CH 3 : CURRENT ELECTRICITY

Electric Current

Electric Current is defined as the rate of flow of charges through any cross-section of a
conductor .

 Current is a scalar quantity.

 It flows from higher potential energy to lower potential energy.
 The SI unit of electric current is Amperes, denoted by A.
Q Current has direction still it is a scalar quantity? Give reason.

Current Density

Current Density is the electric charge flowing per second per unit area of cross-
section. It’s a vector quantity.

J = I/A
where I = electric current, A = cross-sectional area.

 SI unit of current Density is ampere m-2.

 The dimensional formula is [ A T-2 ].

Flow of Electric Charge in Metallic Conductors

Among the solids, all metals are good conductors of electricity. The cause of conductance is
free electrons.
In Case of a Solid Conductor (i.e. Cu, Fe, Ag, etc) atoms are tightly bound to each other.
There is large number of free electrons in them.
In Case of a Liquid Conductor Like electrolytic solution, there are positive and negative
charged ions which can move on applying electric field.

Drift Velocity

The drift velocity is the average velocity with which the free electrons move in a
conductor in the direction opposite to the electric field when a potential difference is
applied to its ends.
Relation b/w drift velocity and current

let the cross section area and length of

conductor are A and l respectively.

n is no. of free electron per unit

volume(number density). Average time t is
required to reach any electron from 1 end to
other.

Total volume = A x l

Total free ele = A x l x n

Q = nAle (e charge on electon)

I = Q/ t

I = nAle /t

I = neAvd v l/t , dis/time)

( d=

Relation b/w drift velocity and relaxation time

Relaxation time : It is the time gap between two successive collision of electrons in a
conductor. Represented by τ

When a conductor is conected with external electric field E.

Force on charge F = qE ,

force on electron F = -eE eq 1

II law of motion F = ma eq 2

ma = -eq , a = -eE / m

by I st eq of motion V = U + at

Vd = 0 + (-eE/m) τ

Vd = -eEτ/ m
Current Density: Current density j gives the amount of charge flowing per
second per unit area normal to the flow.

J = I/ A

I = JA cos Ө

J = neAvd / A

J = nevd

where n is the number density (number per unit volume) , is the drift velocity
of the charge carrierswhere, j is a vector quantity.

Q Define Mobility of a charge carrier . Express it in terms of relaxation time . Give its
unit and practical unit.

Mobility is defined to be the magnitude of drift velocity per unit electric field.
When a conductor is coneected with external electric field E.

force on charge F = qE eq 1

II law of motion F = ma eq 2

ma = qE , a = qE / m

by I st eq of motion V = U + at

Vd = 0 + (qE/m) τ

Vd = qEτ/ m

µ = qEτ/ Em , µ = qτ / m

for an electron µ = -eτ / m

for a hole µ = eτ / m

SI unit of mobality :

= m s -1 / V m -1 = m2 V -1 s -1

Practical unit c m2 V -1 s -1α

Ohm’s Law At constant temperature, the potential difference V across the ends of a given
conductor is directly proportional to the current flowing through it.
V = IR

The proportionality constant R is called the resistance of the conductor.

The variation of current w.r.t. applied potential difference is shown with the help of following
graph. V = IR
where, R = resistance of conductor

R=V/I
No effect of V and I on R because as V increase, I increase but R remains the same.

Resistance is the property of material.

Limitations of Ohm’s Law: Although Ohm’s law has been found valid
over a large class of materials, but it is not a universal law. The deviations
broadly are one or more of the following types:
(a) V ceases to be proportional to I

(b) The relation between V and I depends on the sign of V. This happens,
for example, in a diode.
 (c) The relation between V and I is not unique, i.e., there is more than one
value of V for the same current I (Fig. 3.7). A material exhibiting such
behaviour is GaAs.

Resistance It is the property by virtue of which a conductor opposes the flow of charges
through it .
Mathematically, it is the ratio of potential difference applied across the ends of conductor to
the current flowing through it.
=> R = V/I
SI unit is ohm (Ω).
1 ohm = 1 volt / 1 ampere = 1 VA-1

Factors on which resistance of a conductor depends

 1. Length of the conductor
2. Area of cross section the conductor
3. Nature of the material

R α l /A

R = ρ l /A

Where ρ = constant, known as resistivity of the material. It depends upon nature of the
material.

Resistivity or specific resistance

In eq R = ρ l /A

if l = 1 m and A = 1 m2 then R = ρ

The resistivity of a material is defined as the resistance of a conductor of that material , having
unit length and unit cross section area.

SI Unit ohm meter2/ meter ohm meter

SI Unit ohm -1 meter -1

Relation b/w RESISTIVITY and relaxation time

Conductivity It is defined as the reciprocal of resistivity of a conductor.
It is expressed as, σ = 1/ρ
SI unit is mho per metre (Ω-1/ m).
Q Express Ohm’s law in vector form . or Express the relation between current density,
conductivity and electric field.

Ohm’s law

V = IR

R = ρ L /A WHERE ρ, L, A are resistivity , length and area of cross section of conductor

V = I x ρ L /A

V/L ρ = I/ A

E/ρ=J E = ρ J OR

J=σE

Resistivity as a function of temperature: It is given as,

Where, is the temperature coefficient of resistivity and is the

resistivity of the material at temperature T.
Ranges of Resistivity:
a) Metals have low resistivity: Range of varies from 10–8 Ω m to 10–6 Ω m.
b) Insulators like glass and rubber have high resistivity: Range of varies
from 1022 to 1024 times greater than that of metals.
c) Semiconductors like Si and Ge lie roughly in the middle range of
resistivity on a logarithmic scale.

If a conductor is stretched or compresses to n times of original length, then

l’ = nl => R’ = n2R
where, R’ = new resistance and R = original resistance.

Q Why does the resistivity of conductor increases with increase in temperature while it
decrease in semiconductors?

Colour Code of Resistance The colour code on carbon resistor remains in the form of
coaxial rings.
The first band represents the first significant figure, second band represents second
significant figure and third band represents multiplier (i.e. power of ten). The fourth band
represents tolerance.

Electric Power
It is the rate at which work is done or energy is transformed in an electrical circuit.
Simply put, it is a measure of how much energy is used in a span of time.

Symbol P
SI Unit Watt, joule per second
Scalar or
Scalar Quantity
Vector
P=VI

according to Ohm’s law, V = IR. Substituting we have,

P = I 2R

Formula Or

P = V2/R

It is this power which is responsible for heating up the coil of a bulb, which
gives out heat and light.

ELECTRICAL ENERGY, POWER

Electrical energy is the work done or energy supplied by the source to maintain
Definition
electric current in a circuit for a given time.
Symbol E
Units Joule (J)
 Kilowatt-hour(kWh)
Electron-Volt(eV)
E = QV Where, Q is charge ,V is the potential difference

Electric energy = Electric power x time

Formula E =P X t

E = VIt

E = I2 Rt joule

Electrical charges moving through a wire or electricity.

Lightning.
Batteries.
Static electricity.
Examples
Electric wheels generate electrical energy.
Electricity stored in capacitors.
Audio speakers.
Doorbells.
Lighting, cooling, heating.

Uses Operating appliances, electronics, computers, machinery.

Public transportation systems.

Combinations of Resistance There are two types of resistance combinations.

(i) Series Combination In this combination, different resistances are connected end to end.
Equivalent resistance can be obtained as the formula,

NOTE: The total resistance in the series combination is more than the greatest resistance in
the circuit.
(ii) Parallel Combination In this combination, first end of all the resistances are connected to
one point and last end of all the resistances are connected to other point. Equivalent
resistance can be obtained by the formula
NOTE: The total resistance in parallel combination is less than the least resistance of the
circuit.
If n identical resistors each of resistance r are connected in
(i) series combination, Req = nr
(ii) parallel combination, Req = r/n

Cell or Electrochemical Cell

A cell or an electrochemical cell is a device that is capable of obtaining electrical
energy from chemical reactions or vice versa.

An electric battery is a device made up of two or more cells that make use of the chemical
energy stored in the chemicals and converts it into electrical energy.

Electromotive force or emf is defined as the potential difference between terminals of the
cell when no current is drawn from the cell , or cell is in open circuit.

Potential difference of the cell : It is measured b/w the two electrodes or emf is defined as
the potential difference between terminals of the cell when no current is drawn from the cell ,
or cell is in open circuit.

Internal Resistance The resistance offered by the electrolytes of a cell to the flow of current
b/w the electrodes is called internal resistance of the cell.

Q Derive the relation b/w emf , current I , internal resistance of the cell r, and resistance of
the circuit R.
Let E be the e.m.f and V be the terminal voltage

The current delivered ( I ) to a load ( R) from a cell with internal resistance (r) can be
calculated as:
E
I=
R +r

And the Potential difference across the load or the Terminal Voltage can be
calculated as:

V=I.R= ER / R+r also V = E – I r

V R
=
E R +r
E R +r
=
V R
E r
= 1+
V R
E r
- 1= r = ¿ – 1) R
V R

COMBINATION OF CELLS

CELLS IN SERIES
Let us consider that ‘n’ identical cells are connected in series with the same polarity.
The EMF of individual cells is E1, E2, E3 —– En. Similarly, the internal resistance of
each cell is r1, r2, r3 ——–rn.

The equivalent EMF is the terminal voltage across the cell when the cell is not in
use.

The equivalent EMF of the cell is given by

Eeq = E1 + E2 +E3 ——-En = nE

The equivalent internal resistance is given by

req = r1 + r2 + r3 ——-rn = nr

The combination can be replaced with a single cell of equivalent EMF ‘nE’ and
equivalent internal resistance ‘nr’.

The external resistance ‘R’ is connected between the free terminals of the first and
the last cells. Now, the equivalent resistance of the circuit is

Req = nr + R

The current flowing through the load will be I = Eeq/Req

I = nE/(R+nr)

Case 1: If nr ＜＜R then I = nE/R

If the value of the internal resistance is much lesser than the external resistance,
then the current in the circuit will be n times the circuit current due to the single cell.

Case 2: If nr ＞＞ R then I = E/r

If the value of the internal resistance is much greater than the external resistance,
then the current in the circuit will be equal to the short-circuited current obtained from
a single cell.

CELLS IN PARALLEL
Q State Kirchhoff’s law for electrical circuit and explain them giving illustrations.

Kirchhoff’s current law / Junction Rule

At any junction, the sum of the currents entering the junction is equal to the sum of currents leaving
the junction.

Mathematically, Kirchhoff’s Current law is stated as follows

Sign Convention:

The currents flowing towards a junction are +ve. The currents flowing away from the junction are
negative, -ve.

This rule is based on the law of conservation of charge.

Kirchhoff’s Voltage law / loop rule

The algebraic sum of changes in potential around any closed loop involving resistors and cells in the

loop is zero.
Mathematically, the total voltage in a closed loop of a circuit is expressed as
 That is, ∑V = 0

This law is called the Voltage rule or the Loop theorem.

 Sign Convention:

a. When we travel through a source in the direction – to +, the emf is considered positive. When
we travel from + to -, the emf is negative.

b. When we travel through a resistor in the same direction as the assumed current, the Voltage is
negative and vice versa.

This rule is based on the law of conservation of energy.

Wheatstone bridge (Resistance Bridge) is an arrangement to calculate the unknown

resistance by balancing two legs of the bridge circuit. One leg includes the
component of unknown resistance.

The Wheatstone Bridge Circuit comprises two known resistors, one unknown resistor
and one variable resistor connected in the form of a bridge. This bridge is very
reliable as it gives accurate measurements.
Principle
The Wheatstone bridge works on the principle of null deflection, i.e. the ratio of their
resistances is equal, and no current flows through the Galvanometer.
The Wheatstone bridge is used to measure the unknown resistance by using null
method; hence the result is free from the effect of cell resistance of the circuit.

Being null deflection method, it is easier to detect a small change in deflection than
to read a deflection directly.