CHAPTER 8

Syllogism is made up of three propositions, which is any three combinations of the A, E, I, O propositions. The first
proposition is known as the major premise, the second proposition is known as the minor premise and the third, the
conclusion. Each proposition has a subject and a predicate, which acts as the major, the minor, or the middle term.

First proposition is known as the major premise

Second proposition is known as the minor premise

Third proposition is the Conclusion

CATEGORICAL PROPOSITIONS:

A propositions - Universal Affirmative (All S are P)

E propositions - Universal Negative (No S are P)
I propositions - Particular Affirmative (Some S are P)
O propositions - Particular Negative (Some S are not P)

Figure refers to the position or function of the middle term in the premises.

Subject is the noun that performs the action or is in a state of being.

Predicate describes the action or state of being

The middle term can only be found in both premises but not in the conclusion
The major term is one of the terms in the major premise and is the predicate of the conclusion.
The minor term is one of the terms in the minor premise and the subject of the conclusion

4 FIGURES OF SYLLOGISM AND THE POSITION OF MIDDLE TERM

Figure 1: Subject-Predicate Middle term

The Middle term is the subject of the Major Premise and the predicate of the Minor Premise (Subject-Predicate).

Example:

Major Premise = SMdt PMt = Every man is mortal

Minor Premise = Smt PMdt = but Lito is a man
Conclusion =Smt PMt = therefore, Lito is mortal
Figure 2: Predicate - Predicate Middle term

The Middle term is the predicate of both Major and Minor Premises (Predicate-Predicate)

Example:

Major Premise = SMt PMdt = All immortals are not men

Minor Premise = Smt PMdt = but Lito is a man
Conclusion = Smt PMt = therefore, Lito is not immortal

Figure 3: Subject-Subject Middle term

The Middle term is the subject of both the major and the minor premises. (Subject-Subject)

Example:

Major Premise = SMdt PM = All men are mortal

Minor Premise = SMdt Pmt = but some men are Lito
Conclusion = Smt PMt = therefore, some Lito are mortal

Figure 4: Predicate - Subject Middle term

The Middle term is the Predicate of the major premise and the Subject of the minor premise (Predicate-Subject).

Example:

Major Premise = SMt PMdt = All immortals are not men

Minor Premise = SMdt Pmt = but some men are Lito 5
Conclusion = Smt PMt = therefore, some Lito are immortal

VALID MOODS

4 VALID MOODS IN FIGURE 1

1. BARBARA (AAA)

A- All X are Y; A- All spiritual beings are immortal;

A- But all W are X; A- But all human souls are spiritual;
A- Therefore, all Ware Y. A Thus, all human souls are immortal.

2. CELARENT (EAE)

E- All X are not Y; E- All spiritual beings are not immortal;

A- But all W are X; A- But all human souls are spiritual;
E- All W are not Y. E- Thus, all human souls are not immortal.

3. DARII (AII)

A- All X are Y; A- All spiritual beings are immortal;

I- But some Ware X; I- But some human souls are spiritual;
I- Thus, some Ware Y. I- Thus, some human souls are immortal.
 4. FERIO (EIO)

E- No X is Y; E- No spiritual being is immortal;

I- but some Wis X; I- But some human souls are spiritual;
O- thus some W are Y: O- Thus some humans are immortal.

4 VALID MOODS IN FIGURE 2

1. CESARE (EAE)

E- All Y are not X; E- Every manual is not a newspaper;

A- But all W are X; A- But all Bulletin Today are newspapers;
E- Therefore, All W are not Y. E- Therefore, all Bulletin Today are not manuals.

2. CAMESTRES (AEE)

A- All Y are X; E- But no Bulletin Today is a newspaper;

E- But no W is an X; A- All manuals are newspapers;
E- Therefore, no Wis a Y. E- Therefore, no Bulletin Today is a manual.

3. FESTINO (EIO)

E- All Y are not X; E- All manuals are not newspapers;

I- But some Ware X; I- But some Bulletin Today are newspapers;
O-Thus, some Ware Y. O. Thus, some Bulletin Today are not manuals.

4. BAROCO (AOO)

A- All Y are X; A- All manuals are newspapers;

O- But some W are not X; O- But some Bulletin Today are not newspapers;
O- Thus, some Ware not Y. O- Thus, some Bulletin Today are not manuals.

6 VALID MOODS IN FIGURE 3

1. DARAPTI (AAI)

A - All X are Y; A -All transparencies are plastic;

A - But all X are W; A -But all transparencies are instructional materials;
I - Thus, some Ware Y. I - Thus, some instructional materials are plastic.

2. DISAMIS (IAI)

I - Some X are Y; I -Some transparencies are plastic;

A - But all X are W; A - But all transparencies are instructional materials;
I - Thus, some W are Y. I - Thus, some instructional materials are plastic.

3. DATISI (AII)

A - All X are Y; A -All transparencies are plastic;

I - But some X are W; I - But some transparencies are instructional materials;
I - Thus, some W are X. I - Thus, some instructional materials are plastic.

4. FELAPTON (EAO)

E - No X is Y; E -No transparencies are plastic;

A - But all X are W; A -But all transparencies are instructional materials;
O - Thus, some Ware not Y. O -Thus, some instructional materials are not plastic.
 5. BOCARDO (OAO)

O- Some X are not Y; O-Some transparencies are not plastic;

A- But all X are W; A-But all transparencies are instructional materials;
O-Thus, some W are not Y. O-Thus, some instructional materials are not plastic.

6. FERISON (EIO)

E- All X are not Y; E- All transparencies are not plastic;

I- But some X are W; I-But some transparencies are instructional materials;
O- Thus, some W are not Y. O-Thus, some instructional materials are not plastic.

5 VALID MOODS IN FIGURE 4

1. BRAMANTIP (AAI)

A- All Y are X; A-Education is an investment of human capital;

A- But all X are W; A-But all investments of human capital are precious;
I- Thus, some W are Y. I- Thus, some precious things are education.

2. CAMENES (AEE)

A- All Y are X; A-Education is an investment of human capital;

E- But no X is W; E- But no investment of human capital is precious;
E- Thus, no W is Y. E-Thus, no precious thing is education.

3. DIMARIS (IAI)

I-Some Y are X; I- Some educations are investment of human capital;

A- But all X are W; A-But all investments of human capital are precious;
I- Thus, some Ware Y. I- Thus, some precious things are education.

4. FESAPO (EAO)

E- No Y is X; E-No education is an investment of human capital;

A- But all X are W; A-But all investments of human capital are precious;
O-Thus, some W are not Y. O-Thus, some precious things are not education.

5. FRESISON (EIO)

E- No Y is X; E- No education is an investment of human capital;

I- But some X are W; I- But some investments of human capital are precious;
O- Thus, some Ware not Y. O-Thus some precious things are not education.

SQUARE OF OPPOSITION OF SYLLOGISMS

 CHAPTER 9

Hypothetical syllogism - Contains at least one hypothetical proposition.

Conditional syllogism

• one whose major premise is a conditional proposition that expresses a relationship antecedent and consequent or
of cause and effect.
• The minor premise is a categorical proposition that either asserts the antecedent or denies the consequent.
• The conclusion is another categorical proposition that asserts the consequent or denies the antecedent.

Rules on validity of mixed conditional syllogism

1. There must be sequence. The consequent must necessarily flow from the antecedent.
Example: If it rains, the ground will be wet;
But it rained;
Therefore, the ground is wet.

Example: If I study Logic, then I’ll be an expert in correct thinking;

But I studied Logic;
Therefore, I am an expert in correct thinking.

2. Posit or assert the truth of the antecedent in the minor, posit or assert the truth of consequent in the conclusion

Example: If Paciano has Severe acute Respiratory Syndrome the he is seriously ill;
But Paciano has Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome;
Then, he is seriously ill.

3. Sublate or Negate the truth of the consequent in the minor premise, then sublate or negate the truth of the
antecedent in the conclusion.

Example: If she is a mother, then she must have borne a child;

But she did not bear a child;
Therefore, she is not a mother

4. Posit or negate completely, never partially.

Example: If the patient is honest, then he will tell the truth;

But the patient told us half of the truth;
Therefore, the patient is honest.

Example: If Maria passes the nursing exam, then she'll be hired and she'll be offered a scholarship;
but Maria was not offered a scholarship;
it follows that she did not pass the nursing exam.

5. It is invalid to negate the antecedent in the minor premise.

Example: If a student has a grade lower than 85 then he is not illegible for Honors;
But Efren does not have a grade lower than 85;
Then, he is illegible for honors.

Example: If Mother Seton is alive then she is not dead;

But Mother Seton is not alive;
It follows that Mother Seton is dead.

6. It is invalid to posit or assert the consequent in the minor premise.

Example: If a strong typhoon hits Metro Manila then there will be casualties;
But there were casualties;
Therefore, a strong typhoon had hit Metro Manila.
Disjunctive syllogism

• Disjunctive syllogism is one whose major premise is a disjunctive proposition that presents two or more
alternatives.
• The minor premise is a categorical proposition that posits or sublates any of the alternatives.
• The conclusion is a categorical proposition that posits or sublates any of the alternatives depending on whatever
follows from the minor premise.

Rules on Validity of Disjunctive Syllogism

1. If the disjunction is a strict disjunction or contradictory disjunction:

a. Posit one alternative in the minor premise then sublate the other in the conclusion.

Example: Either Michelle Joyce is telling the truth or she is telling a lie;
But she is telling the truth;
Therefore, she is not telling a lie.

b. Sublate one alternative in the minor premise then posit the other in the conclusion.

Example: The ECG machine is either on or off;

But the machine is not off;
Therefore it is on.

2. If the disjunction is contrary or there is a third alternative being implied:

a. Posit one alternative in the minor premise then sublate the other or the rest in the conclusion.

Example: Professor Jonathan Almir is either rich or poor;

But Professor Jonathan Almir is rich;
Therefore, our professor is not poor (or middle class).

b. It is invalid to sublate one alternative in the minor premise then posit another in the conclusion.

Example: The teacher is either in the classroom or in the faculty room;

But, the teacher is not in the classroom;
Therefore, he is in the faculty room

3. If the disjunction is sub-contrary or both alternatives could be true:

a. Sublate one alternative in the minor premise then posit the other in the conclusion.

Example: A student-teacher is either a lecturer or a facilitator;

But a student-teacher is not a lecturer;
Therefore, a student-teacher is a facilitator

b. It is invalid to posit one alternative in the minor premise then sublate the other in the conclusion.

Example: Grace Dianne is either a good actress or a good teacher;

But Grace Dianne is a good teacher;
Therefore, Grace Dianne is not a good actress.

Conjunctive syllogism and examples

• A conjunctive syllogism in one whose major premise in conjunctive proposition consisting of alternatives that
could be premise alternatives both false but cannot be both true.
• The minor premise is a categorical proposition that posits one of the alternatives while the conclusion sublates the
other alternatives.
 Rules on Validity of Conjunctive Syllogism

1. Posit one alternative in the minor premise then sublate the other in the conclusion.

Example: Gloria cannot be in Baguio and in Manila at the same time;

But Gloria is in Manila;
Thus, Gloria is not in Baguio.

2. It is invalid to sublate one alternative in the minor premise then posit the other in the conclusion.

Example: One cannot breathe and talk at the same time;

But he is not breathing;
Therefore, he must be talking.

The table below summarizes the validity of the different hypothetical syllogisms:

Conjunctive
Disjunctive Disjunctive Disjunctive
Conditional A cannot be B
Either A or C Either A or C Either A or C
If A then C or C at the
not both or both not or both
same time
Valid Valid Valid A thus Invalid Valid
A thus C A thus not C not C A thus not C B thus not C
Invalid Valid Invalid Valid Invalid
C thus A Not A thus C Not A thus C Not A thus C Not B thus C
Invalid Valid Valid Invalid Valid
Not A thus not C C thus not A C thus not A C thus not A C thus not B
Invalid
Valid Valid Invalid Valid
Not C thus B
Not C thus not A Not C thus A Not C thus A Not C thus A
 CHAPTER 10

Enthymeme - Shortened forms of syllogism where one premise or the conclusion is implied.

Enthymeme of the;

First Order - Major premise omitted.

Example: "Peter is free because he has a will."

Second Order - Minor premise omitted.

Example: "Caregiving is a contributor to human development.”

Third Order - Conclusion omitted.

Example: "Man is an intelligent being; therefore, he has morality."

Epichireme - A syllogism with proof attached to one or both premises.

Simple epichireme - One premise with proof.

Example: "Doctors are rational beings because all human beings are rational."

Compound epichireme - Both premises with proofs.

Example: "Research works benefit students because they learn to look for primary sources."

Polysyllogism - A series of syllogisms where the conclusion of one serves as the premise for the next.

Example: Every human being is rational.

Students are human beings; therefore, students are rational beings.
All rational beings are free; therefore, some free beings are students

Sorites - A condensed form of polysyllogism where only the final conclusion is stated.

Aristotelian sorites - Predicate of one premise becomes the subject of the next.

Example: "All good students are good citizens."

Goclenian sorites - Subject of one premise becomes the predicate of the next.

Example: "All effective teachers are role models."

Dilemma - An argument presenting two unfavorable alternatives.

Simple constructive dilemma - Simple affirmative conclusion.

Example: "You either give a report or improve your involvement; either way, you'll earn additional credit."

Compound constructive dilemma - Compound affirmative conclusion.

Example: "If I continue my studies, I will finish my degree; if I work, I will earn money; therefore, either
way, I will achieve something beneficial."

Simple destructive dilemma - Simple negative conclusion.

Example: "The man trapped in a burning building will either not jump or not stay; therefore, he will not
survive."
 Compound destructive dilemma - Compound negative conclusion.

Example: "In politics, if I'm honest, my colleagues won't like me; if I'm corrupt, people won't vote for me
again; therefore, either way, I'm in trouble."

Rules for Valid Dilemma

• All possible alternatives must be stated.

• The consequent must follow from the antecedents.
• Alternatives should not have conflicting interpretations.

Ways to Defeat a Dilemma

• Going Between the Horns: Present an alternative not included in the original dilemma.
• Grasping by the Horns: Challenge the sequence between antecedents and consequences.
• Rebutting the Dilemma: Introduce a counter-dilemma that reverses perspectives.
 CHAPTER 11

Fallacy are errors in reasoning that seem valid but are fundamentally flawed.

- Derived from the Latin "fallere, " meaning "to deceive.".

PURPOSE - To identify fallacies to avoid being misled by faulty reasoning in everyday discourse and professional
settings.

Formal Fallacies: Errors in the logical form or structure of an argument.

Informal Fallacies: Errors due to irrelevant or ambiguous reasoning factors.

Fallacy of relevance - These fallacies introduce irrelevant information or emotional appeals that divert from the actual
issue.

Examples:

Appeal to Force: "Follow the rules or you'll be punished."

Appeal to Pity: "You should pass me because my parents work hard to send me to school."
Appeal to Authority: "This must be true because a famous person said so."

MORE TYPES OF FALLACIES OF RELEVANCE

Ad Hominem: Attacking the person instead of the argument.

Example: “Why trust her opinion? She didn ’t attend a prestigious school.”

Appeal to Ignorance: Claiming something is true because it hasn ’t been proven false.

Example: “Time travel must be impossible because no one has proven it.

Begging the Question: Assuming the conclusion in the premise.

Example: “He must be guilty because he ’ s not innocent.”

Fallacy of ambiguity - Arise when language or wording is unclear, leading to faulty conclusions.

Examples: Equivocation: Using the same term with different meanings.

Example: "He was right because he has the right." Amphiboly: Misinterpreting a statement due to its ambiguous
structure.
Example: “He said no when asked if he stopped beating his wife.”

FALLACIES OF FALSE CAUSE AND GENERALIZATION

False Cause: Attributing a cause to an effect without sufficient evidence.

Example: “He drank coconut oil and his headache disappeared— therefore, coconut oil cures
headaches.”

Hasty Generalization: Drawing a conclusion from insufficient data.

Example: “Two students cheated, so the whole class is dishonest.”

THE DANGERS OF EGOCENTRIC THINKING

Egocentric Memory: Remembering evidence that supports our beliefs and forgetting what doesn ’t.

Egocentric Myopia: Seeing the world from a narrow perspective.

Egocentric Hypocrisy: Ignoring contradictions between our beliefs and actions.

 CHAPTER 12

Induction is a method of inference that proceeds from the relationships of particular truths toward a universal truth.

TYPES OF INTRODUCTIONS

Essential Induction happens when the mind grasps in experience the necessary link between a subject and its
property. It makes use of formal principles, which are so clear that they do not need any proof for they are self-
explanatory and self-evident truths.

These principles are:

1. The principle of identity. Everything is itself.

Example: A school is a school.

2. The principle of excluded middle. A thing either is or is not.

Example: A school is either a school or not a school.

3. The principle of non-contradiction. Nothing can be and not be at the same time or respect.

Example: A school cannot be a school and not a school at the same time.

4. The principle of sufficient reason. Everything that exists has sufficient reason for its existence.

Example: A school is a place of learning.

Empirical Induction is the generalization of the connection between the subject and the predicate based not on the
essential link between them but on the repeated occurrence of the observed phenomenon.

KINDS OF EMPIRICAL INDUCTION

1. Complete or perfect induction. The generalization rests on the knowledge of each instance covered. This
is otherwise known as the induction by simple enumeration because it is simply the summation of all individual
cases observed.

Example: Since Dr. Marin, Dr. Garcia, Prof. Manad, Prof. Gonzales and the rest of the faculty members of PNU are
Master's degree holders, we can conclude that all PNU teachers are master's degree holders.

2. Incomplete induction. The conclusion takes the instances as a sample of the class and generalizes from the
properties of the sample to the properties of the class.

Example: Since 80% of survey respondents said that they prefer LRT to jeepneys as mode of
transportation, we conclude that LRT is preferred as a mode of transportation by the public.

Examples of Incomplete Induction

• Analogy- is a form of induction, which seeks to establish a conclusion on something that is yet
unknown to a thing based on similarities.

Example: Peso is to Philippines as dollar is to United States of America.

• Generalization- is a form of induction that seeks to establish a conclusion about a whole group or
population based on some samples.

Example: We conclude that Filipinos are hospitable based on the result of the survey.

• Causal Relation- is a form of induction, which seeks to establish a conclusion based on the
connection between cause and effect.

Example: Based on our past experiences, Metro Manila becomes flooded whenever it is hit by a
typhoon