FACULTY OF ENGINEERING AND THE BUILT ENVIRONMENT

COMMUNICATION SKILLS
STUDENT COURSE READER
 FACULTY OF HUMANITIES

DEPARTMENT OF APPLIED LANGUAGES

STUDENT COURSE READER

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PRETORIA
0001

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FACULTY OF HUMANITIES
DEPARTMENT OF APPLIED
LANGUAGES
Tshwane University of Technology
Private Bag X680
Pretoria
0001

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

UNIT 1: READING SKILLS 4

UNIT 2: COMMUNICATION THEORY 33
UNIT 3: COMMON PRODUCTS USED BY ENGINEERS 57
UNIT 4: REPORT WRITING 81
UNIT 5: EMPLOYMENT CORRESPONDENCE 101
UNIT 6: MEETINGS AND MEETING PROCEDURES 113
UNIT 7: MECHANISM DESCRIPTION, PROCESS DESCRIPTION AND 117
INSTRUCTIONS
 UNIT 1
READING SKILLS

“Reading is to the mind what exercise is to the body.”(Joseph Addison)

Whether you are looking for information in books, newspapers, magazines, the internet or
any other source, your ability to read effectively is an important skill.Taking notes in class,
studying, writing an essay or doing research all involve reading. Although, reading means
different things to different people and skills vary with every individual, it is important that
you understand reading as an activity and develop your reading skills to become a more
efficient and effective reader. Effective reading implies that you understand what you are
reading, you are able to remember information and you can evaluate what you are reading.
Weaknesses in vocabulary, comprehension, reading speed, or a combination of all three
may be the result of ineffective reading habits.

Active reading is engaged reading and can be achieved through comprehension regulation
strategies. The three levels of comprehension, or sophistication of thinking, are presented
in the following hierarchy from the least to the most sophisticated level of reading.
• Least = surface, simple reading
• Most = in-depth, complex reading

Level 1: Literal - what is actually stated.

• Facts and details
• Rote learning and memorization
• Surface understanding only

Tests in this category are objective tests dealing with true / false, multiple choice and fill-
in-the blank questions. Common questions used to elicit this type of thinking are who,
what, when, and where questions.

Level 2: Interpretive - what is implied or meant, rather than what is actually stated.
• Drawing inferences
• Tapping into prior knowledge / experience

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 • Attaching new learning to old information
• Making logical leaps and educated guesses
• Reading between the lines to determine what is meant by what is stated.

Tests in this category are subjective, and the types of questions asked are open-ended,
thought-provoking questions like why, what if, and how.

Level 3: Applied - taking what was said (literal) and then what was meant by what was
said (interpretive) and then extend (apply) the concepts or ideas beyond the situation.
• Analysing
• Synthesizing
• Applying

Tests on this level require the ability to analyse or synthesize information and to apply it to
other contexts.

1.1 Reading techniques

As the level of comprehension, as well as the purpose of your reading differs, your reading
technique will also differ. Ask yourself how much you need to understand of a text and
what the reason is for reading that text. Are you trying to get the gist of the material, or are
you reading for detail? Are there key concepts or facts that have to be committed to
memory?

1.1.1 Scanning
You use this strategy when you want to quickly locate specific information from a large
volume of written material. You do not read every word. You look through something very
quickly to find a particular fact. Think about the purpose of the index of a book. How do
you read an index?
Examples
• Scanning for telephone numbers in a business directory

• Scanning your email inbox for emails from a specific person

• Scanning a text for a time, number, date, etc.

Advantages:
• Save time
• Find specific information quickly
• Eliminate unnecessary information
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 • Avoid ‘information overload’

A suggested scanning process:

• Formulate a question.
• Identify key words and related words.
• Extract needed information.

1.1.2 Skimming
This technique allows you to find the main ideas or themes without paying attention to
detail. It is a fast process. A single chapter should take only a few minutes. It is especially
useful when there are a few headings or graphic elements to gain an overview of a text.
Examples
• Skimming a report for information that is relevant to your department and
operational area

• Previewing a text before reading it in detail

Advantages:
• Save time
• Provide a context for further reading
• Determine usefulness of a text or book

A suggested skimming process:

• Read headings, sub-headings, first sentences of paragraphs quickly
• Identify the key words
• Examine lists, illustrations, graphs, tables or diagrams and their captions
• Filter - find information on the topic you need
• Extract main points
• Rank the information found in order of importance
• State main ideas

1.1.3 Study/ intensive reading

Intensive reading is detailed focused reading because your purpose is to recall
information. This type of reading requires concentration and active involvement in the text.
You are required to analyse and evaluate information. You usually use it once you have
previewed an article and used the techniques of skimming and scanning to find what you
need to concentrate on. Then you can slow down and do some intensive reading. This
type of reading is also beneficial to language learners as it helps them understand
vocabulary by deducing the meaning of words in context. It moreover, helps with retention

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of information for long periods of time and gaining of knowledge. You will usually use this
type of reading when you need an in-depth grasp of the subject matter.

Examples
• Any reading which requires understanding and detailed recall of information.

The following aspects play a role in intensive reading:

• Who is the writer and who is the intended audience?
• What is the passage about? (the subject matter)
• Why is the author writing this passage i.e. what is the intention? Is it to inform, to
complain, to instruct, to persuade, to argue, etc?
• How is the message communicated? How does the writer express
himself/herself? What kind of language is used?
• Which organisational features are used? Organisational features refer to
headings, sub-headings, paragraphing, numbering, diagrams, pictures, etc.

Steps for intensive reading:

• Skim the text for the main ideas, key words (words that tell you who, what, when,
where, how many, and how much), and transition markers (words like 'however',
'alternatively', 'additionally', and so on), which suggest the direction of ideas in the
text.
• Ask yourself questions such as who, when, what, where, how.
• Make notes in your own words to facilitate recall.
• Summarise your notes as it allows you to test your understanding and it provides
you with a compact account of the text for further reference.
• Review and reflect as it enhances your understanding and helps you to commit
important facts and ideas to your long-term memory.

1.2 Pre-reading strategies

What you bring to the printed page will affect how you understand what you read, and may
be what is most important in understanding what you read. Strategies to activate your prior
knowledge are:

1.2.1 Brainstorming
• Examine the title of the text you are about to read
• List all the information that comes to mind about this title

1.2.2 Group discussions

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Group discussions in and out of class will help you to discover what you know and what
other students can contribute to your knowledge. Discussing an assignment prior to
reading provides a basic context.

1.2.3 Concept or mind mapping

This is a type of brainstorming where you place the title/subject as the main idea, then
develop a "mind map" around it. It can be effective either in a group or by yourself

1.2.4 Pre-questions
Often chapters in texts provide organizing questions. You can also write out a series of
questions you expect to be answered when reading, e.g.
Definition - What is....? Where does ... fit? What group does ... belong to?
Characteristics - How would I describe...? What does ... look like? What are its parts?

1.2.5 Visual aids

Pictures and other visual material can activate your prior knowledge.

1.2.6 Vocabulary previews

Unfamiliar key words need to be discussed with students before reading so that new
words, background information, and comprehension can improve together. List all words
in the assignment that may be important for students to understand. Arrange words to
show the relationships to the learning task. Add words students probably already
understand to connect relationships between what is known and the unknown. Share
information with students.

1.2.7 Structural organizers

Before reading an assignment, basic frameworks which are included in the text should be
pointed out such as cause-effect or problem-solution. It can be beneficial to call attention
to specific plans of paragraph or text organization such as signal words, main idea
sentences, highlighted phrases, headings and subtitles. A review of skimming techniques
might also be appropriate as these various areas are covered.

1.3 Reading skills and strategies

1.3.1 3 R's for academic survival
R1 - READ. Read the text paragraph by paragraph. Read and re-read until you can
answer the question: "What did the author say in this paragraph?"

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R2 - RECORD. Once you are able to describe what is in the paragraph, you will want to
retain that learning by making notes.
R3 - RECITE. Cover up your notes or the text page and recite aloud. Remember! If you
cannot say it now, you will not be able to say it tomorrow in class, nor write it in a week in
an exam.

1.3.2 SQ3R method for thorough study

Step 1: Survey - skim through the text and read topical and sub-topical headings and
sentences. Read the summaries at the end of chapters. Try to anticipate what the author
is going to say. Write these notes on paper, in sequence; then look over the notes to get
an overall idea or picture. This will enable you to see where you are going.
Step 2: Questions - instead of reading a heading as a statement, e.g. "Basic Concepts of
Reading," change it to a question, e.g. "What are the Basic Concepts of Reading?" Write
these questions out; look over the questions to see the emphasis and direction; then
attempt to give plausible answers before further reading.
Step 3: Read and write notes in your own words to create a skeleton or Mind-map.
Step 4: Recall - without looking at your text or notes, mentally visualize and sketch, in your
own words, the main points of the material immediately upon completing the reading.
Step 5: Review - look at your questions, answers and notes to see how well you recalled.
Take note of the points stated incorrectly or omitted. Create a logical sequence of the
entire idea, concepts, or problem so that you have a mental picture of the whole.

1.3.3 Strategies for reading academic texts

Try the following with any text you need to read:
Think about your reasons for reading the text before reading:
• Are you interested because it is about your subject, or it is related to your
subject?
• Do you want background information or detailed information?
• Do you want to know what the writer's views are?
• Are you are going to have a discussion?
• Are you going to write an essay or assignment on this subject later?

Each reason will influence the way you read:

• Predict what the text is about by reading the title, sub-headings and looking at
photos or illustrations. Think about what you already know on this topic.
• Write down what you would like to find out from the text. You could write actual
questions you would like to find answers to.
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 • Make a note of words or phrases connected with the topic that you may find in
the text.

During the reading process:

• Survey the text: read the first and last paragraphs and the first and last sentences
of the other paragraphs. How close were your predictions? Do you have a very
general idea what the different parts are about?
• Identify your purpose for reading. If you are looking for specific information, read
the part where you think the information will be. If you want a general idea of the
whole text, read the whole text.
• Write the main ideas down in 1 or 2 sentences. What your first response to the
text? Do you find it interesting, informative, well-argued, boring, illogical and
inaccurate?
• Do a second more careful reading, marking any new words that are important for
your understanding.
• Check on the main idea and revise what you wrote if necessary.
• Decide what the supporting ideas are. How do they relate to the main idea? Put all
the ideas together in notes or a mind map.

After reading the text:

• Make a list of the new words which you think will be useful in future:
▪ Definitions of the words
▪ Indications of whether they are nouns, verbs, adjectives etc.
▪ Phrases in which the word occurs
▪ Synonyms
▪ Other forms of the words, e.g. counsellor (noun)= a person who helps and
advises people who have problems, counsel (verb), to advise
• Evaluate what you have read. How does it fit into what you already think and know?
Does it confirm your ideas; add to them; conflict with them? If there are opinions,
do you agree or disagree with them? Understand the reading process.

When experts read difficult texts, they read "actively." This includes adjusting their reading
speed - they tend to read very slowly, and re-read sections often. They make notes as
they read and keep a dictionary close by - one for basic words they donor understand, and
another more specific, subject oriented dictionary. Circle or make a note of any word or
concept you do not understand, and look it up, then write down the meaning in your own
words, or in easy to understand words. We all need to work hard to learn and develop a
specialized vocabulary. Reading with the proper tools close by will help you to succeed.
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1.3.4 "Chunk" or break up the reading.
When you have to read a difficult text break the text down into parts, i.e. sentences,
paragraphs or sections. The main point is that writers use words to do different things. An
experienced reader will break down the reading into chunks and say "this part is giving
evidence for a claim the writer made" and "this part summarizes the argument" and "this
part is telling me what is to come in the next section?" If you can break a text up into logical
parts, it will help you to understand and remember the reading.

1.3.5 Converse with the author

Most texts are designed to change the reader's mind or convince the reader of something.
Your job as a reader is to understand what the text is saying, but also to enter into a
conversation with the author. As you begin to understand what the author is saying, ask
yourself if you agree or disagree. Listen, react - write it down. If you were in a "live"
conversation, you would be playing an active part – it is the same when you are reading.
(Not all reading material is a conversation - for instance, a technical manual on wiring
electrical circuits is probably pretty factual, but at some level in every discipline, there are
conversations and arguments going on.)

1.3.6 Try writing "what it says" and "what it does."

When you are reading, take a paragraph and write a sentence, in your own words, that re-
states what the paragraph says (this is hard, but worth the effort!). Then, think about what
the paragraph "does" for the author: i.e., gives evidence, summarizes someone else's
argument, or provides background information. Or, if the paragraph is filled with a myriad
of technical facts and information - try to summarize them into one or two main points in
your own words. This active process will help you to remember what the paragraph is
saying.

1.3.7 Drawing conclusions and making inferences

Drawing conclusions refers to information that is implied or inferred. This means that the
information is never clearly stated.Writers often tell you more than they say directly. They
give you hints or clues that help you "read between the lines." Using these clues helps to
give you a deeper understanding of your reading. When you draw conclusions, you go
beyond the surface details to see other meanings that the details suggest or imply but that
are not stated directly. When the meanings of words are not stated clearly in the context
of the text, they may be implied, i.e. suggested or hinted at. You draw conclusions every

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day. Most of the time you do so without thinking about it. Suppose you are sitting in your
car at a red traffic light. You hear screeching tires, then a loud crash and breaking glass.
You see nothing, but you draw a conclusion that there has been a car accident. We all
know the sounds of screeching tires and a crash. We know that these sounds almost
always mean a car accident. Drawing conclusions means choosing the most likely
explanation from the facts at hand.

There are several ways to help you draw conclusions from what an author may be
implying. The following are descriptions of the various ways to aid you in reaching a
conclusion:

• General sense

The meaning of a word may be implied by the general sense of its context, as the
meaning of the word incarcerated is implied in the following sentence:
Murderers are usually incarcerated for longer periods of time than robbers.
You may infer the meaning of incarcerated by answering the question "What usually
happens to those found guilty of murder or robbery?" If you answered that they are
locked up in prison, you correctly inferred the meaning of incarcerated.

• Examples

When the meaning of the word is not implied by the general sense of its context, it may be
implied by examples. For instance,
People who enjoy going to clubs or parties, and who like spending time with friends are
gregarious.
You may infer the meaning of gregarious by answering the question, "How would you
describe people who often go to clubs or parties a lot, and spend a lot of time with friends?"
If you answered “outgoing” or "people who enjoy the company of others", you correctly
inferred the meaning of gregarious.

• Antonyms and contrasts

When the meaning of a word is not implied by the context of a sentence, it may be implied
by an antonym or by a contrasting thought. Antonyms are words that have opposite
meanings. For instance,
Ben is fearless, but his brother is timorous.

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You may infer the meaning of timorous by answering the question, "If Ben is fearless and
Jim reacts differently to fear, then which word describes Jim?"If you answered afraid, or
fearful, you inferred the meaning of timorous.
A contrast in the following sentence implies the meaning of credence:
Dad gave credence to my story, but Mom's reaction was one of total disbelief.
You may infer the meaning of credence by answering the question, "If Mom's reaction was
disbelief and Dad's reaction was very different from Mom's, what was Dad's reaction?"If
you answered that Dad believed the story, you correctly inferred the meaning of credence;
it means belief.
In drawing conclusions (making inferences), you are really getting at the ultimate meaning
of things – what is important, why it is important, how one event influences another, how
one happening leads to another.

1.3.8 Making sense of confusing sentences

Sentences that are very long or that contain difficult vocabulary and/or grammatical
structures, can be confusing and difficult to understand. Although there is no easy formula
to clarify these sentences, the following tips will help them make sense. Try to determine
what makes the sentence difficult.
• Divide the sentences where there are connectors. What are connectors? Words or
phrases which are used to develop ideas. Each idea should be linked to the one
that comes before or after it. Examples are:
▪ and, also, in addition, moreover, furthermore, as well as, again, besides,
etc. – to add an idea or to develop an argument.
▪ for example, consider, to illustrate, for instance, specifically, thus, etc., - to
give an example.
▪ therefore, accordingly, so, because, as, consequently, for this reason, as a
result, etc.- to show cause and effect.
▪ thus, above all, it is important, in fact, etc.- to put emphasis on certain ideas.
▪ clearly, in conclusion, then, therefore, thus, to conclude, to summarize,
finally, etc., - to conclude an idea or text.
▪ at that time, eventually, presently, soon, while, currently, in the past,
subsequently, etc. - to indicate a sequence of events in chronological order.
▪ firstly, secondly, finally, etc. – to enumerate or list
▪ both, similarly, but, however, in contrast to, etc. – to compare and contrast
• Underline reference words. What do they refer to?

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 • Find the subjects, verbs and objects which go together, and if necessary, write the
sentence out in a different way to show the meaning.
• Recognize important grammatical and punctuation clues that change the meaning
of a sentence, e.g.
▪ Affixes: Warmer weather is not uncommon this time of the year.
▪ Punctuation: Barry asked: “George has been elected president?”

1.3.9 Fact or opinion

Since writers do not always say things directly, it is sometimes difficult to figure out what
a writer really means or what he or she is really trying to say. You will need to learn to
distinguish between fact and opinion. Writers often tell us what they think or how they feel,
but they do not always give us the facts. It is important to be able to interpret what the
writer is saying so you can form opinions of your own. As you read an author's views, you
should ask yourself if the author is presenting you with an established fact or with a
personal opinion. Since the two may appear in the same sentence, you have to be able to
distinguish between them.
The key difference between facts and opinions is that facts can be verified, or checked for
accuracy, by anyone. In contrast, opinions cannot be checked. Opinions are what
someone thinks or how he/she feels about an issue. Opinions by definition are subjective
and relative.

• Defining a fact

Facts are objective, concrete bits of information. They can be found in official government
and legal records, and in the physical sciences. Objective facts are what researchers seek
in laboratories or through controlled studies. Facts are usually expressed by precise
numbers or quantities, in weights and measures, and in concrete language. Specific
technological data, birth records, historical documents, all provide researchers with
reliable facts.
To sum up, facts
▪ can be verified in reference books, official records, and so forth.
▪ are expressed in concrete language or specific numbers.
▪ once verified, are generally agreed upon by people.
• Determining an opinion

Opinions are based on subjective judgment and personal values rather than on information
that can be verified. An opinion is a belief that someone holds without complete proof or

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positive knowledge that it is correct. Even experts who have studied the same issue
carefully often have very different opinions about that issue.
Opinions are often disputed, and many times involve abstract concepts and complex moral
issues such as fairness and loyalty. Abstract concepts, because they are not easily
understood, can never be defined to everyone's satisfaction. For example, each of us
holds a personal opinion about what fairness or loyalty is, about gun control and abortion,
and these issues always remain a matter of opinion, not fact.
Although opinions cannot be verified for accuracy, writers should, nevertheless, back their
opinions with evidence, facts, and reason if they want to convince the reader that it is a
valid opinion. A valid opinion is one in which the writer's support for his or her opinion is
solid and persuasive, and one in which the writer cites other respected authorities who are
in agreement. If a writer presents an extreme or unconvincing opinion, the reader should
remain wary.

Readers should be able to identify subjective opinions by studying the writer's language.
▪ Opinions are often expressed as comparisons (more, strongest, less, most, least
efficient, but), e.g. The painter Pablo Picasso was far more innovative than any of
his contemporaries.
▪ Opinions are often expressed by adjectives (brilliant, vindictive, fair, trustworthy),
e.g.Thabo Mbeki is a convincing speaker when he reads a prepared address but
is not effective at press conferences.
▪ Opinions are often introduced by verbs and adverbs that suggest some doubt in
the writer's mind, e.g. Itappears to be a solution to our problem. They probably
used dirty tricks to win.

Become an alert and critical reader. Understand the differences between facts and
opinions, and interpret and apply both to your critical thinking.

1.4 Comprehension and analysing skills

An important aspect of understanding and analysing a written text can be linked to
understanding questions.

1.4.1 Types of questions:

• Contextual/factual questions (who, what, where and when). Answers to these
questions are always in the text.

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• Interpretative/inferential questions test your ability to understand beyond what is
written. You have to consider the attitude, style and tone of the writer and also draw
conclusions based on the text and your own experience.
• Language usage questions are asked in context and relate to word meanings,
grammar, punctuation and figurative language.
• Style questions are used to determine whether a text is written in a narrative,
descriptive, formal, scientific, etc. style.
• Tone questions are used to determine the feelings, moods and attitudes that are
conveyed in the text.
• Questions about the writer’s intentions, i.e. the purpose, help to determine whether
a text is informative, educational, argumentative, persuasive, etc.
• Questions that require the reader to offer an opinion and to substantiate the
opinion. These questions can relate to assessing situations, characters, feelings,
actions, etc.

1.4.2 Instruction words

It is essential to understand what you are required to do when answering questions.
Understanding instruction words will help you in this regard.
Instruction Explanation
word
analyse Look at carefully and discuss section by section
argue Debate and give supporting reasons/use opinions, facts & evidence
assess Consider, evaluate, calculate
compare Find qualities that are similar
comment Offer your opinion or criticism
consider Think about carefully/ pay attention to
contrast Explain differences
convey Impart, transmit ideas and information
convince Change the opinion
debate Discuss both sides of an issue before reaching a conclusion
depict Describe
describe Explain or give a detailed account
discuss Debate an issue/ introduce different viewpoints
explain Make something clear/provide reasons or explanations
explore Investigate something in order to learn about it
identify Name or classify something

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 illustrate Explain by means of examples
indicate Point out/make known
inform Tell or notify
interpret Give your specific viewpoint or understanding
justify Back up your answer/opinion with reasons, evidence or examples
motivate Justify or give reasons for your answer
name/list Give an account of names/events/advantages, etc. without an
explanation
paraphrase Rewrite something in your own words without changing the
meaning
portray Describe clearly
prove Demonstrate by providing evidence or argument
quote Repeat in inverted commas the exact words from the text
relate Tell or narrate/show the connection between aspects
show Support your position with facts or evidence
state Express fully or clearly, specify
substantiate Support your answer with facts, reasons or opinions
summarise Give only the main points in the order in which they occur

REFERENCE LIST

1. Bishop, J., Carter, C. & Kravits, S. Keys to effective learning/developing

powerful habits of mind.4th ed. Upper Saddle River, NewJersey:Pearson
Education, Inc.,
2. Crawford, J. A college study skills manual: ten tips for academic success.
Cambridge Strafford, Ltd
3. Lutrin, B. & Pincus, M. English handbook and study guide. Johannesburg: Berlut
Books.
4. http://www.studygs.net/preread.htm

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 UNIT 2
COMMUNICATION THEORY

2.1 WHAT IS COMMUNICATION?

Definition:
Communication is the dynamic process of creating meaning between two or more
people through the expression and interpretation of a message.

Without effective communication your private and business life would be in chaos. You
will find that the lack of communication is the cause of most
personal conflicts and misunderstandings
divorces
failed business deals
strikes and labour unrest
poor decision making
wrong choices
unsuccessful job interviews, etc.

With effective communication your life will be much more successful and enjoyable. You
will find that your rate of success will be reflected in your
personal relationships
marriage
increased productivity
promotion and achievements
lack of stress and frustration
peace of mind
happiness, etc.
PURPOSES OF COMMUNICATION

2.1.1 GOODWILL
In private and business situations we want to make a good impression on others,
not merely to get a good deal or to be advantaged in any way, but also for the
improvement of self-esteem and confidence. We relate to others and in the process
we build relationships. We need to get on with others and to cultivate friendships,
foster healthy work relationships with colleagues, managers, clients, suppliers, etc.
How we communicate with others will influence trust, respect and cooperation.

2.1.2 INFORMATION
We constantly need to obtain, provide, share or exchange information about work-
related issues, or private matters even just to find out about the weather for
tomorrow or the price of an article. The exchange of information should be based
on the truth, objective and factual.

2.1.3 PERSUASION
Persuasion implies that we want others to believe, want, do, think the same as we
do. We all like to get our own way and to do that you need to persuade others.
Motivation and encouragement come through the words we speak and the non-
verbal messages we send. We tend to be much more subjective and emotional in
our choice of words – all advertising IS persuasion and not always or necessarily
the truth.

2.1.4 ENTERTAINMENT
Communication to entertain is NOT part of the business world, but a story or a joke
here and there could also build goodwill. Entertainment is provided through fiction,
anecdotes, relating an embarrassing experience, listening to an appropriate song
or going to the movies – all of these are not to be taken too seriously and their
purpose is to provide relief or escape from too much information.
2.2 MODELS OF COMMUNICATION

2.2.1 TRANSACTIONAL MODEL

ELEMENTS:

SENDER (also called the speaker or transmitter) is the creator or initiator of a message
thought up in the mind. A person should first think of some idea before sending that thought
to someone else.

ENCODE means to put the thought into a code to make it accessible to someone else -
this could be verbal or non-verbal language.

• Verbal language refers to communication using words that can either be

spoken or written.
In spoken communication, non-verbal language can influence the content
being discussed e.g. the volume of the speaker’s voice, gestures, facial
expression, etc. In written communication, in a letter, non-verbal language
can enhance the message, e.g. the size of a word in relation to the rest of
the text, the specific font chosen, a logo or picture, colour of the printing or
the paper, etc.
 • Non-verbal language refers to communication without using words but
through signs, pictures, body language, etc. Refer to Unit 2.

MESSAGE is the information/thought/content/meaning which needs to be communicated

DECODE means to take the information out of the code which means to interpret or
understand the message

RECEIVER (also called the listener) is the person to whom the message is directed. To
be of any value the receiver has to interpret this message.

TRANSMISSION is the medium through which the message is transferred – the type of
medium is determined by the situation in which it is used (time/place/circumstances).

TYPES of TRANSMISSION (also called PRODUCTS of communication)

Written Spoken Non-verbal

book speech sketch or diagram
e-mail interview picture
letter lecture road sign
sms radio clothing
fax face-to-face facial expression
notice meeting gesture
road directive television movement
newspaper, etc telephone, etc colour, etc.

FEEDBACK (also referred to as the response or reaction) is given by the receiver of the
message back to the sender – in this process the receiver now becomes the sender and
the original sender becomes the receiver. This continues in a circular flow from one to the
other.

INTERFERENCE (also called barriers to communication) refers to anything that can

negatively influence the flow of communication which will result in misunderstanding or
complete incomprehension. The interference can occur at any stage during the
communication process. Refer to Unit 2 where the barriers are extensively discussed.

More about barriers to effective communication

• PHYSICAL BARRIERS
Physical barriers are EXTERNAL, meaning these barriers exist OUTSIDE of the
listener – the listener has no control over these barriers. A physical barrier is a
REAL barrier that you perceive through your senses: aural (what you can HEAR)
or visual (what you can SEE) or to a lesser extent the other senses (taste, smell
and touch) could also interfere with the listening process.

Examples:
The loud sound of the radio or television distracting the listener
Someone walking in late during a lecture
A telephone or cellphone starts ringing
People talking behind the listener
A microphone which is defective and crackles
Building operations just outside the building
Wailing sirens of police cars or the fire brigade
A bomb explosion or a car accident
Etc.

The following barriers are INTERNAL interferences – they concern the individual
himself and are within, INSIDE himself. The listener has control over these barriers
if he chooses to be aware of them and they don’t affect other people around the
listener.

• PHYSIOLOGICAL BARRIERS
`Physiological’ refers to a person’s body, therefore those bodily conditions that will
interfere with the communication process. Remember a physiotherapist works with
a person’s BODY after an accident, injury or operation.

The most obvious physiological barrier to effective listening is DEAFNESS. If a

person is deaf, misunderstanding is actually inevitable and will occur frequently
and easily, purely because the listener cannot HEAR the speaker.
Examples:
Illness – migraine, headache, pain, fever, etc
Drunkenness – ever tried to communicate meaningfully with a drunk person?
Exhaustion - tiredness
Drugs – a person under the influence of drugs cannot concentrate and will not see
the reason for listening. Drugs change a person’s personality!
Medication – the effects of medication are always included in the packaging.
Etc.

• PSYCHOLOGICAL BARRIERS
Psychological’ refers to a person’s MIND – what he thinks, anticipates, assumes,
fears, looking forward to, etc. There may be good reasons WHY a person feels the
way he does (like being extremely nervous before an interview), but being aware
of the possibility of misunderstanding, will be to your advantage

Examples:
A NEGATIVE attitude towards the TOPIC
Personal dislike or disrespect of the SPEAKER
Assuming the task will be too difficult or too easy
Assuming you know more than the speaker about the topic
Doubting the speaker’s knowledge of the topic
A feeling of superiority/inferiority in the listener
Tension or stress in the listener or speaker
Nervousness
Emotion – anger/fear/distrust/worry
Etc

• PERCEPTUAL BARRIERS
Perceptual’ barriers refer to your BACKGROUND or previous EXPERIENCE that
cause you to think the way you do. All past experience influences the way we
perceive what someone tells us – if a so-called friend has been proven to tell you
lies, you will not believe or trust that person again!

Perceptions are dangerous as they are neither true nor false – it is what you THINK
without definite proof!
 Examples:
Frame of reference – if you don’t need a product, you won’t listen to the
salesperson’s presentation
Culture and upbringing – if you think your own culture is vastly superior to others,
you won’t listen to their opinions
Values and beliefs – in a discussion on religion, you focus on you own belief and
not that of the speaker
Educational level – we are inclined not to listen to a child because we think they
don’t know anything
Age – we assume that someone much younger or older doesn’t
understand our point of view – the generation gap!
Gender – if you think women are inferior to men, you won’t really listen to your
female boss
IQ – assuming that another person is stupid, will prevent you from listening to any
suggestions
Status – having an inflated idea of yourself or the speaker
Prejudice – racism, sexism, religious intolerance, etc
Self-esteem – lack of confidence in yourself and your abilities

• SEMANTIC BARRIERS
`Semantic’ refers to any LANGUAGE barrier that may occur – either because you
don’t know that particular language or even when the speaker uses a language
you know.

Examples:
An unknown, foreign language the listener doesn’t understand
Limited VOCABULARY
TECHNICAL language
Pronunciation
Accent
Word order strange to the listener
In writing, SPELLING could be a problem
HOMONYMNS – words which sound the same but have different meanings
Etc

These barriers can occur at different STAGES in the communication process: between
the deliverance of the message or the understanding of the message by the listener, or
between the understanding of the listener and the feedbackbeing delivered. In the
spoken situation, this misunderstanding or non-communication can be
rectifiedimmediately and easily, or the message can be repeated, but in written
communication this may take much longer.

2.2.2 CMAPP MODEL

Unlike the transactional model, the CMAPP model was designed specifically for
engineering and other technical communication. This model is particularly useful to
engineers to communicate effectively and efficiently in the workplace.

ELEMENTS OF THE CMAPP MODEL:

• CONTEXT- Refers to the situation in which the communication occurs. It

may include, but isn’t limited to
o Personal relationships with and among audiences
o Time (when?) and place (where?)
o All circumstances that may influence the people and the
communication involved
o External and internal interference (barriers) that might affect the
communication
• MESSAGE - Refers to the contentof the communication.Here the focus is
on what is actually to be communicated. The message may include
o The facts, issues or questions that are communicated
o Details
o A primary and a secondary message

• AUDIENCE refers to the people who are actually going to receive the
message – who are they? How much do they already know and what do
they need to know? How will this benefit them?

Distinguish between
PRIMARY audience – the people listening to you, the first reader of
the memo, the recipient of the letter
SECONDARY audience –additional people who will receive this
information – copies to other stakeholders, etc.

• PURPOSE refers to the reason/motivation why you are communicating this

information. What are you trying to achieve with the communication? What
is the reaction you expect from the audience? What is the response you
wish to elicit?

• PRODUCT refers to the physical form in which the information is presented.

The product in other words refers to how the message gets communicated.
The choice of product will affect AND be affected by the context, message,
audience, and purpose. The product could include the following:
o memos
o presentations
o e-mails
o advertisements
o reports
o telephone conversations
o face-to-face conversations
o meetings with clients, etc.
The purpose of a CMAPP analysis

To achieve the most effective and most efficient communication in any particular
scenario.

CMAPP analysis tips

Before deciding on a particular product (or a combination of products) to communicate a

particular message, it is essential to do a detailed analysis of all the CMAPP elements.
Examine each of the elements in detail. Once you do your analysis you will start noticing
how the various elements affect one another, for example:
• Knowing more about your audience (who?) helps determine your context (where?
when?)
• Knowledge about your context helps you identify the particular audience.
• Knowing your audience helps you to identify and refine your purpose.
• As you refine your purpose, you get a better idea of the most appropriate product.
• Your choice of product is also dependent on your audience, which in turn affects
your message, which itself affects… and so forth.

Start adapting (refining) all elements and decide on the most appropriate product based
on your analysis.

Although you are consciously doing a CMAPP analysis using pen and paper to
communicate more effectively and efficiently, you will find that over time you will start
considering all these elements subconsciously and therefore become a better
communicator. This will become a great asset for you as an engineer.

Complimentary attributes of CMAPP often referred to in the workplace:

• 5WH Who? Why? When? What? Where? (focus on facts)
• KISS `Keep it simple, stupid!’
• ABC Accuracy, Brevity, Clarity
• CFF Content, Form and Format
• CAP Concise, Accessible and Precise
REFERENCE LIST
1. Ingre, D. 2008. Engineering communication. Toronto: Thomson Nelson Ltd
 UNIT 3
COMMON PRODUCTS USED BY ENGINEERS

1. Inter-office memoranda

The memorandum, commonly referred to as a ‘memo’, is a message sent through the

internal post of an organisation as opposed to a letter that is usually used for external
information. The memo is used mainly to convey information or instructions. It may also
be used to inform staff of important matters, such as policy changes or to draw their
attention to a topical issue. It may be used to notify staff members of internal activities, as
well to confirm a discussion or decisions taken at an informal meeting. It maintains the flow
of information across the levels or ranks of an organisation. It can move up or down in an
organisation and the level of formality depends on the purpose, content and the people
concerned.

The memo may be used inter-departmentally, within a company, in one office, or between
headquarters and branch offices. As each memo should deal with one subject only, it is
generally easy to understand and unambiguous.

The memo should be kept short and concise, but clarity should never be sacrificed to
brevity. Vague, impolite and ambiguous inter-office memoranda may lead to frustration,
annoyance and misunderstandings.

Although memos are less formal than business letters or reports, they may not be written
in telegram style. The writer has to adhere to normal requirements of good prose and the
correct use of grammar.

No introduction or closing paragraph is used, as the writer states his subject and purpose
immediately. The memo must be signed or initialed at the end, and must contain the
following information:

• The name of the company.

• The names of the sender and the recipient, stating title, initials and surname in both
instances.
• The department and designation of the sender.
• The date on which the memo is sent.
• A reference number.
• A heading, stating the subject of the memo

EASIGO CYCLES
MEMORANDUM
TO: Harold Black, Technician
FROM: Joseph Clark, Manager
DATE: 1 May 2017
SUBJECT: Adjustments and changes to Velocity Racing Cycle

Mr. Green bought a racing cycle from us two weeks ago and was unhappy with a number
of aspects of the bike. He has returned it and wants to collect it before the weekend. I have
attached a list of adjustments and changes to be made and would like you to start work on
it immediately. Please order all the parts today, to be sent immediately courier by.

Mr. Green has been a customer of ours for many years, and we owe him good service.
Make this bike yourfirst priority for the next few days and please do the work personally.

J Clark

Format of memorandum (Cleary 2008:149)

Most organisations have printed memo stationary with headings that eliminate the need
for formal inside addresses, salutations and closings. If an organisation has no prepared
forms, headings may be typed at the top of the page.

NAME OF COMPANY / LOGO

MEMORANDUM

TO:

FROM:
 DATE:

SUBJECT:

To line: If a courtesy title is used (Mr., Ms, Mrs., Dr) in the ‘To’ line, then you should use
your courtesy title in the ‘From’ line. The job title (Human Resources Manager) is usually
included, especially in large companies to avoid confusion. When the memo is addressed
to several people, the ‘To’ line has multiple names.
To: Public Committee OR
M Daniels
K Maree

From line: A courtesy title is not usually given (except during the above example). The job
title is give in some circumstances, for example in a large company where the writer is not
known to the recipient.

Subject:Stating the subject of the memo lets the reader know at a glance what the memo
is about. The wording should be concise, meaningful and clear.

For example: SUBJECT: REQUEST FOR LEAVE OF ABSENCE

Complimentary close: Although there is no complimentary close, memoranda are usually

signed or initialed at the end

AFRICAN ENGINEERS
MEMORANDUM

TO: All employees

FROM: F Williamson
GENERAL MANAGER

DATE: 5 March 2017

SUBJECT: SCREENING FOR HIGH CHOLESTEROL

 The company will provide a cholesterol test for all employees who wish to participate
during work hours on 10 and 11 April in the outdoor lunch areas next to the
Administration Building.

A high cholesterol level is a serious condition that increases the risk of heart disease
and other illnesses. However, high cholesterol is readily controlled under the care of
one’s physician. The test is quick and entirely painless.

This screening is voluntary, and you are under no obligation to be tested. Results will
be communicated to you immediately. No record of your test will be kept by the
company.

Contact your supervisors or department heads before 30 March to arrange a suitable

time for an appointment if you wish to participate.

FW

Checklist
• Is the message well laid out so that its appearance is attractive?
• Are all the words spelt correctly and is the message properly punctuated?
• Does the message cover all the essential points and is the information given correct?
• Is the message clear, concise and courteous?
• Is the message written from the reader’s point of view and will it be readily understood?
• Does the general tone sound natural and sincere and will it increase the impression
intended?
• Is it the kind of letter I should like to receive if I were in the reader’s place?

2. Electronic communication
Electronic communication is fast replacing paperwork in the workplace for many reasons.
The main advantages of electronic communication are speed and accessibility. Delivery
of messages is instant, as there is no need to print, copy and physically deliver a message
on paper. If an employee is at home or in another town, he or she can access his/her e-
mail from a remote computer. The same applies to SMS, which can be sent anywhere in
the country. Electronic messages can be saved or printed to keep in a more permanent
format. Files can be attached to an e-mail message, which can be opened in the
appropriate programme and saved.

The main disadvantages of electronic communication are overload and recipient non-
availability. Junk mail can cause inboxes to become clogged and important mail can be
overlooked as a result. If mail is not saved or printed for reference, a message can be
easily forgotten. The same is true of SMS. If a message is insulting or derogatory, it can
be used against the sender as written proof.

3. E-MAIL

INTRODUCTION
E-mail or electronic mail is becoming a very popular method of communication in the
modem office. E-mail is the Internet's messaging infrastructure. With the Internet, e-mail
is cheap and it is easy to communicate with anybody who has an Internet e-mail address.

E-mail is suitable for both business and home use.

Example of an e-mail message

Guidelines for writing e-mail messages

• Keep your audience in mind and make sure that an appropriate tone, style, register
and format are used.
• Keep your message short and to the point. Rather attach a separate document before
trying to put too much information into the message itself.
• Use a subject-line to identify the topic of your message.
• Keep in mind that an e-mail message is a written, permanent record, and make sure
that your message is not rude, insulting, offensive or angry.
• Do not send junk mail and chain letters.
• Keep in mind that the recipient may not check his/her e-mail regularly. Phone if you do
not get a response.
Guidelines for using SMS in the workplace
• Keep your audience in mind and use an appropriate style.
• Do not use abbreviations unless you are sure they will be understood.

4. QUESTIONNAIRES AND FILL-IN FORMS

A questionnaire is a lot of questions that were designed to elicit answers from a target
audience to obtain specific information, facts or opinions on a particular issue or problem
from which conclusions will be drawn. The questions are specifically formulated to provide
the required data. Questions should be carefully planned for efficiency and could be
designed so that the computer could analyse the results.

Questionnaires are an efficient and inexpensive way of eliciting a large number of

responses from a defined group of people, such as housewives, teenagers or prospective
buyers, and are used for recording opinions about company products and services. The
document is designed to get the necessary information in the right order.

When designing a questionnaire, the following guidelines should be kept in mind.

• Questions should be asked to which the answer must be a simple “yes / no / maybe”.
All possibilities must be accommodated.
• Questions should be clear, relevant, specific and unambiguous.
• Instructions should be clear and easy to understand, and should not include too many
possibilities.
• Questions should be arranged logically and subdivided into categories which should
start on separate lines with sufficient space for “Yes/No,” multiple choice or ‘free’
answers.
• The format, design and eye appeal must be considered.
• Questions must be limited to topics for which information from another source is
unavailable.
• If questions are too general, the answers will be useless and impossible to analyse.
• Questions should be specific and phrased carefully to facilitate quick answers.
Wording should be clear, direct, simple and should not contain generalisations or
words with vague meanings.
• Answers must be limited so that only relevant information is provided. Answers should
not demand a detailed ‘open’ answer.
• Deadlines for returning the questionnaire should be included.

Summary: Questionnaires should be:

• An efficient and inexpensive method of obtaining information.
• Can be used with a large number of people.
• Scientifically valid and objective.
• Can be used for telephone, mail and personal surveys.
• Often used in compiling reports.

Guidelines for questionnaires

• Questions must be relevant to topic being researched.
• Instructions should be user friendly.
• Design and format should be attractive and eye-catching.
• Responses should be easy to record and tabulate.
• Deadlines for returning questionnaire must be included.
Example
Fill-in forms
• Used to obtain information, for example personal details.
• Used in applications, for example credit, employment.
• Signature on form certifies correctness – legally binding.
• Permanent record, for example bank details.

Guidelines for filling out forms

• Use a ballpoint pen.
• Read through the whole form before answering.
• Do not leave any questions unanswered – write ‘not applicable’.
• Sign the form before submitting it.
• Obey all instructions, for example use block letters, underline or cross out.

5. HOW TO COMPILE A COVER PAGE FOR ASSIGNMENTS

SITE DEVELOPMENT REVISE: BABSFONTEIN

by

Emily Ntuli: 209012126

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the

NATIONAL DIPLOMA IN TECHNOLOGY

GEOMATICS

in the

Department of Geomatics

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING

TSHWANE UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY

 Lecturer:

10 January 2017

6. LETTER WRITING

Letters are the main form of business communication.

• Are a cheap form of communication.
• Are a permanent record of a transaction.
• Have a professional impact.
• Give the receiver time to formulate a reply.
• Can reach places with no telephones or fax machines.
• Have an effect on the company’s image – either positive or negative.

Uses:
• To obtain information – letters of enquiry
• To get something done – letters of complaint
• To supply information – letters of invitation; application; reply
• To persuade – sales; advertising letters
• To express an opinion – letters to the press

General guidelines
• Keep the purpose of the letter in mind.
• Consider the reader’s level of understanding.
• Use correct, clear, coherent and courteous language.
• Reply promptly to letters received.
• Admit to any error, accept responsibility and correct the error.
• Apologise for any inconvenience or loss suffered.
• Be sincere and understanding.
• Always be polite and helpful in order to create goodwill.
Explanation of the parts of a business letter

ABC ENTERPRISES (1)

P.O.Box 1234 19 Johnson Avenue
Pretoria Pretoria (2)
0001 0001
Facebook address Twitter address
Website Email address

Our Ref: No. B/7 (3) 5 April 2017 (4)

For Attention: Mr. Brown (5)

Mr. R. Brown
The Manager
XCELL Ltd.
PO Box 1301 (6)
PRETORIA
0001
Dear Mr. Brown (7)

ORDER NO. 785/T/W (8)

On 2 March 2010 we ordered ....................................................... The goods were to be

delivered before the end of March 2010.

It is now 5 April 2010 and we have not yet received the order. This means that our sales
will drop ..................................................................................

We would appreciate it if you would ...................................................................................

...................................................................................................................... (9)

Yours faithfully (10)

J Dube (11)

J Dube
Sales Manager

Notes

(1) Name of the company (letterhead)

(2) Sender’s address, code and date
(3) Reference – on same line as date
(4) Date-written out as shown
(5) For attention, follows reference. If no reference, place in (3)
(6) Recipient’s name and address. Leave a line after code.
(7) Salutation. Use name of recipient if known; otherwise write Dear
Sir/Madam/Client/Customer
(8) Subject line/heading. This follows the salutation and states the theme of the letter.
Leave a line open.
(9) Paragraphs. Leave a line open after each paragraph
(10) Complimentary close. Usually ‘Yours faithfully’. Only use ‘Yours sincerely’ if you
know the reader well.
(11) Sender’s signature. Print name below the signature and state designation (job
title) below.
2
LETTERHEAD

The printed letterhead on a letter gives all the relevant information about the company or
institution.

Contents of the letterhead

• The logo of the company or institution
• The name of the company or institution
• The full postal address of the company or institution
• The full street address of the company or institution
• Telephone number
• Fax number
• E-mail
• Website address
• Twitter address
• Facebook address.

Example of a letterhead

Point A to B Travel Agency

78 King Street PO Box 3223
Westville Durban
4010 4000
Tel:031 – 361 1000 Twitter address
Fax: 031 – 361 1001 E-mail: [email protected]
Facebook address Website address

LETTER OF ENQUIRY

What is a letter of enquiry?

A letter of enquiry is written to obtain specific information about a person, product, service
or idea.

3
Recommended scheme of a letter of enquiry
• Two addresses, date and salutation
• Subject line: REQUEST FOR / QUOTE FOR / ETC.
• Introductory paragraph: Create goodwill with a friendly opening.
• Body: Explain what information is required; List questions or request specific
information.
• Closing paragraph: Promote goodwill by expressing appreciation.
• Yours sincerely / faithfully
• Signature
• Name
• Position

Hints
• State questions clearly.
• Explain your requirements in detail.
• If you have a number of questions, list them in point form.
• Explain why you need the information.
• Express appreciation and request a speedy reply.

Reply to a letter of enquiry

Recommended scheme of a reply to a letter of enquiry

• Two addresses, date and salutation

• Subject line: REFER TO THE LETTER OF ENQUIRY ...
• Introductory paragraph: Acknowledge receipt of the letter and express appreciation
for the interest shown in your company.
• Body: Answer all questions in detail – deal with one question per paragraph. OR ... If
you cannot help the person, refer the writer to someone who may be able to help.
• Closing paragraph: Offer further assistance if it is required.
• Yours sincerely / faithfully
• Signature
• Name
• Position

4
Hints
• Answer the letter immediately.
• Answer all the questions in detail and supply all the required information.

Example of a letter of enquiry

BRIGHT IDEAS COMPANY

14 Light Road PO Box 2244
Pretoria Pretoria
0002 0002
Tel: 012-332244 Fax: 012-332245
E-mail: [email protected]

REF: 22/2010 10 March 2017

The Manager
The Computer Warehouse
PO Box 100
Pretoria
0002

Dear Sir / Madam

REQUEST FOR QUOTE FOR BULK COMPUTER ORDER

Your company has been recommended to us because of your outstanding service and
special offers.
We have decided to invest in ten XYZ500 computers for our staff.

Please supply the following information as soon as possible:

o the lowest price at which you could offer the complete order;
o the date of delivery;
o any other special offers;
o and relevant information with regard to payment options.

5
We would appreciate your prompt reply.

Yours faithfully

Moira Brown
Moira Brown
Purchasing Manager

Example of a letter of enquiry

The Computer Warehouse

1 Cyber Road PO Box 100
Pretoria Pretoria
0002 0002
Tel: 012-456190 Fax:012456191
E-mail: [email protected]

REF: QUOTE/55 13 March 2017

Ms Moira Brown
Purchasing Manager
Bright Ideas Company
PO Box 2244
Pretoria
0002

Dear Ms. Brown

QUOTE FOR BULK COMPUTER ORDER

Thank you for your enquiry about our XYZ500 computers. We are very pleased to be given
this opportunity to be of service to you.

6
We have then XYZ500 computers in stock and will be able to supply the order by the end
of the month at a special discount price of R50 000,00.

Payment may be made by bank guaranteed cheque, cash or credit card. As your order
exceeds R30 000,00, you will also receive a dot matrix printer absolutely free.

I am enclosing a brochure with all our special offers for the month of April.

If you have any further queries, please contact me at 012-456190.

Yours sincerely

John Adams
John Adams
Manager

LETTER OF COMPLAINT

What is a letter of complaint?

When a person, business or organisation is not satisfied with a product or service provided,
a letter of complaint is required.

Recommended scheme of a letter of complaint

• Two addresses, date and salutation

• Subject line: STATE THE PROBLEM BRIEFLY
• Introductory paragraph: Start the letter on a positive note to create goodwill.
• Body: Explain the problem, providing all the relevant information.

Describe the inconvenience or loss suffered.

Suggest a solution to the problem or explain what you expect the other party to do.
• Closing paragraph: Promote goodwill by expressing your appreciation for the
company’s co-operation and willingness to help.
• Yours sincerely / faithfully
• Signature
7
• Name
• Position

Hints
• Never be emotional, subjective, sarcastic or rude.
• Do not criticise, accuse or threaten an individual or the organisation.
• Stick to the facts and state them objectively.

Reply to a letter of complaint

Recommended scheme of a reply to a letter of complaint

• Two addresses, date and salutation

• Subject line: REFER TO THE LETTER OF COMPLAINT ...
• Introductory paragraph: Acknowledge receipt of the letter and thank the customer
for bringing the problem to your attention.
• Body: Explain the cause of the problem or mistake.
Apologise for any inconvenience it might have caused and explain how you intend to solve
the problem.
For a bad news reply, explain the situation and indicate why you cannot grant the full
request.
• Closing paragraph: Promote goodwill by assuring the customer that a similar mistake
will not happen again.
• Yours sincerely / faithfully
• Signature
• Name
• Position

Hints
• Reply immediately.
• Try to see the problem from the customer’s point of view.
• Always show understanding.
• If the organisation is at fault, explain how the mistake occurred and how you will rectify
the problem.

8
• Be friendly and polite.

EXAMPLE OF A LETTER OF COMPLAINT

BRIGHT IDEAS COMPANY

14 Light Road PO Box 2244
Pretoria Pretoria
0002 0002
Tel: 012-332244 Fax:012-332245
E-mail: [email protected]
Fb or Insta or Twitter

REF: 22/2010 11 April 2017

Mr. John Adams

The Manager
The Computer Warehouse
PO Box 100
Pretoria
0002

Dear Mr. Adams

INCOMPLETE ORDER OF COMPUTERS

Our company ordered then XYZ500 computers from you on 23 March 2010. We were
assured that delivery would take place on 4 April 2010.

However, despite having paid in full for the order, to date only eight computers have been
delivered. In addition, we were promised a free printer that has also not been delivered.

We are currently busy with a large contract and urgently need the remaining two
computers and the printer.

9
Please investigate the matter urgently. We would appreciate delivery of the rest of the
order no later than 17 April 2017 and would like a twenty percent discount for the
inconvenience caused.

Thank you.

Yours sincerely

Moira Brown
Moira Brown
Purchasing Manager

Example of a letter of adjustment

The Computer Warehouse

1 Cyber Road PO Box 100
Pretoria Pretoria
0002 0002
Tel: 012-456190 Fax: 012-456191
E-mail: [email protected]

12 April 2017

Ms Moira Brown
Purchasing Manager
Bright Ideas Company
PO Box 2244
Pretoria
0002

Dear Ms. Brown

INCOMPLETE DELIVERY OF COMPUTERS

Thank you for your letter dated 11 April 2010, and for bringing the problem to our attention.

10
Your order was dispatched on 4 April 2010. However, due to a clerical error, only eight
computers were loaded onto the truck.

We apologise for the delayed delivery and the inconvenience this has caused you,
especially as you urgently need the full order. The rest of the order, including the printer,
will be delivered on 17 April 2010. Unfortunately, our company policy does not permit us
to give the large discount you requested.

We assure you that we have taken steps to prevent a similar error occurring in the future.

Yours sincerely

John Adams
John Adams
Manager

REFERENCE LIST

1. Cleary, S. 2008. Communication: A hands-on approach. Landsdowne: Juta.

2. Jacobson, HD. 1989. Basic communication skills. Randburg: Hoffer & Soughton.

Van Schalkwyk, H & Viviers, D. 1992. Language communication – English.

Johannesburg: Lexicon.

UNIT 4
REPORT WRITING
Before we start on this highly technical study unit, let us first test our general knowledge
11
on the topic of reports to establish what we know, and what we still need to gain
knowledge of:

1. What is a report?
2. What reports are you typically required to write in the business world?
3. How frequently?
4. Who do you have to write these reports for?
5. Why do businesses need reports?
6. What problems could you possibly encounter?

“Reports are like bridges, spanning time and space. Organizations use them to
provide a formal, verifiable link between people, places and times.”
(Thill & Boveé, 2002: 271)

1. Introduction
Many different kinds of reports are used in business – some quite short and informal,
others longer and more formal. The ultimate purpose for any report is to provide the
foundation for decisions to be made and actions to be taken. Report is a term used
for any written information based on fact and may cover any aspect of everyday life.

2. Definition
A report is an orderly, objective message used to convey information from one
organizational area to another to assist in decision making and problem solving.

3. Characteristics
➢Based on a systematic investigation of a specific event or situation.
➢Requested (usually by a higher authority): A report is requested by and written for
a specific person or organization. A supervisor, manager or head of department
usually gives the instruction. In certain circumstances a group of employees or
an individual can submit a report (informal) about a problem or proposal he/she
may have.
➢Directed upward in an organisation: As a report is usually compiled upon an
instruction from a person in a position of authority, it will be submitted to such a
person for decision making.
➢Ordered/clearly defined sections: A report has to be well-planned. Planning helps
you to find an overall pattern for your thoughts and to analyse the structure and

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 logical sequence of the report. The outline should show the structure as well as
key ideas. A useful plan for setting out the sections can be:
❖Setting out the situation
❖Describing the implications
❖Reviewing the possibilities
❖Making recommendations
➢Objectivity: Objective writing means the ability to assume perspectives other than
your own. It involves detaching yourself, your opinions and your feelings from
the topic. A report must be written “anonymously” in that it must not reveal
anything about you as the writer. There should be no noticeable signs that you
personally observed the situation, for example you should write: “The security
officer checked the condition of the fire-fighting equipment in the entrance hall.”
even if you are the security officer. The use of “I” or “we” should be avoided.
Attempt to keep your report objective by avoiding any kind of humour,
exaggeration, bias, prejudice and emotive language.
➢ Writing must be factual, precise and controlled. Facts must be expressed clearly
and coherently and must be arranged in the exact chronological order of the
events. A report is an account based on logic and structure. Clear writing is a
product of clear thinking. Simple and correct usage of language helps to improve
clarity in a report. Conciseness also plays an important part in report writing.
Conciseness means to write economically, i.e. using as few words as possible.
Therefore rather keep sentences short.
➢Prepared for limited audience
➢Used for decision making
➢May be formal or informal depending upon its purpose
➢Written in formal language and impersonal style
➢May have a legal/disciplinary purpose

4.1 Purpose
Defining the purpose means that you have to be clear about the following:

 Why am I writing this report?

 Who am I writing it for (my audience)?
 What writing style should I use?
 What should and should I not include?
 Where will I get the information?
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  How should I structure the report?
 What should I prioritise?
 When is it due?

Purposes of report writing include the following:

 To help with decision making

 To evaluate a specific situation
 To inform/exchange ideas
 To recommend action
 To motivate
 To record facts
 To analyse the financial state of a business
 To have a permanent record
 To create goodwill

The purpose of a report can also be a combination of some of the above-mentioned.

4.2 Business Ethics

In pairs, discuss the meaning of the word ethics and formulate a possible definition. In
addition, discuss the meaning of the concept of business ethics as well.

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When writing your report or any other business document, do you:

- Keep vital information secret?

- Fabricate or “tweak” facts to suit your own agenda?
- Appear insensitive to others’ cultural values and beliefs?
- Purposefully fail to acknowledge your sources?
- Share confidential information?
- Accept payment/gifts for work performed for your employer?
- Use confidential information for your own personal benefit?

If you can answer yes to any of these questions, you are most probably overstepping the
rules of ethical communication!

Your personal ethics relate to your moral principles as an individual and often intermingle
with your cultural identity and how you were raised. For instance, do you support the death
penalty, or not? Do you celebrate religious holidays, or not?

Business ethics relate to how you conduct yourself ethically in the business world. It is the

15
code of conduct you need to adhere to once you have signed your employment contract.
How does your employer expect you to perform in the workplace, as well as after hours?

Which ethical considerations should one keep in mind when writing a report, for instance?
Why?

5. Primary and Secondary Audience

• It follows logically that a good report must reflect the needs of the readers
(audience). A report is not judged by the writer, but by its readers. The readers’
perspective is the starting point and as the writer you need to think about how
the readers think. Important questions that can help as guidelines are:
◊ Which particular individuals asked for the report?
◊ Why do they want the report?
◊ How much detail do they want?
◊ What is their level of technical knowledge/experience?
◊ What is the level of their involvement?
◊ What is the result they are looking for?

6.1 Typesofreports
Informal reports

6. Informal reports provide information about incidents and report on action which
was taken or to make recommendations about action to be taken:
• Incident reports: to provide information about an incident and to make
recommendations about action to be taken.
• Accident reports, e.g. industrial, traffic

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 EXAMPLE OF A STANDARDISED INDUSTRIAL ACCIDENT REPORT FORM

JABULANI ENGINEERING: ACCIDENT REPORT

REF. NO:
DATE:
TIME:
PLACE:
PERSON(S) INVOLVED:
DESIGNATION:
DEPARTMENT:
WITNESSES:

NATURE OF ACCIDENT:

ACTION TAKEN:

NATURE OF INJURY:

REPORTED BY:
SIGNATURE OF PERSON COMPLETING REPORT:
DESIGNATION:

DATE:
TIME:

EXAMPLE OF A COMPLETED INDUSTRIAL ACCIDENT REPORT

JABULANI ENGINEERING: ACCIDENT REPORT

REF. NO: 12/2004

DATE: 11 August 2004
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 TIME: 14:03
PLACE: Second floor corridor outside room no 206, Head Office

PERSON(S) INVOLVED: Mr. Johannes Smith

DESIGNATION: Welder
DEPARTMENT: Technical
WITNESSES: Mr. Peter Lloyd and Ms Flora Ntuli

NATURE OF ACCIDENT: Mr. Smith was walking along the corridor when he
tripped on a loose floor tile. He fell awkwardly and when helped to his feet by
the witnesses, he complained of pain and stiffness in his right leg.

ACTION TAKEN: Factory Medical Officer was called and Mr. Smith was taken
to the medical room in a wheel chair to be examined.

NATURE OF INJURY: Sprained knee

REPORTED BY: Ms Meela Naidoo

SIGNATURE OF PERSON COMPLETING REPORT: M Naidoo

DESIGNATION: Safety Officer

DATE: 15 August 2004

TIME: 16:00

6.2Formal/Schematic reports
➢Investigative/Special reports: investigate a problem, draw conclusions and
recommend action.
➢Feasibility reports: to determine whether something can or should be done.
➢Evaluative reports: to evaluate facts.
➢Technical reports: to provide information of a technical nature.
➢Interim/progress/feedback reports: to inform about progress of a project.
➢Routine reports: to provide information on a regular basis.
➢Research reports: to present findings and interpretation from field or laboratory
research or from other sources.
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 There is such a wide variety of reports each with a different outline, that it is difficult to
prescribe a specific layout. Many companies create their own in -house report
format and layout with specific headings. You may find that corporate reports
look different from government and parastatal reports. Most formal reports,
however, follow a basic pattern like the following:

PRELIMINARIES (not all reports will have all these sections)

 Title page
 Terms of reference
 Executive summary/Abstract
 Table of contents
 List of illustrations
 Glossary (if you write for a mixed readership)
 List of symbols

BODY OF REPORT
 Introduction
 Procedure used to gather information/ Description of apparatus used
 Findings (The facts)
 Conclusions
 Recommendations for further research (this will depend on your terms of
reference and your purposes)

 Bibliography and acknowledgements

 Appendices

 Signing off

The writer:
1. is asked to carry out an investigation into a particular situation on behalf of another
person (TERMS OF REFERENCE);
2. then carries out research and lists the methods and steps he/she took to get
the necessary information (PROCEDURES/METHODS);
3. presents the information he/she discovered (FINDINGS/RESULTS);
4. draws logical conclusions from his/her findings (CONCLUSIONS);
5. makes suggestions based on the conclusions (RECOMMENDATIONS).

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6. finally signs off right at the end of the report as the compiler of the report.

Style of a formal or schematic report

• A formal report must be written in complete sentences, NOT in note form.

• The style should be formal, for example “Two hundred students were asked their
opinion on ”and not “We talked to two hundred students”.
• The past tense is used for every section, except for the recommendations where
the future tense is used.

Structure of a formal or schematic report:

TITLE
REPORT ON (Use UPPERCASE)………….

TABLE OF CONTENTS
 If report is longer than four pages.
 Compiled after full and final draft of report is written.
 Purposes:
▪ Shows organisation of report
▪ Allows easy reference and quick overview of content
 Style (Number-like full report; indentation optional)
 If necessary, add:
List of illustrations
List of symbols
List of abbreviations and acronyms
Glossary

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EXAMPLE OF A TABLE OF CONTENTS

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY/ABSTRACT

The EXECUTIVE SUMMARY/ABSTRACT is an abridged version of the whole

report. It usually is a short paragraph and provides the reader with a summarised
overview of the whole report. It includes:
• Introduction (state purpose of report)
• Brief background
• Key objectives
• Method of gathering information and analysis
• Summary of main findings
• Summary of conclusions and recommendations (and reflections)
• Written after whole report is finalised, but placed at start of the report.

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1. TERMS OF REFERENCE (5 wh-questions in paragraph format)
• When the instruction was given?
• Who gave the instruction?
• What is to be investigated?
• What is required?
• When the report has to be completed?

2. PROCEDURES (Numbered)
Give METHODS used to gather information, but not the information gleaned.
Use short, bulleted sentences.

Possible methods include:

2.1 Interviews
2.2 Meetings
2.3 Inspection
2.4 Observation
2.5 Written material such as questionnaires
2.6 Online survey

3. FINDINGS/RESULTS (Numbered)
Record the information obtained from the procedures – facts only –no

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 decisions or opinions are included. Analyse all the data collected in depth.
Include your visuals/graphics under this heading and refer to the data. This is
the longest section and should take up half of the final report. Headings and
sub-headings can be used.

Using graphs, diagrams and images

Sometimes words are not the most effective way to communicate. Using graphs,
photographs, tables, diagrams and charts can help your reader to get a clearer
picture of your research findings and how they compare with other data.

Layout, labelling and referencing

Position your visuals so that readers do not have to flip back and forth between
visuals and the text. Visuals are usually placed under Findings/Results. Graphics
should be properly introduced and analysed so the reader knows what to look for.
When describing visual data, interpret/emphasise the main points and avoid
repetition of what is obvious in the diagram.

All graphs, charts, drawings, diagrams and photographs should be numbered and
titled consecutively as figures according to where they appear in the text (e.g.
Figure 1, Figure 2, Figure 3 etc). All tables should be numbered using a separate
sequence (e.g. Table 1, Table 2 etc):

Figure 1 Gantt chart to show job planning over ten weeks from 1 January 2017 – 15 March 2017

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Table 1 Percentage of women in tertiary education in selected countries from 1998 to
2005

Make sure all your images are large enough, and of a high enough quality, to be read
easily and that they are labelled clearly to explain what they show.

Remember: You will need to reference any graphics/visuals you use if they are not your
own work.

4. CONCLUSIONS (Numbered)
These should be drawn from FINDINGS and should reflect the writer’s
interpretation a n d s u m m a r y of FACTS. Unlike FINDINGS, these are general
and no new information is to be given in this section.

5. RECOMMENDATIONS (Numbered)
RECOMMENDATIONS are based on the CONCLUSIONS. They are the actions
(suggestions/projections) that should be taken to solve the problem or
remedy/improve a situation. They should be plausible and drawn from
CONCLUSIONS and FINDINGS and need to be specific.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
▪ Why is referencing important?
▪ What referencing system are you required to use?

TUT requires students to use the author-date method known as the Harvard system. In
this system, the author's(s') surname(s), year of publication and relevant page
number(s) are cited in the text, for example, (Bond,2004:25), and a reference list (of
these citations) is included at the end of the assignment in alphabetical order, by author.
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 The reference list also includes additional details such as the title, place and publisher.

A bibliography lists relevant items that you have used in the preparation of the
assignment but which are not cited in your text. A bibliography should also be in the
Harvard style and the inclusion of such a list shows that you have read widely beyond
the items that you have cited/quoted.

During the course of writing an essay, report or other assignment, it is common practice
l to support arguments by reference to other published work. These references may be
from work presented in journal or newspaper articles, government reports, books or
specific chapters of books, research dissertations or theses, material from the Internet,
etc.

Reasons for accurate citation and referencing are:

• To give credit to the concepts and ideas of other

authors;
• To provide the reader with evidence of the scope of your reading;
• To enable those who read your work to locate the cited references easily;
• to avoid plagiarism

The TUT Citation and Bibliographic Guide (Sieberhagen and Bijl) is available online via
the TUT library’s website, as well as on MyTutor. Please familiarise yourself with the
prescribed referencing techniques.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
 Here the writer thanks individuals for their professional assistance during the
investigation/research undertaken.

APPENDICES
 Contain materials related to the report, but not included in the text because they
are too lengthy, or lack direct relevance:
▪ Avoid overuse – rather keep report straightforward and concise.
▪ May include, e.g. financial statements/spreadsheets/complex
illustrations/questionnaires.
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 ▪ May include a glossary in appendix or in a separate section.
▪ Usually identified by a letter and a short, descriptive title e.g:
‘Appendix A: Financial statement’.
▪ All appendices should be mentioned in the text and listed in the
table of contents.

FORMAL REPORT FORMAT:

Title Page

Table of Contents

Executive Summary/Abstract (optional)

1. Terms of Reference

2. Procedures
2.1.
2.2
2.3
3. Findings
3.1.
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
4. Conclusions
4.1.
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
5. Recommendations
5.1.
5.2
5.3

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Bibliography and acknowledgements (if applicable)

Appendices

Signature of Compiler
Initials and surname
Designation Date of completion

Example of a formal report

XYZ MANUFACTURING COMPANY

REPORT ON INVESTIGATION INTO FIRE DAMAGE AT XYZ FACTORY ON 14

AUGUST 2013

1. TERMS OF REFERENCE
On Tuesday, 20 August 2013, Mr John Joseph, Manager of XYZ Manufacturing
Company, requested (instructed) the Factory Supervisor of the Workshop
Division, Ms Florence Nandi, to investigate the cause of the fire and the extent of
the structural damage to the XYZ factory building, to report the findings, draw
conclusions and recommend actions to prevent similar incidents and repair the
building. The report had to be submitted on 27 September 2013.

2. PROCEDURES
2.1 Interview
On 21 August 2013 six factory workers who were in the factory when the fire
broke out were interviewed to determine the cause of the fire.
2.2 Inspection
The factory was inspected by the Maintenance Committee to identify the extent
of the structural damage on 22 August 2013.
2.3 Consultation
On 26 August 2013 Mr Philip Mabusela, the Fire Brigade Chief, was
consulted about safety measures.

27
2.4 Meeting
On 30 August 2013 a meeting was held with the Maintenance Committee to
discuss repairs to the factory building.

3. FINDINGS
3.1 Interview
3.1.1 T h e factory workers all agreed that the use of a welding machine to repair
a doorframe was the cause of the fire.
3.1.2 A s the door was open, a gust of wind blew sparks onto flammable material
stacked on shelves.
3.1.3 T h e fire was confined to one area of the factory.
3.2 Inspection
3.2.1 T h e heat of the fire twisted four supporting steel columns out of shape
and they were no longer safe.
3.2.2 Fifteen percent of manufacturing material and equipment in the factory
was damaged by smoke and water.
3.3 Consultation
3.3.1 F i r e detection systems were out-dated.
3.3.2 S a f e t y training and planning regulations were not adhered to.
3.4 Meeting
3.4.1 R e p a i r s would be covered by insurance.
3.4.2 Production would be interrupted for three weeks during which repairs would
be undertaken.

4. CONCLUSIONS
4.1 Cause of the fire
4.1.1 I t was clear that the fire was caused accidentally
4.1.2 N o criminal action or malicious intent was detected.
4.2 Extent of damage
4.2.1 D a m a g e to the steel structure was limited to the four supporting
columns.
4.2.2 T h e columns could be replaced without further risk to the structure.
4.3 Safety measures
4.3.1 I t was clear that the fire detection system was not functioning properly.
4.3.2 W o r k e r s were unaware of required safety standards.

28
4.4 Repairs
4.4.1 Repairs would not cause major disruption to production.

5. RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 The insurance company should be contacted immediately so that assessment
could be done by their assessors.
5.2 Ace Steel Company should be appointed to replace the four damaged
supporting steel columns.
5.3 Safety First should be appointed to install the new Fire-stop fire detection system.
5.4 The National Occupational Safety Association should be requested to train all
supervisors in safety procedures.
5.5 The supervisors, in turn, should arrange regular safety training sessions with
their workers.
5.6 The Safety Committee should meet at least once a month.

Signature of compiler: F Nandi

Initials and surname: F Nandi
Designation: Factory Supervisor
Date of completion: 26 September 2013

29
 FINAL TIPS FOR EFFECTIVE REPORT WRITING:

• Apply the correct format and make use of the spell and grammar check.
• Objective reporting–AVOID THE FOLLOWING:
- I, we, you – use: he, she, they. Refer to yourself as ‘the writer, compiler
or the undersigned’. Write impersonally in the third person.
- humour and exaggeration.
- bias or prejudice.
- emotive words, expressions, slang and sarcasm.
- figurative speech.
- repetition. Rather use linking words to add flow to your writing.
- long sentences and elaborate explanations.
- “gobbledygook” (jargon and outdated language)
• Be clear and concise and report relevant facts accurately. Do not “tweak” the facts
to suit your goal! Check for accuracy.
• Use simple, clear and formal language. Use titles and surnames.
• Use the past tense and indirect speech. Recommendations, however, are written
in the future tense.
REFERENCE LIST

1. Cleary,S. 2014. Communication:Ahands-onapproach. 2nded. Landsdowne:

Juta, pp.328 – 352.
2. Ingre, D. 2008. Engineering communication. Toronto: Thomson Nelson Ltd, pp.148
- 163
3. Raman, M. and Sharma, S. 2013. Communication for engineers. Goodwood:
Oxford University Press, pp. 442 – 480.
4. Sieberhagen, A. and Bijl, J. 2010. Citation and bibliographic referencing guide.
Mbombela Campus: TUT Printing Press
5. Simpson, C. 1990. [Online] Business ethics 101. Available from:
http://www.cartoonwork.com/watermark.php?i=146 (Accessed 14/01/2017)
6. Thill, J.V. and Bovee, C.L. 2002. Excellence in business communication. Upper
Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall, pp.12.
7. University of Sussex. 2017. [Online] Using graphs, diagrams and images. Available
from: http://www.sussex.ac.uk/skillshub/?id=371 (Accessed 14/01/2017).
8. University of Sydney. 2017. [Online] Writing a short scientific paper in chemical
engineering. Available from:
9. http://www.usyd.edu.au/learningcentre/wrise/chemical_engineering/chem_eng_eg_r
eport.html(Accessed 14/01/2017).
 UNIT 5
THE EMPLOYMENT PROCESS

Introduction
Have you ever done an internet search on jobs available in your field of Engineering? If you
have you probably would have come to the eye-opening realisation that most companies
generally require engineers with at least 2-5 years’ work experience. This has led to theno job
– no experience conundrum. How often have you heard the phrase: “I can’t get a job because
I don’t have experience”?

There is no easy solution to finding work in an environment where employers are often fixated
on experience. The start of a solution to this dilemma is to volunteer for internships or part-
time work. Be willing to start at the bottom and do anything even if it is unpaid experience just
to get your foot in the door. Often these companies become dependent on you, and before
you know it they might offer you a permanent position. Calculate how much time you spend
on holidays that you could have spent gaining valuable skills and experience. Imagine the
difference between the CV of a student who has been doing holiday internships since his/her
first yearversus a student who has no experience trying to enter the job market for the first
time.

These notes will help you with the process of finding employment, whether it is an internship,
part-time volunteer workor your first engineering job.
The following seven steps of the employment process will help you find a position in
your field of interest:

Step 1: Determine your career goals and skill set

Step 2: Identify and research target employers/companies
Step 3: Develop your marketing materials/products
Step 4: Network and active marketing
Step 5: Prepare for the interview
Step 6: Evaluate offers and sign contract

These steps are discussed in more detail below.

Step 1: Determine your career goals and skillset

As an engineering student you probably have a general idea of what the work of an engineer
in your field entails, but engineering is very diverse so university is the platform where you
should start considering where you see yourself in the short, medium and long term. These
goalsshould be set in accordance with your strengths and weaknesses, interests, values,
character and personality. This process of self-assessment will have a major influence on the
direction of your career.

Before you continue with your job finding mission, reflect on the following questions.
Brainstorm as many answers to these questions as possible. Write down your answers and
rank them. Answers to these questions will not only guide you in your careers path, but will
also help you prepare for the job interview.

• What are your strengths and weaknesses?Reflect on what you do best, what comes
naturally to you and what makes you unique. These strengths and weakness can vary
from character traits to special intellectual capabilities.
• What are your main skills? These skills should include hard skills which are specific
skills learnt relating to your field of study, and soft skills or “people skills” such as
communication, time management and networking etc.
• What are your values? What is important to you in life? How can your profession make
a difference to what you regard as important?
 • What are your interests specifically in engineering? Try to be as specific as possible.
What have you found the most interesting during your studies or in what you have read
in the media?
• Where would you like to work? Would you preferto work close to home, or to travel a
lot and work in exotic locations?
• What kind of work environment do you see yourself in? Would you like to work on
construction sites, mines, in workshops, or would you prefer an office job doing
engineering design on your computer? Do you prefer working alone or in a team?
• How well do you function under stress? How important is money to you? Would you
welcome extra responsibility and stress for more money?

Step 2: Identify and research target employers/companies

This is where you align your career goals with potential employers or companies that you
identify through thorough research. This step requires the following action:
• Do internet searches for employers in your specific industry and employers that relate
with your career goals and skillset identified in step 1.
• Create a list of employers that you would consider for employment.
• Use this list to guide you in more detailed research on these employers. Your research
should include company websites, social media sites as well as general searches
about the companies.
• Refine your list if necessary and rank them according to the ones that interest you the
most.
• Identify employment opportunities and advertisements posted or published by these
companies.

Employment advertisements usually contain the following information:

• Logo and name of organisation

• Title of vacant post
• Requirements needed by the applicant
• Duties and responsibilities of employee (job description)
 • Remuneration packaged offered including fringe benefits (medical aid, car
allowance)
• Name of contact person with telephone / fax / e-mail / postal address
• Closing date of applications and the commencement date for post
• Application procedure (application form / CV / cover letter)

Advertisements should comply with the AIDA principle in order to provide all the information
to attract the relevant applications.

AIDA
Attract Attention - any ploy to encourage the reader to read that specific advertisement first:
• Colour/picture/logo of company
• Size/shape
• Border/frame
• Font
• Catchy heading/phrase

Interest – the first impression should create an interest in the position advertised:
• Identify the target audience
• Address the reader using `you’ and `your’
• Include requirements (qualifications and experience), duties and location

Create Desire – once the reader pays attention, more detail is required. This is normally in
the form of fringe benefits such as medical aid, pension fund, travel allowance, housing
subsidy, 13th cheque/bonus etc.

Action to be taken – what the reader should do. This relates to the following:
• Contact details – telephone, fax, e-mail, address

• Contact person

• Method of application

• CV/Cover letter

• Closing date
Can you identify the AIDA principal in the following example?

Example of a display advertisement:

ECO-SA ENGINEERING
Streamlining your environment

Junior Civil Engineer – Water& Environment

Johannesburg, R20 833 - R37 500 Per Month
Reference: 02133

At Eco-SA Engineering we promote new technologies, design complex systems, alleviate

congestion and provide safe drinking water, sanitation and flood relief to communities in
Southern Africa. We are currently looking to appoint a Junior Civil Engineer with technical
knowledge and expertise in water systems to work on a wide variety of projects in a stimulating
work environment.

REQUIREMENTS
• B Tech or BEng degree in civil engineering
• Candidate Engineer with ECSA
• Minimum 4 years’ experience working in a multi-disciplinary environment
• Experience on water projects specifically
• Computer literate in engineering design software

DUTIES AND RESPONSIBILITIES

• Plan and design transportation or hydraulic systems and structures, following
construction and government standards, using design software.
• Compute load and grade requirements, water flow rates, and material stress
factors to determine design specifications.
• Direct or participate in surveying to lay out installations and establish reference
points, grades, and elevations to guide construction.
• Estimate quantities and cost of materials, equipment, or labour to determine
project feasibility.
 • Prepare or present public reports, such as bid proposals, deeds, environmental
impact statements, and property descriptions.

SALARY AND BENEFITS

• 250-300K pa
• Contribution to retirement annuity and medical aid
• Travel allowance

APPLICATION PROCEDURE
Should you meet the above requirements please post or email a detailed CV and cover letter
to:

Ms H Legodi
Human Resources Manager
PO BOX 456
Rivonia
8021

Email: [email protected].

CLOSING DATE: 30 January 2017

Step 3: Develop your marketing materials/products

Think about your most favourite clothing brand or your most favourite car brand. What made
these products so successful? These brands or products would not have been so successful
without a clever marketing strategy.The same is true for marketing yourself in your job search.
But before you can implement a marketing strategy one should develop quality marketing
tools which basically includes your CV, cover letter and a portfolio.

To help you develop quality and effective marketing tools one needs to start with a thorough
CMAPP analysis (see Unit 2). In essence you have already started with a CMAPP analysis of
the intended communication with your potential employers by doing self-assessment
(purpose), as well as research about potential employees (audience).

A common mistake that people looking for employment make is to have one general CV and
cover letter and then to use it to apply for various positions. How can the same products be
used when each application necessarily involves a different context and audience? A CMAPP
analysis will help you tailor the content (message) for the particular context and audience and
could perhaps even affect your choice of product, for example a portfolio instead of a
shortened CV.

In essence, a CV, cover letter or portfolio should be tailor-made for each job application. You
will want to highlight specific experience, skills or accomplishments relating to the specific
position. While keeping this in mind, this unit will provide you with the general requirements
and examples of these products.

CURRICULUM VITAE

A curriculum vitae (CV) provides a prospective employer with a concise summary of your
education, qualifications and attributes tailored for the requirements of a particular position.
There are many format, layout design and style possibilities for a CV. Although a CMAPP
analysis should guide you in the design, style and content of the most appropriate and
effective CV, most CVs should contain the following sections:

1. PERSONAL DETAILS/PARTICULARS

Surname:
First names:
Identity number:
Residential address:
Telephone number:
Health:
Language proficiency:
 COMMENTS
In the CVs of many first time employment seekers this section often makes up for most of the
CV. Do you think you are marketing yourself through your personal details? That is not what
employers are interested in. Therefore, some personal details such as contact details are often
included in a page header, footer or other subtle positions in the design. Remember, most
employers spend an average of about thirty seconds skimming through a CV. Make the
important sections the focus of your CV.

2. ACADEMIC DETAILS

2.1 TERTIARY EDUCATION

COMMENTS
• Qualifications should be listed in reverse chronological order (current degree/diploma
first).
• Include your degree(s)/diploma(s), institutions and the year of completion or current
enrolment.
• Include major courses and any relevant coursework.
• Indicate exceptional achievements such as distinctions.
• Remember, employers will be very interested in what you do or did at university,
especially when appointing first time employees or students applying for internships.
This section is a major part of your marketing.

2.2 MATRICULATION

COMMENTS
• Name your high school and year of matriculation.
 • List all your matric subjects.
• Indicate exceptional achievements such as distinctions and academic awards.

3. EXPERIENCE/EMPLOYMENT HISTORY

COMMENTS
• Employment history should be listed in reverse chronological order (start with your
current or last position).
• Include yourpositions and the year/s of your employment.
• List the core duties for each position. This is an important part of your marketing since
it is an indication of what you can do and are capable of.

4. DEVELOPED SKILLS

COMMENTS
• It is really important to develop an understanding of your skill set. Skills are often
classified as “hard skills” and “soft skills.” Hard skills are specific, teachable abilities that
can be easily verified, such as ability to operate certain equipment, write computer code,
make calculations or speak a language. Soft skills, sometimes called “people skills,” are
subjective and often refer to qualities that make an excellent employee, such as
networking, teamwork, communication, time management, reliability, etc.
• To develop a picture of your skill set, list ten to twenty work-related skills that you enjoy
using and are able to do well. To help you capture both hard and soft skills think about
your skills in the following three ways:
1. Hard skills that are specific to your major or to jobs that you have held.
2. Learned soft skills, such as communication, teamwork, leadership, etc.
3. Adaptive/self-management soft skills that may be part of your personality such as
being reliable, organised, detail oriented, etc.
• Do not list your skills under “hard skills” and “soft skills”, but rather create suitable more
descriptive categories for your CV such as “Computer/design application proficiencies”,
 “Interpersonal skills”, “Administrative skills” etc.Remember your CMAPP analysis!
These categories and listed skills should be tailor-made for each job application.

5. INTERESTS AND OTHER ACTIVITIES

COMMENTS
• This section could include for example sport, hobbies, or any community involvement.
• This section should not be too comprehensive, yet it is an important part of the CV to
show your potential employer more about who you are as a person and that you are a
well-rounded individual.
• Remember your CMAPP analysis! Try to let your specific interests and activities
overlap with the specific kind of position you are applying for. An interest in the
nature and conservation for example will indicate your suitability to work as a civil
engineer in water systems and sanitation.

5. REFEREES

COMMENTS
• This section should contain the name, position, name of firm or institution where the
person is employed, telephone number and e-mail address of each of your referees.
• This section should be called “Referees” and not “References”. A referee refers to the
person who gives you a reference, which is usually a credible document such as a
letter of recommendation.
• Employment seekers often neglect this section, yet it is one of the most important parts
of your CV, since employers usually do contact referees. The response by your referees
might determine whether you get invited for an interview or not.
• Try to choose credible referees for your CV who know you well. There’s no point in
adding a referee of a lecturer for example who does not really know you well. Imagine
this lecturer receiving a phone call from a prospective employer to get more information
about you, and the lecturer can’t remember who you are. This will certainly leave a bad
impression.
 • Ask permission from your referees whether you can add them to your CVs. This will also
give them an opportunity to prepare a response to question about you.
• Try to include a referee from your from relevant previous employment as well as a
referee from your training or academic background.

MORE TO CONSIDER…

Save documents in PDF format

When sending electronically, save your cover letter and CV in PDF format. This will avoid any
issues with opening documents and layout inconsistencies. Be sure to include your name
in document file names so that employers can easily identify your file, unless specified
differently.

Scannable CVs

It is becoming common for companies to use key word software to scan CVs for suitable
candidates. This software is especially useful to process large numbers of applications. This
software automatically identifies relevant key words from electronic CVs to short-list potential
candidates. A company looking for a mechanical engineer might search for key words such
as design, construction sequences, injection molding, etc. This again highlights the
importance of a thorough CMAPP analysis in the preparation of a CV. A conscious effort
should be made to include key words and concepts in your CV that relate to a specific position.

COVER LETTER

A cover letter is used to introduce yourself and your CV to a potential employer. A CV sent
without a cover letter or a very generic cover letter is likely to be treated as junk mail.
Remember the CMAPP analysis. Similar to a CV, there is no”standard” cover letter, but it
needs to contain certain information to be effective. Your cover letter should be tailored
specifically for each position you seek and for each particular submission situation. For
example, a letter used to apply for an advertised position will not be the same as the one used
for prospecting (inquiring about possible positions) or networking (seeking help in getting your
resume to someone who might be hiring).

A cover letter should be brief, direct and factual. Cover letters generally consist of three or
four paragraphs and are between ½ and one page in length. For an internship or entry-level
position anything longer than one page is likely to not get read. A cover letter should always
accompany the CV.

Recommended scheme of a cover letter:

• Your address and the date

• Company’s name and address

• Salutation: Dear Sir/Madam or Dear Mr./Mrs./Miss/Ms Mahlangu (if a contact person

was supplied)

• Subject line: APPLICATION FOR POSITION OF ...

• Introductory paragraph
o Position applied for with reference to newspaper in which the advertisement
appeared and reference number.
o State reason for applying for position.

• Body
o Highlight background, education, previous work experience and skills
especially relevant to the position being applied for.
o Offer concrete evidence or specific examples of claims made.
 o Express a high level of interest in and knowledge about the position and why
you are a good match for the position

• Closing paragraph
o Refer to your attached CV
o Give contact details and make a request for action, such as asking for an
opportunity to present your qualifications in person at an interview.

• Yours faithfully / Yours sincerely

• Signature
• Name

Example ofa cover letter

21 South Street
Hatfield
Pretoria
0021

30 August 2016

Ms H Legodi
Human Resources Manager
Eco-SA Engineering
PO BOX 456
Rivonia
8021

Dear Ms Legodi

APPLICATION FOR POSITION OF JUNIOR CIVIL ENGINEER (Ref 01233)

I would like to apply for the position of Junior Civil Engineer advertised on jobfind.co.za on 17
August 2016. I am seeking my first role in the water infrastructure industry. I am a final year
BEng civil engineering student at the Tshwane University of Technology.I am specifically
attracted to the position at Eco-SA Engineering as I wish to combine my knowledge of water
and irrigation infrastructures with my understanding of mechanical hydraulic systems.

I particularly enjoy working on projects that provide clear business benefits as well as direct
advantageous implications for communities. During a three-month practical placement with
Hydro-Chem I produced a report outlining how the company could reduce infrastructure costs
by 20%. On a one-year internship with H2O for Africa, I produced a report on how a water
purifying mechanism on all hydraulic systems can provide purified water to surrounding
communities. This system is currently in the process of being implemented. I have also
completed an optional biotechnology course at the University of Pretoria that will be beneficial
to the role at your company. As part of my undergraduate studies, as well as my practical
experience, I have learned valuable business skills and how to harness the value of functioning
in a team. I also became a specialist in CAD. I am proficient in programming in C# and Java
and have a basic understanding of InfoWorksCS.

During my time at H2O for Africa my work formed the basis of the company’s first corporate
social responsibility report. This motivated me to volunteer on a charity programme in
Mozambique, designing and constructing irrigation tunnels. I have noted and appreciate the
strong element of social responsibility and community development as part of your company’s
ethos.

Please find attached a copy of my CV for more detail. Should you wish to interview me, I am
available for an interview during regular office hours. I can be contacted on 082 123 3456.

Yours sincerely

H Ntuli
Harold Ntuli
CREATING AN ENGINEERING PORTFOLIO

A portfolio is a website or a PowerPoint presentation showcasing work and projects you have
been involved with. A good portfolio effortlessly highlights your skills, achievements, intellect
and creativity. A portfolio provides visual proof of what you can offer to your potential employer
and is a great way to stand out from your competition and to market yourself professionally. If
a job application does not require a portfolio, a link to your portfolio can be included in your
CV.

An engineering portfolio typically includes the following:

• Engineering sketches and drawings
• Graphic engineering designs
• Engineering projects
• Display of practical experience during internships or volunteer projects
• Samples of written engineering communication (products)
• Adapted CV

Here are some popular platforms you can use to create your portfolio:
• www.wix.com
• www.wordpress.com
• PowerPoint (PP presentations can be uploaded to the internet or saved as a .pdf)

Engineering student portfolio examples:

• www.seelio.com/thomaswilson
• www.seanhammett.com
• www.williamjewett.com

Step 4: Network and active marketing

What is networking?
Networking is the process of building relationships and connecting with others to exchange
information, advice, contacts, and support. It is an essential part of the job search process
and a skill that will likely affect your success in your career. Engineers rarely work in isolation
so it is important that you develop strong networking skills to facilitate the collection of
information, to identify skills for team projects and for a wide variety of other job
functions. Good networking skills take practice to develop and the job search process is a
perfect opportunity to start developing these skills. Networking is basically a way getting
yourself noticed in the professional world. Networks take time and effort to develop, so you
must start early, remain patient, and be persistent without being overbearing. Start looking for
opportunities to network with the employer long before you are actively looking for
employment. Network as you gather information about employers and their industries at
information sessions, career fairs, and other events.

Why networking is more effective than sending generic CVs

Preparing a batch of generic cover letters and CVs to send out to prospective employers is
not a very effective job search strategy. Mailing campaigns will keep you busy and may
occasionally result in an interview, but it is unlikely.

Here are a few reasons why it is NOT an effective strategy:

• You are offering employers an easy opportunity to screen you out of the candidate
pool.

• If your resume goes to a personnel department, it is often scanned into a computer or

screened by a clerk for keywords that indicate a strong match for the available
position. There might be hundreds of applications for a specific position. The purpose
of this screening step is to reduce the applications to a manageable number of highly
qualified candidates.

• If your resume goes to a busy manager that isn’t looking to hire someone with your
specific qualifications, they will probably not give it any attention unless they know
you. Most busy managers are not interested in reviewing resumes when they are not
actively seeking to fill a position.

• Many employers fill entry-level, professional positions by networking with students and
graduates of specific institutions where they are familiar with the education offered.
What is a better approach?
Network (get noticed) and then send out a targeted email and cover letter.

The most affective networking strategies:

• Face-to-face networking - This can be achieved by arranging targeted meeting or by

attending professional events.
• Professional social media sites, such as *LinkedIn - When a recruiter or hiring
manager is somewhat familiar with you, they will give your CV more consideration. If
you have created a favorable impression on them, you are likely to get an interview
opportunity ahead of other well qualified candidates.
• Phone and emails/letters - Start by asking friends, family and acquaintances if they
know anyone who works for one of your target companies or industries. Once you get
a name and permission to contact the individual, you reach out to the individual and
express your desire to work for the company. Rather than asking the individual for a
job, it is best to ask for help in connecting with someone else that may know of an
opening. This takes the pressure off of them and if they happen to have an opening
for someone with your qualifications, they will likely tell you.

*More about LinkedIn

LinkedIn, located at www.linkedin.com, is the world’s largest networking site and is used by
thousands of business professionals and students every day. It is a social media site that is
focused on making professional connections between peers, friends, companies, and
professional groups. Individuals use it to develop their brand and post a professional profile
of skills, work experience, and interests. Companies are also using it to develop their brand,
recruit employees, and find business partners. LinkedIn is very helpful to students in that it
allows you to investigate the background of companies, connect with recruiters and engineers
or potential employers in your area of interest.
Step 5: Prepare for the interview

THE EMPLOYMENT INTERVIEW

An interview is a planned conversation between two parties during which questions are asked
and answered. This conversation is designed to exchange information and attitudes about a
specific subject.

A job interview is a planned conversation about a specific job. Questions are designed to
exchange facts and opinions and parties form opinions of each other based on these
exchanges. Remember that any interview entails two-way communication in which both
parties are able to ask questions and expect answers.

Interviews can be structured or unstructured. Structured interviews – questions prepared for

special purposes. Unstructured interviews – flexible, depending on the drift of the
conversation. Questions can be closed or open-ended.

Functions of the interview

1. The interviewer wants to assess:

• the level of the applicant’s training and experience, his/her personality, temperament;
• behavioural suitability for the position, social adaptability, sense of responsibility;
• his/her potential for work and further training and leadership.

2. The interviewee wants to:

• present himself/herself favourably, acceptably and confidently;
• find out more about the position.

Preparing for the interview

1. Get a clear job description.

• Do not rely on job titles.
 • Try to find out, before you apply, what your duties will be and what kind of employee
they want.

2. Self-assessment:
• List your strengths and weaknesses, especially those relevant to the job for which
you want to apply.
• Think about possible solutions to overcoming weaknesses.
• List factors that would motivate you in the job, as well as factors that you regard as
absolutely essential for job satisfaction (bearing in mind that the perfect job does not
exist).

3. Make sure that you are the right applicant:

• Do you meet at least the major requirements? How many of the minor requirements
do you meet?
• Does the job meet your requirements (self-assessment)

4. Know something about the organisation:

• Find out as much as you can about the products/services, the structure, economic
position, policies and facilities offered by the organisation.
• Obtain information from general business publications and the organisation’s own
material (annual reports, brochures, newsletters, Internet), as well as from people who
know the organisation well.

5. Prepare suitable answers to the typical interview questions listed at the end of this
section.

6. Find out who will be interviewing you (gender, race/culture, language, position in the
organisation) so that you can mentally prepare yourself. Remember that different
cultures have different customs regarding interpersonal communication. Corporate rules
apply at interviews.
At the interview
Bear the following points in mind:

1. Be punctual!

2. Be prepared. Compile an employment advertisement that contains all the

aspects/information that could be covered in the interview.

3. To cope with stress/tension:

• Relax facial muscles (move jaw up and down).
• Relax neck (roll head a few times in both directions).
• Relax shoulders.
• Relax arms and hands (stretch / clench / relax muscles).
• Breathe deeply.
• Do not clasp hands during the interview.

4. Non-verbal communication:
• Be punctual!
• Dress appropriately for the situation; rather too conservatively than too casual (be
sparing with perfume, deodorant, and after-shave).
• Grooming is important.
• Men have to take off their hats/caps before entering.
• Enter confidently and smile at the interviewer.
• Shake hands with interviewer(s).
• Do not sit down unless invited to do so.
• Posture should be naturally erect: look attentive, composed and relaxed.
• Be friendly and courteous but not subservient.
• Use pauses to your advantage, but do not take too long to reply.
• Facial expression should convey interest, enthusiasm and alertness.
• Maintain comfortable eye-contact.
• Vocal tone, volume, pronunciation should also convey enthusiasm.
• Use gestures sparingly and in a controlled manner. Do not fidget!
• Do not chew gum.
 • Avoid mannerisms.
5. Verbal communication:
• Introduce yourself by name and greet the interviewer by name. (Use a formal
form of address rather than a first name.)
• Remember his/her name throughout the interview!
• Be polite.
• Keep small talk formal and brief.
• Talk spontaneously, but stick to the topic and the job,
• Use pauses (1-3 seconds) to think before you answer.
• Answer clearly, completely, briefly, and as specifically as you can.
• Listen carefully.
• Do not apologise for weaknesses; balance them with strengths.
• Be honest.
• Bring your skills, accomplishments and experience to the attention of the
interviewer(s) modestly.

6. Other hints:
• Prepare your own questions to ask if the opportunity arises or at the end of the
interview.
• Phrase questions carefully (diplomatically).
• Accommodate unexpected questions.
• Do not allow yourself to be intimidated, but do not be forward (you are busy with a
business transaction).
• If you are sure the interview has gone well, you may try to negotiate the terms of
possible employment at the end of the interview. (Negotiate objectively, not
emotionally.)
• Once the interview is over, thank the interviewer(s), take leave and depart.

Possible structure of an interview

1. Introduction: greeting, small talk

2. Questions or information about the organisation

3. Intensive questioning, scenarios and observation are used to determine the following
aspects or qualities:
• Physique: health, speech, manner, appearance
• Qualifications and experience: educational, technical, employment
• Mental abilities: intelligence, verbal ability, mathematical ability, logic and common
sense
• Emotional stability: ability to tolerate stress, maturity
• Social roles: gregarious or solitary? leader or follower?
• Initiative: dependent or independent worker. administrative and organising skills
• Motivation: goals and objectives, extrinsic and intrinsic motivation, ‘drive’

Possible questions during an interview

NB: Questions to which the answers are ‘yes’ or ‘no’ are CLOSED questions or
specific information is required.Questions that require explanatory answers
are OPEN-ENDED questions.

1. Tell me about yourself. (Mention qualifications, experience, special areas of expertise,

behavioral strengths related to the job and the organisation.)
2. What do you know about our organisation / firm / company?
3. Why do you want to work for this organisation? (Point out what about the organisation
and the position you find attractive.)
4. Why do you wish to leave your present employer? (Give a positive reason without
lying. Do not make derogatory remarks about your previous employer.)
5. What are your strengths and weaknesses? (Self-assessment)
6. What makes you feel that you are especially suited to this position? (Strengths,
experience, motives)
7. Which aspect(s) of this position interest you specifically? (Know the job!)
8. What has been your worst job? Why?
9. How good are you at working under pressure?
10. What do you find most frustrating in your present job? (Do not be abusive about
colleagues or the organisation.)
11. What are your long-term goals? Where do you see yourself in ten years’ time?
12. Do you like working alone or in a group?
13. What do you consider to be your greatest achievement or disappointment?
14. How do you measure success?
15. What made you decide on ...... as a career?
16. In which area do you expect to find the most job satisfaction?
17. What books have you read lately?
18. What, in your view, are the five most important aspects of being a good employer in
your field?
19. How do you plan?
20. How do you manage your time?
21. Which do you regard as more important: job satisfaction or a good salary?
22. Which is more important to you: your family or your work?
23. What are your career aspirations?
24. How many hours a day do you think an employee should work?
25. What do you think determines an employee’s progress in an organisation?
26. What kind of boss do you prefer?
27. What kinds of people annoy you?
28. What are your special skills or abilities?
29. What motivates you in a job?
30. How do you feel about ‘change’?
31. How do you interpret responsibility and accountability?
32. How do you regard ‘authority’?
33. Questions about your specific field will definitely be asked to determine your
knowledge, skills, insight, adaptability, creativity, and work ethic.

Examples of scenarios questions during interviews

1. Working under pressure

Your manager asks you at 12:30 for a report for a meeting at 13:00. You are printing the
statement when the printer runs out of ink. What would you do?
2. How do you plan/manage your time?
You work for civil engineers. Your superior gives you three reports and a tender document to
complete urgently. While you are busy, an extremely urgent query comes in. How would you
handle the work?

3. Questions to test your specific knowledge of the job

How would you carry out a background check on a new client?

4. Leadership qualities
You have been put in charge of a large construction project. You have been allocated a team
to assist you, including some very experienced/older members of staff. How would you ensure
co-operation and go about delegating tasks?

Step 6: Evaluate offers and sign contract

When employersmake an offer of employment, they generally request an answer within a

specific time period. You should provide a response as soon as you are certain of your answer
so the employer can continue with their staffing plan. If you need more time before making a
decision, do not hesitate to ask for it. You may need more time because you are waiting for
an offer from a preferred company, or need to consult with family or engineers in the industry
about the offer. Companies will usually accommodate your request because they have
invested significant time and money in identifying you as the best candidate and will not want
to lose you. If their schedule will not allow for a delay, they will tell you.

Consider negotiating your salary and benefits if you feel that it does not reflect fair market
value for your skills and experience rather than just turning down the offer. Remember, they
would want you to join their team knowing you have been treated fairly so that you can be a
long-term investment for the company.

Never accept an offer and then change your mind later. When you tell an employer that you
accept the offer they will inform other candidates that they were not selected for the
position. You may have also caused them to miss an opportunity to hire one or more
other well-qualified candidates. This will reflect badly on you and will not help your networking
cause.

If you are struggling to make a decision or are feeling pressured by a company to make a
quick decision, ask or guidance from career counsellors as well as engineers in that specific
field.

A company will usually inform you of your successful application and interview via a personal
phone call. This is usually followed by a letter of appointment which is discussed next.

LETTER OF APPOINTMENT
A letter of appointment is a letter sent to the successful applicant to confirm the offer of
employment.

Recommended scheme of a letter of appointment

• Two addresses, date and salutation

• Subject line: APPOINTMENT TO THE POSITION OF ...
• Introductory paragraph:
Congratulate the successful applicant
Welcome him/her to the company
State the position offered
• Body:
Give all the necessary details on:
o Position; job title; conditions of service; salary scale; working hours; leave; fringe
benefits; compulsory membership of organisations; promotion possibilities.
o The commencement date: time, place and contact person.
o Indicate whether the reply should be telephonically or in writing.
• Closing paragraph: Welcome applicant to the firm.
• Yours sincerely
• Signature
• Name
• Position
Example of a letter of appointment

PO BOX 456,
Rivonia Tel: (011) 321 1234
8021
ECO-SA Fax: (011) 321 1235
ENGINEERING
123 Main Avenue Email:[email protected]
Streamlining your environment
Econo Office Park www.econosa.com
Rivonia
8021

30 September 2016

MrH Ntuli
21 South Street
Hatfield
Pretoria
0021

Dear Mr Ntuli

APPOINTMENT TO POSITION OF JUNIOR CIVIL ENGINEER

Congratulations on your appointment as Junior Civil Engineer at Eco-SA Engineering at

our head office in Johannesburg.

Detailed information regarding your salary scale, pension fund, medical aid, leave benefits
and working hours are set out in the attached document. If you have any queries, please
contact Ms. Wales at the following number: (011) 321 1236.

As discussed, we would like you to start work on Monday, 2 December 2016. Please report
to my office (Room 503) at 8:30. It will be my pleasure to welcome you and introduce you
to our staff.
 We trust that you will be very happy working for Eco-SA Engineering and hope to receive
written acceptance of this offer of employment before Friday, 1 November 2016.

Yours sincerely

James Baloyi
James Baloyi

Personnel Manager

To decline an offer, contact the hiring manager via e-mail. State your appreciation for the
offer of employment. State very clearly that you are declining the offer. You can offer a reason,
but it is not required.

To accept an offer, call the hiring manager to verbally accept the offer, and follow up with a
confirmation e-mail. It is important to put everything in writing. Include a confirmation of your
start date, position title, and rate of pay. Sign and send the required acceptance letters and
contract back to the employer as instructed.
REFERENCE LIST

1. Cleary,S.2014. Communication:Ahands-onapproach. 2nded. Landsdowne:Juta.

2. Ingre, D. 2008. Engineering communication. Toronto: Thomson Nelson Ltd.
3. https://job-descriptions.careerplanner.com/Civil-Engineers.cfm
4. https://targetjobs.co.uk/sites/targetjobs.co.uk/files/public/engineering_graduate_sam
ple_covering_letter.pdf
5. https://www.engineering.iastate.edu/ecs/students/the-employment-process
6. http://www.careers.ox.ac.uk/wp-content/uploads/2016/07/Sample-Covering-Letter-
2016.pdf
7. http://engineering.dartmouth.edu/careers/students/
 UNIT 6
MEETINGS AND MEETING TERMINOLOGY

Introduction

Why should we study procedure at meetings? Meetings are regularly held in the workplace
for purposes of organization and decision taking. In the community, everyone has to
participate in the running of the activities, for example, schools, churches, etc. Therefore we
need to know how to conduct ourselves so that we can be heard and so that the meeting can
proceed in an orderly fashion.

Definition of a meeting

Two or more people come together, by previous notice, to discuss and decide on a matter
that concerns all of them.

Types of meetings

Public meetings
Everyone may attend and participate in these meetings, for example: political meetings, public
lectures, and religious meetings.

Private meetings
Attendance is limited. At meetings of sports bodies and other voluntary associations, non-
members may attend BUT only members are allowed to participate and vote. However,
ONLY THE SHAREHOLDERS OF A COMPANY are allowed to attend company meetings.

Control of meetings
Procedure and conduct at meetings are controlled by the laws of the country, the individual
constitutions and common law.

Types of private meetings

FORMAL MEETINGS

1. Annual General Meetings

These meetings are held ONCE A YEAR and notices are sent to ALL members of a
club (association, society) or shareholders of a company.

2. Regular meetings – held at regular intervals e.g. monthly or as arranged

2.1 General meetings – all members or shareholders
2.2 Committee meetings – elected members who organise the club
2.3 Board of directors’ meetings – appointed major shareholders who make the decisions
for the company

3. Special or extraordinary meetings – called for a particular purpose and aspects of that
purpose ONLY

4. Ad hoc meetings – held by an ad hoc committee (temporary committee elected for a

specific purpose for a limited time)

5. Inaugural meetings – first meeting held to LAUNCH a new organisation

6. Executive meeting – held by the major office-bearers e.g. chairman, secretary and
treasurer of a club (who are empowered to make decisions for the club members) OR
the CEO (Chairman), chief directors of the board and the company secretary.

INFORMAL MEETINGS (COMMAND MEETINGS)

These meetings are called by a person in authority to discuss important matters. They are
conducted according to procedure BUT NO DECISIONS can be taken. In most cases they
are information sessions e.g. the factory manager calls a meeting to get feedback on the
previous day’s activities; a personnel officer explains new procedures to his/her staff.

Validity of meetings

To be properly constituted (valid) a meeting has to comply with the following conditions.
(Binding decisions can be taken ONLY at properly constituted meetings. If the meeting is not
valid, proceedings can go ahead, but no business can be transacted e.g. minutes cannot be
approved or read.)

1. Due and adequate notice has to be sent to every person entitled to attend the meeting.
2. The notice must be authorised by the chairman and sent out by the secretary. No one
else is allowed to convene a meeting for an organisation.
3. The authorised person must preside at the meeting (take the chair).
4. A quorum must be present and maintained.

Terminology Definition and notes

Abstain Refrain from voting. Members who are present at a meeting
but do not vote, abstain from voting.
Adjournment of A decision taken at a meeting to defer the item(s) on the
meeting agenda not dealt with, until a later stipulated date or the
meeting may be adjourned sine die (without fixing a day), but
must be held before a certain period.
Agenda A list of business to be done, i.e. dealt with at the meeting in a
certain order – also called ‘order of business’ or ‘order paper’.
Ad hoc Arranged for a special purpose – an ad hoc committee
consists of a few people appointed or elected for a specific
purpose for a limited time, i.e. temporary.
Amendment An alteration to a motion has to be proposed, seconded and
approved.
Annual General A meeting which takes place once a year and all members of
Meeting (AGM) the organisation are notified to attend it.
Any other business The item on the agenda for any relatively unimportant
(AOB) or general business which needs to be discussed or noted.
Attendance register / A signed list of the members present at a meeting, as well as
book apologies received from those unable to attend.
Ballot A method of secret voting usually done by making a mark on a
prepared paper (ballot paper) which is folded and placed in a
ballot box or other receptacle.
Bona fide In good faith; with honest intention; integrity; sincerity.
Casting vote A second vote given to the chairman who already has a
membership vote to avoid a deadlock which occurs when the
votes for and against a motion are equal (the casting vote has
to be provided by regulation and the chairman need not
exercise this right).
Chairman The person chosen to act as the leader of his group – he
presided at meetings.
Committee A number of persons appointed or elected to act for and
attend to the duties of the parent body.
Constitution Regulations, rules and laws that govern an institution.
Correction An alteration which does not change the meaning, e.g. to
correct initials of a member given incorrectly in the minutes.
Dissenting vote A vote against a motion.
Due notice Anyone entitled to attend a meeting has to be notified well in
advance when, where and at what time the meeting will take
place.
Ex officio Because of one’s office/position, one is entitled to another
position, e.g. the manager of a company is an ex officio
member of any committee within that organisation.
In attendance To be present at a meeting but not to be entitled to vote, e.g. a
paid secretary of a company.
In camera In private – meetings are held behind closed doors –
resolutions of such meetings are confidential and the
members are bound to secrecy.
Inaugural meeting The first meeting held to launch a new company or society.
Intra vires To act within one’s powers or authority.
Minutes Report of proceedings and the decisions taken at a meeting –
they are not a verbatim (word for word) account of the
proceedings.
Motion A seconded proposal (suggestion) made at or before a
meeting. After discussion it is put to vote and if passed, it
becomes a resolution.
Nem. con. (nemine When a motion has been carried nem. con. it means nobody
contradicente) voted against it, although some members may have abstained
from voting.
Nomination An eligible person for a position is nominated. The nomination
must be seconded and accepted by the committee.
Notice Notices may be formal or informal, oral, written or by public
advertisement. Notices contain details of the day, date, time
and place of the meeting.
 Point of order The chairman’s control of the meeting is questioned –
incorrect procedure is pointed out by a member.
Precedent A parallel case in the past, e.g. a decision reached in the past,
which is used to allow similar action in future. A ruling that will
set an example for similar cases in future.
Proxy A legal document giving authority to a person to represent or
act on behalf of another.
Quorum The minimum number of members who must be present at a
meeting to pass valid resolutions. When no quorum is
prescribed in the constitution, at least two persons must be
present.
Resolution A formal decision taken at a meeting (when a motion is
adopted it becomes a resolution).
Suspension of Membership is terminated temporarily by expulsion –
members members can be reinstated.
Terms of office Office bearers of a society or club are elected at an AGM until
the succeeding AGM, or according to the constitution. The
directors of a board are elected at an AGM for a period
ranging from 1 to 5 years as stipulated in the constitution.
Treasurer The person in charge of funds of a society or club.
Ultra vires Acting beyond powers or authority possessed.
Unanimously Complete agreement; all of one mind, agreeing in opinion
Verbatim Word for word

Affiliate To adopt as a member of a branch, or to become closely

connected, or to associate
Co-opt Elect onto a body by votes of existing members
Honorary member A person elected to privileges of membership without payment
of entrance fee or subscription. This is in recognition of
individual standing, or of some past services rendered to the
organisation.
Addendum Appendix, addition
Mutatis mutandis After making the necessary changes

Documents: Notice

This document is sent out before a meeting is to be held. It needs to be sent out a certain
number of clear days before the date on which the meeting has been convened (due notice
must be given). The notice must be prepared in accordance with the provisions laid down in
the constitution (adequate notice).

The notice needs to contain the following elements:

1. Name of organisation

2. Notice of meeting (against the left margin)

3. Type of meeting:
• Club or society - monthly, AGM, general, committee, special.
• Business - monthly, AGM, board, special –
 (MUST start with the words Notice is hereby given ...)

4. Venue, day, date, time (use 24-hour clock e.g. 17:30)

5. By order of the Chairperson (chairman)

6. Signature of the secretary, followed by the secretary’s or company’s address and

telephone number, followed by the date of transmittal

The formal notice of a meeting of a company

MAGNUM LTD.
NOTICE OF MEETING

Notice is hereby given that the monthly / special meeting of shareholders / directors of the
above company will be held on Friday, 14 September 2013 in the conference centre /
boardroom of the above company, 14 Verster Street, Johannesburg at 11:00.

By order of the chairperson

(signature)
Secretary
PO Box 5364
Johannesburg
2000
Tel: 011 – 888 9992
Date (remember to give the required number of clear days = notice)
(Parts in italics require you to select one OR insert the relevant signature / information)

The notice of a meeting of a club or society

BRITON SPORTS CLUB

NOTICE OF MEETING

Notice is hereby given that the next general meeting of members will be held on Friday,
13 September 2013 in the clubhouse at 17:30.

By order of the chairperson

(signature)
Secretary
Secretary’s address
Tel. no.
Date (calculate the number of clear days = notice)

NB: for the notice of an AGM the number of the meeting must be given e.g. the Tenth
AGM of .... (name of organisation). The First AGM is held when the
organisation is one year old
Notice periods

Type of meeting Organisation Clear days = Notice

General Club or Society 5 – 10 days
Special committee
General Company 12 – 21 days
Special
Board
AGM Club or Society 12 – 21 days
AGM Company 30 – 90 days

Documents: Agenda

The agenda is drawn up BEFORE a meeting by the chairperson in conjunction with the
secretary. It is a LIST of items of business, in a certain order, to be transacted at a meeting.

Regular meeting

1. Opening and welcome

2. Attendance register and/or apologies
3. Notice convening the meeting
4. Minutes of previous meeting
5. Matters arising (from the previous minutes)
6. Point for discussion and/or motions (submitted to the chairperson in writing)
7. General or AOB (Any other business)
8. Closing

Annual General Meeting

1. Opening and welcome

2. Attendance register and/or apologies
3. Notice convening the meeting
4. Minutes of previous meeting
5. Matters arising (from the previous minutes)
6. Chairman’s Report
7. Financial Report – company (Treasurer’s report – club/society)
8. Auditor’s Report / Remuneration of Auditors
9. Appointment of Directors – company (Election of office-bearers – club/society)
10. Point for discussion and/or motions (submitted to the chairperson in writing)
11. General or AOB (Any other business)
12. Closing

Special/Extraordinary meeting

1. Opening and welcome

2. Attendance register and/or apologies
3. Notice convening the meeting
4. Purpose
5. Closing
NB: The purpose of a special meeting can also be included in the notice, in which case no
agenda will be sent to members.

Minutes

The minutes are a report on what happened at the meeting and which decisions were taken.
They are NOT a verbatim account of the meeting.
All the stylistic requirements of reports apply to meetings = third person, passive voice, past
tense, objective account, and full sentences.
The minutes of the previous meeting are read and approved at the next meeting. The minutes
of special meetings are read or circulated and approved at the next AGM.

A resolution should be minuted as follows:

6. Venue for the end-of-year dinner on 12 November 2013

Mr. J Meke proposed, Ms. S Hunt seconded and it was resolved by 10 votes to 5 that
the dinner would be held at the Sun International Hotel.

Example: Annual General Meeting

AFRICA ENGINEERS

Notice of Annual General Meeting

Notice is hereby given that the 12 th Annual General Meeting of the company will be held at
the Africa Inc. head office, 1435 Church Street, Hatfield on Thursday 20 November 2013 at
14:00.

By order of the chairman

P Smit
P Smit
Secretary
100 Glenvista Road
Glenview
2900
Tel. no. (012) 336 7000
Date: 20 October 2013

Agenda

1. Opening and welcome

2. Attendance register / apologies
3. Notice convening the meeting
4. Minutes of previous meeting (11 th AGM)
5. Matters arising
6. Chairman’s report
7. Financial report
8. Auditor’s report
9. Election of directors
10. Points for discussion and / or motions
11. General / Any other business
12. Closing

Example: Special meeting

AFRICA ENGINEERS

Notice of meeting

Notice is hereby given of a special meeting of members to be held in the seminar room of the
above company, 1435 Church Street, Hatfield on Tuesday 25 September 2013 at 14:00. The
purpose of the meeting is to discuss appointing a new supplier of camping and climbing
equipment.

By order of the chairman

P Smit
P Smit
Secretary
100 Glenvista Road
Glenview
2900
Tel. no. (012) 336 7000
Date: 11 September 2013

Agenda

1. Opening and welcome

2. Attendance register / apologies
3. Notice convening the meeting
4. Purpose: appointment of new equipment supplier
5. Closing
Example: Monthly meeting

AFRICA ENGINEERS

Notice of meeting

Notice is hereby given that the next monthly staff meeting will be held in the seminar room of
the above company, 1435 Church Street, Hatfield on Monday 25 September 2013 at 14:00.
All staff members must attend.

By order of the chairman

P Smit
P Smit
Secretary
100 Glenvista Road
Glenview
2900
Tel. no. (012) 336 7000
Date: 13 September 2013

Agenda

1. Opening and welcome

2. Attendance register / apologies
3. Notice convening the meeting
4. Minutes of previous meeting
5. Matters arising
6. New matters / Points for discussion and / or motions
6.1 Purchasing of new photocopiers
6.2 New construction project
6.3 Overland excursion to Swaziland
7. General / Any other business
8. Closing
The process followed in the proposal and discussion of a motion

The chairperson
The role of the chairperson varies according to the kind of meeting held. The chairperson’s
primary role is to facilitate interaction and the direct the group towards the meeting’s
objectives.

The powers and duties of the chairperson

The powers of the chairperson:

• To preserve and maintain order and to decide on any points of order submitted.
• To eject person(s) obstructing the business of the meeting.
• To adjourn the meeting if it is so disorderly as to prevent the business of the meeting from
taking place.

The main duties of the chairperson:

Before the meeting:

• Ensure that the meeting has been properly convened and constituted.
• Draw up the agenda with the help of the secretary.
• Prepare and be fully informed on all matters to be discussed.

During the meeting:

• Call the meeting to order and declare it formally open.
• Make sure that the meeting runs according to legal and constitutional requirements.
• Deal with items on the agenda in the order set.
• Confirm the minutes of the previous meeting and sign them.
• Maintain order and see that the meeting is conducted in the proper manner.
• Clarify and restate points which may not be clear to all members.
• Summarise and draw conclusions from discussions.
• Enact the role of facilitator, rather than participant, in debates.
• Ensure the recording and exact wording of any proposals or decisions, as well as the
names of proposers and seconders.
• Decide when a motion has been sufficiently discussed and can be put to the vote.
• Supervise the voting procedure.
• Use the casting vote, if necessary.
• Identify and action t be taken and delegate responsibilities.
• Adjourn or close the meeting.

After the meeting:

• Ensure that a full written record of the meeting is produced by the secretary and circulated
to each member for agreement before the next meeting.
• Follow up on decisions and recommendations taken at the meeting and make sure they
are carried out.

The secretary
The secretary is the recording officer and the custodian of the records. She or he keeps the
minute book, the attendance register and the correspondence file.

Duties of the secretary

Before the meeting:

• Draw up the agenda with the chairperson.
• Send out the notice of the meeting and agenda, if necessary, to all members in good time.
• Prepare all documents and correspondence to be dealt with at the meeting, in the order
in which the items appear on the agenda.
• Circulate documents among members, if necessary.
• Arrange the venue and materials required.

During the meeting:

• See that all members sign the attendance register.
• Read the apologies of those who could not attend the meeting.
• Collect copies of all reports for later filing.
• Make notes on all proceedings.
• Record all motions, proposers, seconders and resolutions.
• Record the number of votes.
• Record the names of those responsible for further action and the due dates.

Unless it is a very small committee meeting, the secretary takes no part in the debates of the
meeting, nor does she or he vote.

After the meeting:

• Prepare the minutes, usually within seven days, but preferably the next day.
• Send copies of the minutes to the chairperson to be checked.
• File a copy of the checked minutes and send copies to the chairperson and other
members.
• Attend to all correspondence.

The treasurer
The treasure takes care of the finances of the committee. She or he keeps accurate records
of all monetary transactions. The treasurer may have powers concerning the funds belonging
to the committee, and takes care of payments.

Guidelines for participation in meetings

▪ Prepare – read all documentation, including the minutes of the previous meeting, and
the agenda. Pay special attention to proposals. Prepare for and make notes on
important matters.
▪ Be on time.
▪ Pay attention to the chairperson and speakers.
▪ Do not interrupt – indicate your desire to speak to the chairperson. Address all
comments through the chairperson.
▪ Be relevant – confine your input to the agenda items only.
▪ Be concise – do not take up time with unnecessary comments.
▪ Be objective in considering all matters – do not confine yourself to how an item affects
you.
▪ Be constructive in your evaluation of suggestions and proposals.
▪ Ask for clarification if you are uncertain about any issue.
▪ Do not be aggressive, rude or belittling.
▪ Diarise all tasks allocated to you.

Meeting Procedures

What to expect and what is expected…

Introduction
The prospect of finding yourself in the unfamiliar surrounds of a meeting in progress can be
quite daunting. Fear of the unknown and the lack of knowledge in correct meeting
procedures has literally stopped people from taking on roles or positions on decision-making
bodies. Obtaining an understanding of these procedures will allow you to break through this
barrier and make a contribution to various organisations and decision-making bodies.

The Meeting
Meetings occur when groups of people gather to discuss, and try to resolve matters which
are of a mutual concern. Recommendations are made, directions given and courses of
action decided. For a meeting to effectively achieve these goals, a structure needs to be in
place. If a meeting has little or no structure, the results are unproductive and dissatisfying for
all concerned.

The Agenda
Prior to the meeting, an agenda is prepared and circulated to all members. This agenda
forms the structure of the meeting. It states where and when the meeting will take place and
what matters will be discussed. A draft copy of the minutes of the previous meeting, along
with any other relevant material that the members should read prior to the meeting, are
distributed at the same time as the agenda.

The Meeting Structure

The meeting is unable to begin until the Chairperson

declares a quorum. This means that there are enough
people in attendance to allow debates to be conducted
and decisions to be voted upon. If a quorum cannot be
Opening the declared within 30 minutes of the meetings designated
Meeting... the starting time, the meeting should be called again for a
meeting begins after similar time and place a week later. If no more
the members attend the reconvened meeting, the
Chairperson declares Chairperson may be allowed by the standing orders to
the meeting opened. conduct the business with those who arrived.
If a Chairperson has not taken the chair 15 minutes
after the meeting was due to begin, the meeting
should elect another Chairperson from among the
members present to act temporarily.

The Chairperson states the names of those members

Apologies...those
who formally notified that they were unable to attend
unable to attend.
the meeting.

Minutes of the The Chairperson tables the minutes of the previous

Previous Meeting meeting making them open as a topic of discussion. At
... the Chairperson this point the Chairperson will ask the members to
moves that the adopt the minutes. If the members do not agree that
minutes of the the draft minutes are accurate, changes may be
previous meeting be suggested. The Chairperson should ask the meeting to
accepted or adopted. vote on those corrections. If there are only a few minor
corrections, the Chairperson may ask the members to
accept the minutes with the corrections. The vote to
adopt the minutes can then go ahead on that basis.
Once the Minutes have been adopted the Chairperson
should sign every page of the minutes and hand them
to the meeting secretary for filing.
It is not appropriate at this time, to indulge in debates
on decisions which were made at the previous
meeting. Anyone who wishes to change a motion
should wait until the same subject arises in the general
business of the current meeting or raise it in the part
called "Any Other Business".
The most important advice about the minutes of a
previous meeting is to make sure you read them.

Often the issues for Business arising from the Minutes

of the Previous Meeting are listed in the agenda. Any
Business arising from
reports, pieces of information or other matters of
Minutes of the
substance that were requested at the previous
Previous Meeting ...
meeting are debated and a vote is taken on the
appropriate action to take.

Correspondence ... Any letters, facsimiles and the like, which have been
letters that have been received by the committee are discussed here. The
sent to the meeting Chairperson should summarise correspondence which
are tabled and cover similar issues, or express similar opinions and
debated, if the discuss them as a single issue.
meeting wishes to do The Chairperson presents a piece of correspondence
so. to the meeting by putting a motion that the meeting
 "receive the correspondence". This is an
acknowledgment by the meeting that the
correspondence as been formally received and that it
may now be discussed and acted upon, if necessary.
If correspondence sent to the meeting is considered
offensive, the meeting can vote on a motion, "not to
receive" it. Alternatively, the meeting can decide that
the correspondence should be "received and lie on the
table". This means it will not really be dealt with. It is
effectively in limbo until such time in the future that it is
"taken from the table" and discussed.

Reports and submissions that have been written for

the meeting or include information relevant to the work
of the meeting are tabled and discussed. A motion is
required to be put that a report be received. This
Reports ...reports
means that the report exists, as far as the meeting is
written for the
concerned, and a discussion or debate may now take
meeting are tabled
placed on the contents, interpretation and
and debated, if the
recommendations of the report. Motions are able to be
meeting wishes to do
put for or against the recommendations of the report or
so.
ask the author to consider further issues or reconsider
issues on the basis of particular information.
A member of a meeting can even put forward a motion
to change the wording of a report or submission.

General Business General business items are announced singly by the

...items so listed in Chairperson and a discussion or debate follows each
the agenda are one. Motions that suggest methods of resolving issues
debated. The debate are put forward and to a vote. Once the motions
usually begins with receive a simple majority, or a majority as defined in
the Chairperson the standing orders, they become resolutions.
calling on someone to Sometimes amendments to a motion are put forward.
move a motion. Only after the amendments are debated and voted
 upon can the revised substantive motion be brought to
the vote.
In the case of more formal meetings, general business
consists of motions that are moved and seconded by
participants of the meetings. A seconder is someone
who agrees that a motion should be debated. In most
meetings however, the need for a member to support
a motion is ignored.

It is at this point in time, that the members are able to

raise issues they feel are important. These include any
items which were not listed on the agenda. No
extremely important or complex issues should be
Any other Business
raised unannounced during this part of the meeting. If
...when all items on
an urgent matter must be dealt with by the meeting,
the agenda have
the Chairperson should be informed before the
been debated, the
meeting begins. A revised agenda can then be drawn
Chairperson may call
up in the time that remains before the meeting is due
for items not listed in
to begin. If the Chairperson feels that any of the issues
General Business.
brought up for discussion are too complex or
troublesome, he may call for another meeting to
discuss the issue or alternatively, put it on the agenda
for the next scheduled meeting.

Once all the issues have been put forward and

discussed, the Chairperson advises members of the
Close of Meeting
date and time of the next meeting. The meeting is now
officially closed.

What can you do?

To be active and effective member of meeting, you must:
• be well prepared
• make sure you have read the agenda
• be aware of the topics that will be discussed
• be involved
 • be a good listener. There are four steps to good listening:
• hearing - receiving the sound
• attending - focusing on what you are hearing
• understanding - interpreting and evaluating what you listen to
• remembering - storing the information

REFERENCE LIST

1. Cleary,S.2014. Communication:Ahands-onapproach. 2nded. Landsdowne:Juta.

2. Walsh, F. 1995. The Meeting Manual, Canberra: AGPS
 UNIT 7
MECHANISM DESCRIPTION, PROCESS
DESCRIPTION AND INSTRUCTIONS

It is an integral part of an engineer’s tasks to describe the appearance of mechanisms and

objects in a very precise and detailed way (mechanism description), as well as how these
mechanisms work (process description). As an engineer you are also likely to having to
explain to clients and colleagues how to do or how to use something (instructions). This unit
provides useful guidelines to develop these skills.

7.1 Mechanism description (what something looks like)

“Mechanism descriptions are precise portrayals of material devices with two or more parts
that function together to do something. Even a simple mechanism usually has many parts,
each with a specific function to work towards a specific purpose.

Mechanisms varies in complexity, e.g.:

• A pair of pliers
• A bicycle
• An automobile
• A jet plane like the Boeing 787
• The space shuttle

Its main focus:

• physical characteristics or attributes of the device and its parts
• the size, shape, colour, finish, fit, etc. for the complete mechanism and for each of its
parts
Steps in writing a mechanism description:

1. Introduce the item - Provide a general description that includes the mechanism’s
name and main purpose or function, as well as its overall appearance. List the
mechanism’s parts in the order in which they will be described.

2. Describe the characteristics of all parts in detail, such as length, width, height, depth,
weight, density, colour, texture and shape. Avoid vague descriptions. Use concrete,
specific and precise vocabulary, e.g.
• 8.5 by 11-inch piece of paper…vs.Piece of paper…
• red, hard lead… vs. 2h lead vs. colourful…

3. Write a conclusion – Sum up the main aspect of the mechanism. This can include it
main purpose

• Use present tense and active verbs, e.g.

o The machine stamps… vs. The machine stamped OR The parts are
stamped by the machine

EXAMPLE:

A Mechanism description of a 33k ohm resistor

The 33k ohm, 1-watt carbon resistor is a circuit component that impedes the flow of electric
current. The resistor impedes the movement of electrons, thereby generating a thermal
response depending on temperature, cross section, and length of the resistive element.
The resulting resistance …

The resistor consists of the following parts: the carbon element, the wire leads, the casing,
and the color bands.
 Components of a 33k ohm resistor

The carbon element

The carbon element is the capsule of resistive material that coverts electrical energy into
heat. The carbon element serves as the primary active…
The carbon element is cylindrically shaped and is 2.4 cm long with a diameter of .32 cm.
It is composed of finely ground carbon particles mixed with a ceramic binding compound.
The element is gray with…

Conclusion

The 33k ohm 1-watt carbon resistor is a circuit component that impedes the flow of electric
current through the use of a carbon element. The resistor forms one of the most commonly
used circuit components in electronic systems today.

7.2 Process description (how something works)

A process description explains how things works or are done or made.

Examples:
• How aircraft “black boxes” function
• How a side-scan sonar works
• The process of photosynthesis, erosion, the water cycle etc.
Steps in writing a process description:

1. Give the description an informative title.

2. Write an introduction in which you define the process and provide an overview. This
could include why or how the process is used, who or what performs it, and where or
when it takes place.
3. Present steps chronologically (in the order in which they appear). The steps can be
presented in paragraph form with headings and subheadings, or bulleted or numbered
lists depending on the kind of process description.
4. Write a conclusion in paragraph form which summarises the process, and perhaps
stating the main uses or advantages.

• Drawings, diagrams and flowcharts can be very useful in process descriptions.

EXAMPLE:

The Process of Photosynthesis

Photosynthesis takes place in the leaves of plants. The leaves are made up of very small
cells. Inside these cells are tiny structures called chloroplasts. Each chloroplast contains
a green chemical called chlorophyll which gives leaves their green color. Chlorophyll
absorbs the sun’s energy. It is this energy that is used to split water molecules into
hydrogen and oxygen. Oxygen is released from the leaves into the atmosphere.Hydrogen
and carbon dioxide are used to form glucose or food for plants.

Photosynthesis occurs in two stages commonly known as Light dependent Reactions and
the Calvin Cycle.

Light dependent Reactions

 Light dependent reactions occur in the thylakoid membrane of the chloroplasts and take
place only when light is available. During these reactions light energy is converted to
chemical energy.
• Chlorophyll and other pigments absorb energy from sunlight. This energy is
transferred to the photosystems responsible for photosynthesis.
• Water is used to provide electrons and hydrogen ions but also produces oxygen.
• The electrons and hydrogen ions are used to create ATP and NADPH. ATP is an
energy storage molecule. NADPH is an electron carrier/donor molecule. Both ATP
and NADPH will be used in the next stage of photosynthesis.

The Calvin Cycle

The Calvin Cycle reactions occur in the stroma of the chloroplasts. Although these
reactions can take place without light, the process requires ATP and NADPH which were
created using light in the first stage. Carbon dioxide and energy from ATP along with
NADPH are used to form glucose.

Conclusion
Photosynthesis is the process by which plants make their own food using carbon dioxide,
water and sunlight. It is essential for food and oxygen. Photosynthesis is so essential to
life on earth that most living organisms, including humans, cannot survive without it.

7.3 Instructions (how to do or use something)

Instructions are an explanation of how to perform a particular procedure, enabling a reader to

duplicate a process. This could include computer manuals, assembly instructions, policy
manuals etc.

General Instructions - Instructions that explain how to perform a generic procedure

Specific Instructions - Instructions that explain how to perform a procedure under conditions
involving particular equipment, surroundings, or other variables
Examples:
• Trimming a hedge, using a Black & Decker Auto Shop electric hedge trimmer
• Braking a vehicle, braking in wet conditions
• Installing an electrical outlet

Steps in writing instructions:

1. Give the instructions an informative title.

2. Write a brief introduction explaining the purpose and importance of the procedure
List of materials, equipment, tools, and skills required
3. Present actual instructions (numbered, step-by-step, detailed explanations of how to
perform actions). Drawings, diagrams or flowcharts can be used for clarification.
• Use short, simple commands; start with a verb
• Number steps in a logical manner
• If important, provide reason for step
• Include WARNING, CAUTION, and NOTE if necessary
o Warning - alerts to possible injury or death
o Caution - alerts to possible equipment damage
o Note - alerts to information that will make the procedure easier or more
efficient
• If necessary, use separate series of steps.
• Include no more than 9 steps in a series.
• Provide introduction/transition to each series.

4. Write a conclusion in paragraph form which summarises the instructions, and

perhaps highlighting the main uses or advantages.
EXAMPLE:

Installing a 24" X 30" Bathroom Wall Cabinet

A bathroom wall cabinet is a simple and practical way to optimise space in your bathroom.
Installing a 24" x 30" lavatory wall cabinet consists of five main phases: (1) gathering the
equipment and supplies, (2) setting up the drill and power supply, (3) choosing and
marking the correct spot, (4) preparing the wall cabinet, and (5) hanging the wall cabinet.
Following these instructions correctly will result in having a beautiful bathroom wall cabinet
that all your friends will envy, not to mention the extra cabinet space you will acquire.

1) Equipment and Supplies

To get started, gather the following items:

• 24" x 30" wall cabinet

• 6 to 9 three inch wood screws
• drill bit which mates up to wood screws
• drill
• drill bit chuck
• stud finder
• tape measure
• pencil
• electrical outlet
• extension cord

Note: The last two items are not necessary if using a cordless drill.

2) Setting Up the Drill and Power Supply

1. Insert the drill bit into the end of the drill. If the hole is not large enough for the drill
bit to fit, turn the end of the drill clockwise until large enough.
 2. …

Choosing and Marking the Correct Spot

To choose and mark a good spot on the wall for the cabinet:

1. Locate approximately where you want to hang your cabinet.

2. Press the stud finder flat against the wall. Run it horizontally right to left very slowly
until the needle points straight out towards you. When this occurs, you have found
a stud.
3. Mark where the stud is with your pencil.
4. Cont…

Note: Most studs are 16' apart from each other, while some are 12".

Preparing the Wall Cabinet To get the cabinet ready to be mounted on the wall:

1. Lay the wall cabinet on its back and open the cabinet door.
2. To mark where the screws will go, take the stud width measurement and center it
inside the wall cabinet.
3. Cont…

Note: Only start the screws 1/4" to 1/2" into the cabinet. Do not go through the back of the
wall cabinet. This will make it difficult to hold the wall cabinet later.

Hanging the Wall Cabinet

1. Lift the wall cabinet and press it to the wall near your stud marks and bottom
alignment marks.
2. Line up the screws with the stud marks and the bottom of the wall cabinet with the
bottom alignment marks. To do this, you might need someone to hold the wall
cabinet for you.
3. Cont…

Caution:Hold cabinet firmly until remaining screws are screwed in.

 4. Before screwing in the remaining screws, double-check the bottom of the wall
cabinet to make sure it is still aligned correctly with the bottom alignment marks:
o If it is, then screw in remaining screws and your cabinet should be secured
tightly.
o If the wall cabinet is unaligned, loosen one of the top screws, align correctly,
and screw in remaining screws.

You have completed the procedure for hanging your beautiful new wall cabinet. Now you
can enjoy the benefits of the optimised space in your bathroom.

REFERENCE LIST

1. Cleary,S.2014.Communication:Ahands-onapproach. 2nded. Landsdowne:Juta.

2. Finkelstein, L, Jr. 2000. Pocket Book of Technical Writing for Engineers and
Scientists. Boston: McGraw-Hill.
3. Ingre D. 2008. Engineering Communication – a practical guide to workplace
communications for engineers. Mason: Cengage Learning.
4. http://w3.gel.ulaval.ca/~poussart/gel64324/McMurrey/texte/acctoc.htm
5. http://photosynthesiseducation.com/photosynthesis-in-plants/