Lesson Proper for Week 1

Domains in Human Development

Human development refers to the physical, cognitive, and psychosocial development of

humans throughout the lifespan. What types of development are involved in each of
these three domains, or areas, of life? Physical development involves growth and
changes in the body and brain, the senses, motor skills, and health and wellness.
Cognitive development involves learning, attention, memory, language, thinking,
reasoning, and creativity. Psychosocial development involves emotions, personality,
and social relationships.

Physical Domain

Many of us are familiar with the height and weight charts that pediatricians consult to
estimate if babies, children, and teens are growing within normative ranges of physical
development. We may also be aware of changes in children’s fine and gross motor
skills, as well as their increasing coordination, particularly in terms of playing sports. But
we may not realize that physical development also involves brain development, which
not only enables childhood motor coordination but also greater coordination between
emotions and planning in adulthood, as our brains are not done developing in infancy or
childhood. Physical development also includes puberty, sexual health, fertility,
menopause, changes in our senses, and primary versus secondary aging. Healthy
habits with nutrition and exercise are also important at every age and stage across the
lifespan.

Cognitive Domain

If we watch and listen to infants and toddlers, we can’t help but wonder how they learn
so much so fast, particularly when it comes to language development. Then as we
compare young children to those in middle childhood, there appear to be huge
differences in their ability to think logically about the concrete world around them.
Cognitive development includes mental processes, thinking, learning, and
understanding, and it doesn’t stop in childhood. Adolescents develop the ability to think
logically about the abstract world (and may like to debate matters with adults as they
exercise their new cognitive skills!). Moral reasoning develops further, as does practical
intelligence—wisdom may develop with experience over time. Memory abilities and
different forms of intelligence tend to change with age. Brain development and the
brain’s ability to change and compensate for losses is significant to cognitive functions
across the lifespan, too.
Psychosocial Domain

Development in this domain involves what’s going on both psychologically and socially.
Early on, the focus is on infants and caregivers, as temperament and attachment are
significant. As the social world expands and the child grows psychologically, different
types of play and interactions with other children and teachers become important.
Psychosocial development involves emotions, personality, self-esteem, and
relationships. Peers become more important for adolescents, who are exploring new
roles and forming their own identities. Dating, romance, cohabitation, marriage, having
children, and finding work or a career are all parts of the transition into adulthood.
Psychosocial development continues across adulthood with similar (and some different)
developmental issues of family, friends, parenting, romance, divorce, remarriage,
blended families, caregiving for elders, becoming grandparents and great grandparents,
retirement, new careers, coping with losses, and death and dying.

As you may have already noticed, physical, cognitive, and psychosocial development
are often interrelated, as with the example of brain development. We will be examining
human development in these three domains in detail throughout the modules in this
course, as we learn about infancy/toddlerhood, early childhood, middle childhood,
adolescence, young adulthood, middle adulthood, and late adulthood development, as
well as death and dying.

4.2 Objective 2

Evaluate the reciprocal impacts between genes and the environment and the nature vs.
nurture debate

Nature versus Nurture

A significant issue in developmental psychology is the relationship between the

innateness of an attribute (whether it is part of our nature) and the environmental effects
on that attribute (whether it is influenced by our environment, or nurture). This is often
referred to as the nature vs. nurture debate, or nativism vs. empiricism.

 A nativist (“nature”) account of development would argue that the processes in

question are innate and influenced by an organism’s genes. Natural human
behavior is seen as the result of already present biological factors, such as
genetic code.

 An empiricist (“nurture”) perspective would argue that these processes are

acquired through interaction with the environment. Nurtured human behavior is
seen as the result of environmental interaction, which can provoke changes in
brain structure and chemistry. For example, situations of extreme stress can
cause problems like depression.
The nature vs. nurture debate seeks to understand how our personalities and traits are
produced by our genetic makeup and biological factors, and how they are shaped by
our environment, including our parents, peers, and culture.

We are all born with specific genetic traits inherited from our parents, such as eye color,
height, and certain personality traits. Beyond our basic genotype, however, there is a
deep interaction between our genes and our environment. Our unique experiences in
our environment influence whether and how particular traits are expressed, and at the
same time, our genes influence how we interact with our environment (Diamond, 2009;
Lobo, 2008). There is a reciprocal interaction between nature and nurture as they both
shape who we become, but the debate continues as to the relative contributions of
each.

4.3 Objective 3

Summarize the stages of Piaget’s theory of cognitive development, Freud’s structural

model of personality and the stages of his psychosexual theory of development, and
Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development.

Theories of Human Development

Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development

Piaget’s theory of cognitive development states that our cognitive abilities develop
through four specific stages.

The Swiss cognitive theorist Jean Piaget is one of the most influential figures in the
study of child development. He developed his cognitive-developmental theory based on
the idea that children actively construct knowledge as they explore and manipulate the
world around them. Piaget was interested in the development of “thinking” and how it
relates to development throughout childhood. His theory of four stages of cognitive
development, first presented in the mid-20th century, is one of the most famous and
widely-accepted theories in child cognitive development to this day.
Sensorimotor Stage

The sensorimotor stage occurs from birth to age 2. It is characterized by the idea that
infants “think” by manipulating the world around them. This is done by using all five
senses: seeing, hearing, touching, tasting, and smelling. Children figure out ways to
elicit responses by “doing”, such as pulling a lever on a music box to hear a sound,
placing a block in a bucket and pulling it back out, or throwing an object to see what
happens. Between 5 and 8 months old, the child develops object permanence, which is
the understanding that even if something is out of sight, it still exists (Bogartz, Shinskey,
& Schilling, 2000).

Preoperational Stage

The preoperational stage occurs from age 2 to age 7. During this stage, children can
use symbols to represent words, images, and ideas, which is why children in this stage
engage in pretend play. A child’s arms might become airplane wings as she zooms
around the room, or a child with a stick might become a brave knight with a sword.
Language development and make-believe play begin during this stage. Logical thinking
is still not present, so children cannot rationalize or understand more complex ideas.
Children at this stage are very egocentric, meaning they focus on themselves and how
actions will impact them, rather than others.

Concrete Operational Stage

The concrete operational stage occurs from age 7 to age 11. It is characterized by the
idea that children’s reasoning becomes focused and logical. Children demonstrate a
logical understanding of conservation principles, the ability to recognize that key
properties of a substance do not change even as their physical appearance may be
altered.

Formal Operational

The formal operational stage occurs from age 11 to adulthood. It is characterized by the
idea that children develop the ability to think in abstract ways. This enables children to
engage in the problem-solving method of developing a hypothesis and reasoning their
way to plausible solutions.

Freud’s Psychosexual Theory of Development

Freud’s psychosexual theory of development suggests that children develop through a

series of stages related to erogenous zones.

Sigmund Freud

Sigmund Freud was a Viennese physician who developed his psychosexual theory of
development through his work with emotionally troubled adults. Now considered
controversial and largely outdated, his theory is based on the idea that parents play a
crucial role in managing their children’s sexual and aggressive drives during the first few
years of life in order to foster their proper development.

Psychosexual Stages of Development

For Freud, childhood experiences shape our personalities and behavior as adults.
Freud viewed development as discontinuous; he believed that each of us must pass
through a series of stages during childhood, and that if we lack proper nurturing and
parenting during a stage, we may become stuck in, or fixated on, that stage. According
to Freud, children’s pleasure-seeking urges (governed by the id) are focused on a
different area of the body, called an erogenous zone, at each of the five stages of
development: oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital.

 Oral (0-1 years of age): During this stage, the mouth is the pleasure center for
development. Freud believed this is why infants are born with a sucking reflex
and desire their mother’s breast. If a child’s oral needs are not met during
infancy, he or she may develop negative habits such as nail biting or thumb
sucking to meet this basic need.

 Anal (1-3 years of age): During this stage, toddlers and preschool-aged children
begin to experiment with urine and feces. The control they learn to exert over
their bodily functions is manifested in toilet training. Improper resolution of this
stage, such as parents toilet training their children too early, can result in a child
who is uptight and overly obsessed with order.

 Phallic (3-6 years of age): During this stage, preschoolers take pleasure in their
genitals and, according to Freud, begin to struggle with sexual desires toward the
opposite sex parent (boys to mothers and girls to fathers). For boys, this is called
the Oedipus complex, involving a boy’s desire for his mother and his urge to
replace his father who is seen as a rival for the mother’s attention. At the same
time, the boy is afraid his father will punish him for his feelings, so he
experiences castration anxiety. The Electra complex, later proposed by Freud’s
protégé Carl Jung, involves a girl’s desire for her father’s attention and wish to
take her mother’s place.

 Latency (6-12 years of age): During this stage, sexual instincts subside, and
children begin to further develop the superego, or conscience. Children begin to
behave in morally acceptable ways and adopt the values of their parents and
other important adults.

 Genital (12+ years of age): During this stage, sexual impulses reemerge. If
other stages have been successfully met, adolescents engage in appropriate
sexual behavior, which may lead to marriage and childbirth.

Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development

Erikson’s psychosocial stages of development focus on the resolution of different crises
to become a successful, complete person.

Erikson’s Theory

Erik Erikson (1902–1994) was a stage theorist who took Freud’s controversial theory of
psychosexual development and modified it as a psychosocial theory. Erikson
emphasized that the ego makes positive contributions to development by mastering
attitudes, ideas, and skills at each stage of development. This mastery helps children
grow into successful, contributing members of society. During each of Erikson’s eight
stages, there is a psychological conflict that must be successfully overcome in order for
a child to develop into a healthy, well-adjusted adult.

Stages of Psychosocial Development

Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development are based on (and expand upon) Freud’s
psychosexual theory. Erikson proposed that we are motivated by the need to achieve
competence in certain areas of our lives. According to psychosocial theory, we
experience eight stages of development over our lifespan, from infancy through late
adulthood. At each stage there is a crisis or task that we need to resolve. Successful
completion of each developmental task results in a sense of competence and a healthy
personality. Failure to master these tasks leads to feelings of inadequacy.

Erikson also added to Freud’s stages by discussing the cultural implications of

development; certain cultures may need to resolve the stages in different ways based
upon their cultural and survival needs.

Trust vs. Mistrust

From birth to 12 months of age, infants must learn that adults can be trusted. This
occurs when adults meet a child’s basic needs for survival. Infants are dependent upon
their caregivers, so caregivers who are responsive and sensitive to their infant’s needs
help their baby to develop a sense of trust; their baby will see the world as a safe,
predictable place. Unresponsive caregivers who do not meet their baby’s needs can
engender feelings of anxiety, fear, and mistrust; their baby may see the world as
unpredictable. If infants are treated cruelly or their needs are not met appropriately, they
will likely grow up with a sense of mistrust for people in the world.

Autonomy vs. Shame/Doubt

As toddlers (ages 1–3 years) begin to explore their world, they learn that they can
control their actions and act on their environment to get results. They begin to show
clear preferences for certain elements of the environment, such as food, toys, and
clothing. A toddler’s main task is to resolve the issue of autonomy vs. shame and doubt
by working to establish independence.

This is the “me do it” stage. For example, we might observe a budding sense of
autonomy in a 2-year-old child who wants to choose her clothes and dress herself.
Although her outfits might not be appropriate for the situation, her input in such basic
decisions has an effect on her sense of independence. If denied the opportunity to act
on her environment, she may begin to doubt her abilities, which could lead to low self
esteem and feelings of shame.

Initiative vs. Guilt

Once children reach the preschool stage (ages 3–6 years), they are capable of initiating
activities and asserting control over their world through social interactions and play.
According to Erikson, preschool children must resolve the task of initiative vs. guilt. By
learning to plan and achieve goals while interacting with others, preschool children can
master this task. Initiative, a sense of ambition and responsibility, occurs when parents
allow a child to explore within limits and then support the child’s choice. These children
will develop self-confidence and feel a sense of purpose. Those who are unsuccessful
at this stage—with their initiative misfiring or stifled by over-controlling parents—may
develop feelings of guilt.

Industry vs. Inferiority

During the elementary school stage (ages 6–12), children face the task of industry vs.
inferiority. Children begin to compare themselves with their peers to see how they
measure up. They either develop a sense of pride and accomplishment in their
schoolwork, sports, social activities, and family life, or they feel inferior and inadequate
because they feel that they don’t measure up. If children do not learn to get along with
others or have negative experiences at home or with peers, an inferiority complex might
develop into adolescence and adulthood.

Identity vs. Role Confusion

In adolescence (ages 12–18), children face the task of identity vs. role confusion.
According to Erikson, an adolescent’s main task is developing a sense of self.
Adolescents struggle with questions such as “Who am I?” and “What do I want to do
with my life?” Along the way, most adolescents try on many different selves to see
which ones fit; they explore various roles and ideas, set goals, and attempt to discover
their “adult” selves. Adolescents who are successful at this stage have a strong sense
of identity and are able to remain true to their beliefs and values in the face of problems
and other people’s perspectives. When adolescents are apathetic, do not make a
conscious search for identity, or are pressured to conform to their parents’ ideas for the
future, they may develop a weak sense of self and experience role confusion. They will
be unsure of their identity and confused about the future. Teenagers who struggle to
adopt a positive role will likely struggle to “find” themselves as adults.

Intimacy vs. Isolation

People in early adulthood (20s through early 40s) are concerned with intimacy vs.
isolation. After we have developed a sense of self in adolescence, we are ready to
share our life with others. However, if other stages have not been successfully resolved,
young adults may have trouble developing and maintaining successful relationships with
others. Erikson said that we must have a strong sense of self before we can develop
successful intimate relationships. Adults who do not develop a positive self-concept in
adolescence may experience feelings of loneliness and emotional isolation.

Generativity vs. Stagnation

When people reach their 40s, they enter the time known as middle adulthood, which
extends to the mid-60s. The social task of middle adulthood is generativity vs.
stagnation. Generativity involves finding your life’s work and contributing to the
development of others through activities such as volunteering, mentoring, and raising
children. During this stage, middle-aged adults begin contributing to the next generation,
often through childbirth and caring for others; they also engage in meaningful and
productive work which contributes positively to society.
Integrity vs. Despair

From the mid-60s to the end of life, we are in the period of development known as late
adulthood. Erikson’s task at this stage is called integrity vs. despair. He said that people
in late adulthood reflect on their lives and feel either a sense of satisfaction or a sense
of failure. People who feel proud of their accomplishments feel a sense of integrity, and
they can look back on their lives with few regrets. However, people who are not
successful at this stage may feel as if their life has been wasted. They focus on what
“would have,” “should have,” and “could have” been. They face the end of their lives
with feelings of bitterness, depression, and despair.

Lesson Proper for Week 2

Human Fertilization: Definition

Fertilization occurs when a sperm and an oocyte (egg) combine and their nuclei fuse.
Because each of these reproductive cells is a haploid cell containing half of the genetic
material needed to form a human being, their combination forms a diploid cell. This new
single cell, called a zygote, contains all of the genetic material needed to form a human
—half from the mother and half from the father.

Human fertilization is a complicated process that results in a fertilized egg. The fertilized
egg will mature in the womb of its mother until birth. This lesson will go over the
process, basic definition, and some symptoms of human fertilization.

Simply put, the definition of human fertilization is the union or joining of the egg and
the sperm, resulting in a fertilized egg, otherwise known as a zygote. But the process of
human fertilization is very complicated and comprised of many steps and components
necessary to achieve the ultimate result of human life. Read on to learn how such small
things work together to make a fertilized egg.

Process

Human fertilization begins with a woman's menstrual cycle. This cycle prepares a
woman's body for fertilization. About half way through this cycle, the woman's body is
ready to begin the process of human fertilization. It is at this point that an egg cell is
released, or ovulated, into the Fallopian tube. Inside this Fallopian tube, fertilization
will take place.
During intercourse, a man can ejaculate, or release semen into a women's vagina.
There are up to 150 million sperm in the semen in a single ejaculation. The sperm
travel to the Fallopian tube to meet the egg; however, the sperm have some big
challenges ahead to complete this journey. For instance, the sperm have to complete
this journey within 12-48 hours of the egg being ovulated, or else they will die.

About 85% of the sperm are not properly structured for travel. This leaves only about
15% of the sperm to complete the journey to the egg. The remaining sperm will follow
chemical signals given by the vagina and cervix, the opening of the uterus. The
chemical signals will guide the sperm through the cervical mucus and up the lining of
the uterus. The uterus is also known as the womb and is where the baby will develop
after fertilization.

4.2 Objective 2

Identify the different stages of prenatal development

Stages of Prenatal Development

Prenatal development is the process that occurs during the 40 weeks prior to the birth
of a child. There are three stages of prenatal development: germinal, embryonic, and
fetal. Prenatal development is also organized into three equal trimesters, which do not
correspond with the three stages. The first trimester ends with the end of the embryonic
stage, the second trimester ends at week 20, and the third trimester ends at birth.

Germinal Stage

The germinal stage is the stage of development that occurs from conception until 2
weeks (implantation). Conception occurs when a sperm fertilizes an egg and forms a
zygote. A zygote begins as a one-cell structure that is created when a sperm and egg
merge. At the moment of conception, the mother’s and father’s DNA are passed on to;
the genetic makeup and sex of the future fetus are set at this point. During the first week
after conception, the zygote rapidly divides and multiplies, going from a one-cell
structure to two cells, then four cells, then eight cells, and so on. This process of cell
division is called mitosis. Mitosis is a fragile process, and fewer than one-half of all
zygotes survive beyond the first two weeks (Hall, 2004). After 5 days of mitosis there
are 100 cells, and after 9 months there are billions of cells. As the cells divide, they
become more specialized, forming different organs and body parts. During the germinal
stage, the cells necessary for the placenta, umbilical cord, and amniotic fluid will
differentiate to form the embryo. The mass of cells has yet to attach itself to the lining of
the uterus; once this attachment occurs, the next stage begins.

Embryonic Stage

The embryonic stage lasts from implantation (2 weeks) until week 8 of pregnancy. After
the zygote divides for about 7–10 days and has 150 cells, it travels down the fallopian
tubes and implants itself in the lining of the uterus. Upon implantation, this multi-cellular
organism is called an embryo. Now blood vessels grow, forming the placenta. The
placenta is a structure connected to the uterus that provides nourishment and oxygen
from the woman’s body to the developing embryo through the umbilical cord.

During the first week of the embryonic period, the embryonic disk separates into three
layers: the ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm. The ectoderm is the layer that will
become the nervous system and outer skin layers; the mesoderm will become the
circulatory system, skeleton, muscles, reproductive system, and inner layer of skin; and
the endoderm will become the respiratory system and part of the digestive system, as
well as the urinary tract.

The first part of the embryo to develop is the neural tube, which will become the spinal
cord and brain. As the nervous system starts to develop, the tiny heart starts to pump
blood, and other parts of the body—such as the digestive tract and backbone—begin to
emerge. In the second half of this period, growth is very rapid. The eyes, ears, nose,
and jaw develop; the heart develops chambers; and the intestines grow.

Fetal Stage
The remainder of prenatal development occurs during the fetal stage, which lasts from
week 9 until birth (usually between 38 and 40 weeks). When the organism is about nine
weeks old, the embryo is called a fetus. At this stage, the fetus is about the size of a
kidney bean and begins to take on the recognizable form of a human being. Between 9
and 12 weeks, reflexes begin to appear and the arm and legs start to move (those first
movements won’t be felt for a few weeks, however). During this same time, the sex
organs begin to differentiate. At about 16 weeks, the fetus is approximately 4.5 inches
long. Fingers and toes are fully developed, and fingerprints are visible. By the time the
fetus reaches the sixth month of development (24 weeks), it weighs up to 1.4 pounds.
Hearing has developed, so the fetus can respond to sounds. The internal organs,
including the lungs, heart, stomach, and intestines, have formed enough that a fetus
born prematurely at this point has a chance to survive outside of the womb.

Throughout the fetal stage the brain continues to grow and develop, nearly doubling in
size from weeks 16 to 28. Brain growth during this period allows the fetus to develop
new behaviors. The cerebral cortex grows larger, and the fetus spends more hours
awake. The fetus moves with more coordination, indicating more neural connections
within the brain. The nervous system is controlling more bodily functions, and even
personality begins to emerge in utero. By 28 weeks, thalamic brain connections form,
which mediate sensory input. The fetus can distinguish between voices, and can
remember songs and certain sounds after birth. The fetus becomes sensitive to light as
well; in fact, if a doctor shines a light on the womb, the baby will attempt to shield his or
her eyes. Growth begins to slow around 30 to 32 weeks, but small changes continue
until birth.

Around 36 weeks, the fetus is almost ready for birth. It weighs about 6 pounds and is
about 18.5 inches long, and by week 37 all of the fetus’s organ systems are developed
enough that it could survive outside the uterus without many of the risks associated with
premature birth. The fetus continues to gain weight and grow in length until
approximately 40 weeks. By then, the fetus has very little room to move around and
birth becomes imminent.

4.3 Objective 3

Discuss the impacts of teratogens and maternal stress on prenatal development

Impacts on Prenatal Development

Environmental factors, such as exposure to teratogens, can have a range of impacts on

the developing fetus.

Teratogens

A teratogen is any environmental substance or agent—biological, chemical, or physical

—that can have a detrimental effect on a developing fetus. Exposure to teratogens
during the prenatal stage can significantly raise the risk of birth defects. Several factors
influence the amount of damage a teratogen can have, including dose or level of
exposure, heredity, age of the teratogen, and any other negative influences (for
example, several teratogens or a teratogen combined with poor health). There are
several known teratogens that expectant mothers are advised to avoid during
pregnancy, including alcohol, prescription and/or illegal drugs, and tobacco.

Alcohol

Alcohol and most drugs cross the placenta and affect the fetus. Excessive maternal
drinking while pregnant can cause fetal alcohol spectrum disorders (FASD) with lifelong
consequences for the child, ranging in severity from minor to major. Cognitively, these
children may have poor judgment, poor impulse control, higher rates of ADHD and
learning issues, and lower IQ scores.

Prescription and/or Illegal Drugs

Use of any type of drug—whether illegal, prescription, or over-the-counter— can be
dangerous during pregnancy. Illegal drugs such as heroine, cocaine, and
methamphetamine can cause a myriad of problems for the developing fetus: babies can
be born addicted to certain drugs and are also more likely to be born prematurely, have
low birth weight, and experience other physical defects. Many end up with attention and
behavioral problems as well.

Smoking

Smoking tobacco is also considered a teratogen because nicotine travels through the
placenta to the fetus. When the mother smokes, the developing baby experiences a
reduction in blood oxygen levels. According to the Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention (2013), smoking while pregnant can result in premature birth, low-birth-
weight infants, stillbirth, and sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS)—the sudden and
unexplained death of a child less than one year of age.

Other Teratogens

Other teratogens that affect prenatal development include radiation, pollution, and
infectious disease. Radiation increases the risk of childhood cancer, as well as
emotional and behavioral disorders; because of this, it is recommended that pregnant
women avoid x-rays unless absolutely necessary. Pollution, such as exposure to
mercury or PCBs, can cause physical deformities, abnormal speech, and difficulty with
coordination. Maternal infections such as viruses or parasites can also cause brain
damage to the fetus, or even death.

Maternal Stress and Depression

Any form of prenatal stress felt by the mother can have negative effects on various
aspects of fetal development, and can cause harm to both mother and child. When a
mother is under stress, physiological changes occur in the body that could harm the
developing fetus. Additionally, a stressed mother is more likely to engage in behaviors
that could negatively affect the fetus, such as smoking, drug use, and alcohol abuse.
Prenatal depression is often caused by the stress and worry that pregnancy can bring,
only at a more severe level. Other factors that can put a person at risk for
prenatal depression include unplanned pregnancy, difficulty becoming pregnant, history
of abuse, and economic or family problems.

Lesson Proper for Week 3

Infant and Toddler Physical Growth and Development

Physical development refers to the advancements and refinements of motor skills, or, in other
words, children’s abilities to use and control their bodies. Physical development is one of the
many domains of infant and toddler development. It relates to the growth and skill development
of the body, including the brain, muscles, and senses. For example, babies learn about the world
as they develop their physical senses of sight, touch, smell, sound, and taste. In fact, babies can
hear well before they are born. Newborns like to look at faces and will seek interesting things to
look at very early on. An infant can recognize the mother’s smell and the sound of her voice
within days after birth. From birth, infants are aware of the world around them, and the ability to
grow, develop, and learn occurs quickly as infants begin to explore through their senses.

Gross-motor skills and fine-motor skills are developed during infancy and toddlerhood. Gross-
motor skills involve the mastery of large muscle movements, as well as the building of strength
in muscle groups like the arms, legs, and core. Examples of such skills for infants and toddlers
include reaching, rolling, crawling, and climbing. Fine-motor skills involve smaller, more precise
movements, particularly movements of the hands and fingers, such as grasping. As their bodies
grow, infants and toddlers progressively strengthen their muscles and become better able to
control their bodies. Each new motor skill that is developed is the result of an earlier skill and a
contributor to new skills. Newborn infants do not have the strength to hold up their heads,
however as they learn and develop control of muscles, they will be able to support their heads
and move them from side to side to explore. Skill mastery and development are also the result of
brain growth and development. Consider an infant who is starting to walk while holding on to
couches and round-edged tables. This child must have acquired strength in the large muscles and
a certain level of control over body movement. At the same time, the child also relies on vision
to determine where to walk and what to cling onto. As infants and toddlers grow, their bodies
and minds become capable of simple and mildly-complex movement and experiences.

Reflexes

There are several important reflexes that a newborn baby shows after birth; each has a specific
duration and function. For instance:

Rooting/Sucking—this reflex allows the baby to find the mother’s nipple (or bottle nipple) in
order to eat. It can be elicited by stroking the baby’s cheek; the baby will turn in the direction of
the stimulation and look for the nipple. Rooting (the stroking of the cheek to stimulate the
feeding response) is replaced by sucking at around 4 months of age.

Moro—The Moro reflex is thought to help babies cling to their mothers for safety and
protection. If a loud banging noise is made near the baby, the baby will make an “embracing”
motion (extending arms and legs then bringing them back toward the body) in an attempt to
cling. This generally disappears around 6 months of age.

Stepping—the stepping reflex prepares the baby to start walking independently. When the baby
is held under the arms with their bare feet touching the ground, the newborn will make
“stepping” movements with his or her legs. This generally disappears around the age of 2
months.

Babinski—the function of the Babinski reflex is unknown, although it may have to do with
walking. After stroking the bottom of the baby’s foot from toe to heel, the baby’s toes fan out
and the foot pulls up and away toward the shin. This can last up until the end of the first year of
life, though it often disappears around 8-9 months. At this point the reflex changes, and the toes
curl down and the foot curls in response to the same stimulation. If the earlier Babinski reflex is
found in an adult, it can indicate some form of brain damage.

4.2 Objective 2

Examine the importance of physical activity in your own life.

Importance of Physical Growth and Development

Preparing infants and toddlers for school requires more than developing a set of skills; it includes
physical development and health. When an infant or toddler is healthy and happy, he or she is
more likely to engage in learning. Physical development and health can help prepare infants and
toddlers for activities that support language development, social skills, and other areas of
learning for school success.

While there is not one particular area of development that determines later school success,
research highlights the importance of supporting a strong foundation by promoting healthy
physical, social, emotional, and cognitive development. During infancy, foundations are created
and built upon as other areas of development progress, such as physical and motor development.
For example, young children will develop the abilities to balance, crawl, and walk from their
foundational reflex responses. When infants and toddlers are able to move on their own, they are
able to explore and contribute to their cognitive development in a way that was not possible
when they were unable to walk or crawl.

Think about what life might be like for a one-year-old who has not started crawling. While
sitting on his own, he struggles to coordinate movements, such as pushing up to a crawling
position and moving his hands and legs at the same time. Most objects and people in his
environment are brought to him to explore. How might the limitations in physical and motor
development impact other areas of development for this 1-year-old?
4.3 Objective 3

Recognize ways physical development affects other areas of development.

Below, you will see some of the different ways that physical development is connected to other
areas of development:

How does physical development affect other areas of development for infants and toddlers?

Physical development is connected to cognitive development (thinking skills) in infants

 Seven-month-olds are given a toy. When the infants use their motor skills to push a
button, they hear an exciting sound. The infants are presented with the toy again after a
period of wait time. They immediately push the button repeatedly, suggesting that they
learned how to perform an action to cause a sound (Hauf & Aschersleben, 2008).

Physical development is connected to cognitive development (thinking skills) in toddlers

Toddlers, around 18 months of age, engage in play which involves imitation, such as pushing a
toy truck while making engine noises or striking a ball with a bat (Laplante, et. al., 2007)

Infant motor development is connected to emotional development.

Mastery motivation is the internal drive to successfully complete tasks, such as mastering motor
skills. Infants display more mastery motivation behaviors (e.g., smiling and persistence) when
they engage in new, challenging motor tasks rather than when they use familiar and previously
learned skills (Mayes & Zigler, 2006).

Motor development is connected to social development in toddlers

Children use specific behaviors involving motor skills to connect with their peers. For example,
one- and two-year olds bounce a ball to capture peers’ attention.

Additional examples include:

 As infants grasp toys with their fingers and hands, they are building small-muscle (fine-
motor) skills, which will help them hold crayons and pencils as they get older
(communication).
 Toddlers begin scribbling, which leads to writing their names and other words as they get
older (communication).
 As mobile infants roll a ball back and forth with their caregiver, they learn how to take
turns and play with others (social development).
 As toddlers push and pull a friend in a wagon while outdoors, they learn about
relationships with others and waiting for a turn (social development).

Making an effort to better understand infant and toddler physical development can open up
opportunities for you to enhance the care you offer infants, toddlers and families.
Lesson Proper for Week 4
Piaget and Sensorimotor Intelligence

How do infants connect and make sense of what they are learning? Remember that
Piaget believed that we are continuously trying to maintain cognitive equilibrium, or
balance, between what we see and what we know (Piaget, 1954). Children have much
more of a challenge in maintaining this balance because they are constantly being
confronted with new situations, new words, new objects, etc. All this new information
needs to be organized, and a framework for organizing information is referred to as
a schema. Children develop schemas through the processes
of assimilation and accommodation.

For example, 2-year-old Deja learned the schema for dogs because her family has a
Poodle. When Deja sees other dogs in her picture books, she says, “Look mommy,
dog!” Thus, she has assimilated them into her schema for dogs. One day, Deja sees a
sheep for the first time and says, “Look mommy, dog!” Having a basic schema that a
dog is an animal with four legs and fur, Deja thinks all furry, four-legged creatures are
dogs. When Deja’s mom tells her that the animal she sees is a sheep, not a dog, Deja
must accommodate her schema for dogs to include more information based on her new
experiences. Deja’s schema for dog was too broad since not all furry, four-legged
creatures are dogs. She now modifies her schema for dogs and forms a new one for
sheep.

Substages of Sensorimotor Intelligence

For an overview of the substages of sensorimotor thought, it helps to group the six
substages into pairs. The first two substages involve the infant’s responses to its own
body, call primary circular reactions. During the first month first (substage one), the
infant’s senses, as well motor reflexes are the foundation of thought.

Substage One: Reflexive Action (Birth through 1st month)

This active learning begins with automatic movements or reflexes (sucking, grasping,
staring, and listening). A ball comes into contact with an infant’s cheek and is
automatically sucked on and licked. But this is also what happens with a sour lemon,
much to the infant’s surprise! The baby’s first challenge is to learn to adapt the sucking
reflex to bottles or breasts, pacifiers or fingers, each acquiring specific types of tongue
movements to latch, suck, breath, and repeat.

Substage Two: First Adaptations to the Environment (1st through 4th months)
Fortunately, within a few days or weeks, the infant begins to discriminate between
objects and adjust responses accordingly as reflexes are replaced with voluntary
movements. An infant may accidentally engage in a behavior and find it interesting,
such as making a vocalization. This interest motivates trying to do it again and helps the
infant learn a new behavior that originally occurred by chance. The behavior is identified
as circular and primary because it centers on the infant’s own body.

The next two substages (3 and 4), involve the infant’s responses to objects and people,
called secondary circular reactions. Reactions are no longer confined to the infant’s
body and are now interactions between the baby and something else.

Substage Three: Repetition (4th through 8th months)

During the next few months, the infant becomes more and more actively engaged in the
outside world and takes delight in being able to make things happen by responding to
people and objects. Babies try to continue any pleasing event. Repeated motion brings
particular interest as the infant is able to bang two lids together or shake a rattle and
laugh.

Substage Four: New Adaptations and Goal-Directed Behavior (8th through 12th
months)

Now the infant becomes more deliberate and purposeful in responding to people and
objects and can engage in behaviors that others perform and anticipate upcoming
events. Babies may ask for help by fussing, pointing, or reaching up to accomplish
tasks, and work hard to get what they want. Perhaps because of continued maturation
of the prefrontal cortex, the infant becomes capable of having a thought and carrying
out a planned, goal-directed activity such as seeking a toy that has rolled under the
couch or indicating that they are hungry. The infant is coordinating both internal and
external activities to achieve a planned goal and begins to get a sense of social
understanding. Piaget believed that at about 8 months (during substage 4), babies first
understood the concept of object permanence, which is the realization that objects or
people continue to exist when they are no longer in sight. The last two stages (5 and 6),
called tertiary circular reactions, consist of actions (stage 5) and ideas (stage 6) where
infants become more creative in their thinking.

Substage Five: Active Experimentation of “Little Scientists” (12th through 18th months)

The toddler is considered a “little scientist” and begins exploring the world in a trial-and-
error manner, using motor skills and planning abilities. For example, the child might
throw their ball down the stairs to see what happens or delight in squeezing all of the
toothpaste out of the tube. The toddler’s active engagement in experimentation helps
them learn about their world. This is a wonderful and messy time of experimentation
and most learning occurs by trial and error.

Substage Six: Mental Representations (18th month to 2 years of age) The child is now
able to solve problems using mental strategies, to remember something heard days
before and repeat it, to engage in pretend play, and to find objects that have been
moved even when out of sight. Take, for instance, the child who is upstairs in a room
with the door closed, supposedly taking a nap. The doorknob has a safety device on it
that makes it impossible for the child to turn the knob. After trying several times to push
the door or turn the doorknob, the child carries out a mental strategy to get the door
opened – he knocks on the door! Obviously, this is a technique learned from the past
experience of hearing a knock on the door and observing someone opening the door.
The child is now better equipped with mental strategies for problem-solving.

Development of Object Permanence

A critical milestone during the sensorimotor period is the development of object

permanence. Introduced during substage 4 above, object permanence is the
understanding that even if something is out of sight, it continues to exist. The infant is
now capable of making attempts to retrieve the object. Piaget thought that, at about 8
months, babies first understand the concept of objective permanence, but some
research has suggested that infants seem to be able to recognize that objects have
permanence at much younger ages (even as young as 4 months of age).

Language Development

Given the remarkable complexity of a language, one might expect that mastering a
language would be an especially arduous task; indeed, for those of us trying to learn a
second language as adults, this might seem to be true. However, young children master
language very quickly with relative ease. B. F. Skinner (1957) proposed that language is
learned through reinforcement. Noam Chomsky (1965) criticized this behaviorist
approach, asserting instead that the mechanisms underlying language acquisition are
biologically determined. The use of language develops in the absence of formal
instruction and appears to follow a very similar pattern in children from vastly different
cultures and backgrounds.

Each language has its own set of phonemes that are used to generate morphemes,
words, and so on. Babies can discriminate among the sounds that make up a language
(for example, they can tell the difference between the “s” in vision and the “ss” in
fission); early on, they can differentiate between the sounds of all human languages,
even those that do not occur in the languages that are used in their environments.

Newborn Communication

Do newborns communicate? Certainly, they do. They do not, however, communicate

with the use of language. Instead, they communicate their thoughts and needs with
body posture (being relaxed or still), gestures, cries, and facial expressions. A person
who spends adequate time with an infant can learn which cries indicate pain and which
ones indicate hunger, discomfort, or frustration.

Intentional Vocalizations

Infants begin to vocalize and repeat vocalizations within the first couple of months of
life. That gurgling, musical vocalization called cooing can serve as a source of
entertainment to an infant who has been laid down for a nap or seated in a carrier on a
car ride. Cooing serves as practice for vocalization. It also allows the infant to hear the
sound of their own voice and try to repeat sounds that are entertaining.

Babbling and Gesturing

Between 6 and 9 months, infants begin making even more elaborate vocalizations that
include the sounds required for any language. Guttural sounds, clicks, consonants, and
vowel sounds stand ready to equip the child with the ability to repeat whatever sounds
are characteristic of the language heard. These babies repeat certain syllables (ma-ma-
ma, da-da-da, ba-ba-ba), a vocalization called babbling because of the way it sounds.
Eventually, these sounds will no longer be used as the infant grows more accustomed
to a particular language.

Holophrasic Speech

Children begin using their first words at about 12 or 13 months of age and may use
partial words to convey thoughts at even younger ages. These one-word expressions
are referred to as holophrasic speech (holophrase). For example, the child may say
“ju” for the word “juice” and use this sound when referring to a bottle. The listener must
interpret the meaning of the holophrase. When this is someone who has spent time with
the child, interpretation is not too difficult. They know that “ju” means “juice” which
means the baby wants some milk! But, someone who has not been around the child will
have trouble knowing what is meant. Imagine the parent who exclaims to a friend,
“Ezra’s talking all the time now!” The friend hears only “ju da ga” which, the parent
explains, means “I want some milk when I go with Daddy.”

Underextension

A child who learns that a word stands for an object may initially think that the word can
be used for only that particular object. Only the family’s Irish Setter is a “doggie.” This is
referred to as underextension. More often, however, a child may think that a label
applies to all objects that are similar to the original object. In overextension, all animals
become “doggies,” for example.

First words and cultural influences

First words for English-speaking children tend to be nouns. The child labels objects
such as a cup or a ball. In a verb-friendly language such as Chinese, however, children
may learn more verbs. This may also be due to the different emphasis given to objects
based on culture.

Vocabulary growth spurt

One-year-olds typically have a vocabulary of about 50 words. But by the time they
become toddlers, they have a vocabulary of about 200 words and begin putting those
words together in telegraphic speech (short phrases). This language growth spurt is
called the naming explosion because many early words are nouns (persons, places,
or things).

Two-word sentences and telegraphic speech

Words are soon combined and 18-month-old toddlers can express themselves further
by using phrases such as “baby bye-bye” or “doggie pretty.” Words needed to convey
messages are used, but the articles and other parts of speech necessary for
grammatical correctness are not yet included.

Child-directed speech
Why is a horse a “horsie”? Have you ever wondered why adults tend to use “baby talk”
or that sing-song type of intonation and exaggeration used when talking to children?
This represents a universal tendency and is known as child-directed speech or
motherese or parentese. It involves exaggerating the vowel and consonant sounds,
using a high-pitched voice, and delivering the phrase with great facial expression. Why
is this done? It may be in order to clearly articulate the sounds of a word so that the
child can hear the sounds involved.

Theories of Language Development

How is language learned? Each major theory of language development emphasizes

different aspects of language learning: that infants’ brains are genetically attuned to
language, that infants must be taught, and that infants’ social impulses foster language
learning. The first two theories of language development represent two extremes in the
level of interaction required for language to occur (Berk, 2007).

Chomsky and the language acquisition device

This theory posits that infants teach themselves and that language learning is
genetically programmed. The view is known as nativism and was advocated by Noam
Chomsky, who suggested that infants are equipped with a neurological construct
referred to as the language acquisition device (LAD), which makes infants ready for
language. The LAD allows children, as their brains develop, to derive the rules of
grammar quickly and effectively from the speech they hear every day. Therefore,
language develops as long as the infant is exposed to it. No teaching, training, or
reinforcement is required for language to develop. Instead, language learning comes
from a particular gene, brain maturation, and the overall human impulse to imitate.

Skinner and reinforcement

This theory is the opposite of Chomsky’s theory because it suggests that infants need to
be taught language. This idea arises from behaviorism. Learning theorist, B. F. Skinner,
suggested that language develops through the use of reinforcement. Sounds, words,
gestures, and phrases are encouraged by following the behavior with attention, words of
praise, treats, or anything that increases the likelihood that the behavior will be
repeated. This repetition strengthens associations, so infants learn the language faster
as parents speak to them often. For example, when a baby says “ma-ma,” the mother
smiles and repeats the sound while showing the baby attention. So, “ma-ma” is
repeated due to this reinforcement.
Social pragmatics

Another language theory emphasizes the child’s active engagement in learning the
language out of a need to communicate. Social impulses foster infant language
because humans are social beings and we must communicate because we are
dependent on each other for survival. The child seeks information, memorizes terms,
imitates the speech heard from others, and learns to conceptualize using words as
language is acquired. Tomasello & Herrmann (2010) argue that all human infants, as
opposed to chimpanzees, seek to master words and grammar in order to join the social
world [5] Many would argue that all three of these theories (Chomsky’s argument for
nativism, conditioning, and social pragmatics) are important for fostering the acquisition
of language (Berger, 2004).