compresses the internal filling fluid within
the device’s chamber.
• The pressure of the hydraulic fluid rises or lowers
depending if the force applied is increased or
decreased.
• Pressure can be measured locally or transmitted for
remote readings and control.
• When installed correctly, hydraulic load cells can be
calibrated to accuracy within 0.25% full scale.
• Because hydraulic load cells sensors have no electric
components, they are often used for hazardous
applications.
Method 3: Pneumatic load cell
• Pneumatic load cells are often used for
applications that require the
measurement of relatively small weights.
• These load cells are used in those
environments where cleanliness and
safety are of prime concern.
• They work in all temperatures and
conditions, and because it is not a
hydraulic system, if the chamber ruptures
no fluids will leak to contaminate the
particular environment.
• To operate effectively, pneumatic load
cells require clean, dry, regulated air or
nitrogen.
Method 3: Strain gauge load cell
• Strain gauge load cells are the most prevalent and widely used load cell.
• When weight is applied to a strain gauge load cell, sensors convert the load
acting on them into electrical signals.
• The strain on the load cell deforms proportionally to the load placed upon
it by compression or tension.
• An analog electrical signal is created that is then converted to a digital
format to monitor the weight or force.
• Measurements are within a few thousandths of inches.
• Accuracy is one of the main reasons other types of load cells falling out of
use.
• Today, the term load cell generally refers to ‘strain gauge load cell’ unless
specified otherwise.
 Strain gauge load cell (cont…)
• A simple load cell consist of a steel
cylinder which has a four identical strain
gauge mounted.
• Gauge R1 and R4 are along the direction
of applied load and the gauge R2 and R3
are attached circumferentially at right
angles to gauges R1 and R4.
• These four gauges are connected
electrically to the four limbs of a
Wheatstone bridge circuit.
• When there is no load on cell, all the
four gauges have the same resistance.
• The terminals B and D are at the same
potential, the bridge is balanced and
the output voltage is zero.
Strain gauge load cell (cont…)
• When compressive load is applied to the unit, the vertical gauge (R1
and R4) undergo compression and so decrease in resistance.
• Simultaneously the circumferential gauges R2 and R3 undergo tension
and so increase in resistance.
• Strain gauge load cells offer a number of advantages over other load
cells, mainly highly accurate, precise, and linear measurements.
• They also are unaffected by temperature changes, last longer because
they have fewer moving parts, are generally smaller than other types
of load cells, and have excellent fatigue strength.
Method 3: Shear web load cell
• Shear web load cells are typically cantilever beams.
• This design minimizes load deflection.
• Under this condition, the surface strain along the top
of the beam would be too low to produce an
adequate electrical output from the strain gage.
• However, if the strain gages are placed on the sides of
the beam at the neutral axis where the bending stress
is zero, the state of stress on the beam side in one of
pure shear, acting in the vertical and horizontal
direction.
• It is used for measurement, weighing, industrial
automation, Universal Testing Machines, Hydralic
Punching machine, tank Weighing.
• It is universal Load Cell Suitable for both tension and
compression modes.
Method 4: Measuring the acceleration of a body of
known mass to which the unknown force is applied.

• An accelerometer senses the motion of the surface on which it is

mounted and produces an electrical output signal related to that
motion.
• Acceleration is measured and the product of the acceleration and the
measured mass yields the force.
F = ma
Method 5: Balancing it against a magnetic force
developed by interaction of a current carrying coil
and a magnet.
• The force on an individual charge moving at the drift velocity vd
is given by F = qvdB sin θ.
• Taking B to be uniform over a length of wire l and zero
elsewhere, the total magnetic force on the wire is
F = (qvdB sin θ)(N)
where N is the number of charge carriers in the section of wire of
length l. Now, N = nV, where n is the number of charge carriers per
unit volume and V is the volume of wire in the field. Noting that V
= Al, where A is the cross-sectional area of the wire, then the
force on the wire is
F = (qvdB sin θ) (nAl)
F= (nqAvd)lBsin θ
F=ilBsin θ
Method 5 (Cont…)

• Magnetic force on current-carrying

conductors is used to convert electric
energy to work.
• A strong magnetic field is applied across a
tube and a current is passed through the
fluid at right angles to the field, resulting in
a force on the fluid parallel to the tube axis
as shown.
• The absence of moving parts makes this
attractive for moving a hot, chemically
active substance, such as the liquid sodium
employed in some nuclear reactors.
Method 6:Measuring the change in processing of a
gyroscope caused by an applied torque related to
the measured force.
• A gyroscope is a device used for measuring or maintaining
orientation and angular velocity.
• It is a spinning wheel or disc in which the axis of rotation is free
to assume any orientation by itself.
• A gyroscopic torque will result if the axis of the flywheel is
rotated and it acts perpendicular to the rotor axis.
• The magnitude of the torque is the product of the flywheel rotor
moment of inertia, the flywheel angular velocity and the angular
velocity of the flywheel axis.
Method 7: Vibrating wire transducers
• The vibrating-wire transducer consists of a taut
ferromagnetic wire that is excited into transverse vibrations
by a drive coil.
• These vibrations are detected using a pick-up coil. Both coils
have permanent magnet cores and once the wire has been
excited to its resonant frequency for a given tension, it is
maintained at this frequency by connecting the two coils
through an amplifier to form a self-oscillating system.
• Each resonant frequency is a measure of the wire’s tension
and hence, applied force at that instant.
• The advantage of the vibrating wire transducer is its direct
frequency output which can be handled by digital circuitry
eliminating the need for an analogue-to-digital converter,
giving a high resolution output.
• The vibrating wire principle is used to measure force in
pressure transducers and strain levels in civil engineering
applications, due to its inherent long-term zero stability.
Piezoelectric force transducers
 Piezoelectric force transducers
• The piezoelectric transducer uses the piezoelectric
material which has a special property, i.e. the
material induces voltage when the pressure or stress
applied to it. The material which shows such property
is known as the electro-resistive element.
• The polarity of the charge depends on the direction
of the applies forces

Where, d – charge sensitivity of the crystals, F – applied

force in Newton.
• The force changes the thickness of the crystals.
Piezoelectric force transducers
• The young modulus is,

Where A – area of crystals in meter square, t – the thickness of crystals in meter, E – Young’s
modulus N/m2, ω – width of crystals in meter, l – the length of crystals in meter
• On substituting the value of force in the equation of charge:
Piezoelectric force transducers
• The output voltage is obtained because of the electrode charges.
Piezoelectric force transducers
• The g is the voltage sensitivity of the crystals.

Where E0 – electric field strength, V/m

• The voltage sensitivity of the crystals is expressed by the ratio of the electric field intensity and
pressure.

• When the mechanical deformation occurs in the crystals, it generates charges. And this charge
develops the voltages across the electrodes.

• The Piezoelectric crystal is direction sensitive. The polarity of the voltage depends on the
direction of the force which is either tensile or compressive. The magnitude and the polarity of
the charges depend on the magnitude and the direction of the applied force.
• Depending on the application requirements, dynamic force can be measured as either
compression, tensile, or torque force.

• Applications may include the measurement of spring or sliding friction forces, chain tensions,
clutch release forces, or peel strengths of laminates, labels, and pull tabs.