Learning Outcomes

• Define forensic science.

Recognize the major contributors to the development of forensic science.

Explain the importance of forensics in medical sciences.

• Reflect upon the rapid growth of forensic laboratories in India and

around the world. • Define and understand the concept of violence.

• Understand the implication of abuse in children and women. Explain the

role and responsibilities of a forensic nurse.

INTRODUCTION

Forensic science is the utilization of scientific methods and techniques to

investigate crimes. It involves the collection, preservation, and analysis of
physical evidence, as well as the interpretation of that evidence in order
to aid in the investigation and prosecution of criminal cases.

Forensic science includes different specialties like forensic biology,

forensic chemistry, forensic anthropology, and forensic psychology. Each
of these specialties has its own unique set of techniques and methods for
analyzing evidence and interpreting results.

Forensic biology is the study of biological evidence, such as DNA, blood,

and other bodily fluids. Forensic biologists use techniques such as DNA
analysis, blood typing, and serology to identify suspects, link suspects to
crime scenes, and exclude suspects from investigations. They may also
use forensic entomology, which involves the study of insects, to determine
the time of death in situations when the body has been recovered later.

Forensic chemistry deals with the analysis of chemical evidence, such as

drugs, poisons, and accelerants. Forensic chemists use techniques such as
gas chromatography (GC) and mass spectrometry to identify unknown
substances and determine their chemical composition. They may also use
forensic toxicology, which involves the testing of biological samples to
detect whether any drugs or poison is present.

Forensic anthropology is the study of human remains, and forensic

anthropologists use techniques such as osteology and odontology to
identify human remains and determine the cause of death. They may also
use forensic archaeology to excavate crime scenes and recover evidence.

Forensic psychology deals with the psychological aspects of criminal

investigations and trials. Forensic psychologists use techniques such as
psychological profiling and hypnosis to help identify suspects and
determine the credibility of witnesses. Forensic science also encompasses
many other specialties such as digital forensics, document examination,
fingerprint analysis, and firearms examination. Each of these fields applies
unique techniques and methods to

A Basic Introduction to Forensic Nursing and Indian Laws

Analyze specific types of evidence and to assist the legal proceedings

bringing justice to the innocent irrespective of color, caste, and creed.

Process Forensic science plays a vital role in bringing justice in the legal
proceedings. It provides the evidence that is needed to prosecute
criminals while protecting the innocent in the of justice. The field of
forensic science is emerging with new technologies being developed all
the time, which means that forensic science is a field that is always
changing and adapting.

Forensic science also has an ethical aspect to it. It is important for forensic
scientists to understand the ethical considerations that are involved in
their work. They must ensure that their methods are reliable, valid, and
unbiased, and that they are using the most current techniques and
technologies. They also must ensure that their work is transparent and
that they are accountable for their findings.

Illustrative Case Study

Ms. X’s case involved the heinous sexual act and murder of a woman in
2002 who was just 23 years old. The victim was brutally assaulted and
beaten up by a group of six men on a moving bus while returning home
after watching a movie accompanied by a male friend. The attackers used
a metal rod to inflict severe injuries to her internal organs, and she died
from her injuries a few days later.

Forensic science played a critical role while investigating and recovering

evidence for the case. The forensic examination of the victim’s clothing
and the bus on which the attack took place provided crucial evidence that
helped to identify the attackers and to link them to the crime scene.
Forensic experts collected DNA samples from the victim’s clothing and
from the bus, and they were able to match them with those of the
suspect. The DNA samples were also matched to a blood sample taken
from the victim while she was still alive, which helped to confirm that the
DNA samples collected from the crime scene belonged to the attackers.

Forensic experts also examined the victim’s clothing and found semen
stains, which helped to establish that the attack was a sexual assault.
They also found fibers from the suspects’ clothing on the victim’s clothing,
which helped to link the suspects to the crime scene. Forensic experts also
examined the victim’s injuries and were able to determine that a metal
rod had been used to inflict the injuries. They also found injuries
consistent with the use of a blunt

Object, which helped to establish that the attackers had used a bus jack
handle to assault the victim. The evidence collected by forensic experts
was crucial in the prosecution of the case. The six suspects were arrested
and charged with rape, murder, and other offenses. Four of the suspects
were convicted and sentenced to death, while one committed suicide in
the prison and one was put in remand home as a juvenile offender.

The case sparked widespread outrage in the country and led to changes in
the country’s laws regarding sexual assault and the protection of women.
It also brought attention to the importance of forensic science during
investigation and trial of criminal cases and requirement for forensic
laboratories to be equipped with the latest technology and techniques.
TRADITIONAL FORENSIC SCIENCE DISCIPLINES

Various disciplines of forensic science have been established and

practiced for many years (Fig. 1.1).

Fingerprint Analysis

This discipline involves the examination of fingerprints to identify suspects

and link them to crime scenes. Fingerprint examiners use a variety of
techniques to identify and compare

Fingerprints, including ridge analysis; pattern analysis such as arches,

loops, and whorls; and composite analysis.

Ballistics

This discipline involves the study of firearms and ammunition. Ballistic

experts examine bullets, cartridge cases, and other firearms- related
evidence to determine the type of weapon used in a crime and to link
suspects to crime scenes.

Forensic toxicology Fingerprint analysis Ballistics Traditional forensic

disciplines Forensic pathology Document examination Bloodstain pattern
analysis

Document Examination or Questioned Documents

This discipline involves the examination of handwriting, signatures,

typewriting, and Figure 1.1 Traditional forensic disciplines. Other forms of
written or printed evidence. Document examiners use a variety of
techniques to identify and compare writing samples, including handwriting
analysis, typewriting analysis, and ink analysis.
Bloodstain Pattern Analysis

This discipline examines the presence of bloodstains to understand the

location and sequence of events in a crime. Bloodstain pattern analysts
use a variety of techniques to interpret bloodstains, including angle of
impact analysis, bloodstain pattern dynamics, and bloodstain pattern
interpretation.

Forensic Pathology

This discipline involves the examination of remains of the human body to

find out the exact cause because of which and the situation in which the
person had died. Forensic pathologists use a variety of techniques to
examine bodies, including autopsies, toxicology testing, and histology.

Forensic Toxicology

This discipline involves examining of biological samples, especially those

from the viscera and bodily fluids, to detect whether any drug or poisons
are present inside the body. Forensic toxicologists use a variety of
techniques to analyze samples, including gas chromatography and mass
spectrometry.

NEW FORENSIC SCIENCE DISCIPLINES

While these traditional forensic science disciplines are widely used even
nowadays, with the advancements in technology and changes in the
society, new forensic disciplines have emerged in forensic science which
are as enlisted in the subsequent text (Fig. 1.2). These divisions help in
providing accurate and more reliable results.

A Basic Introduction to Forensic Nursing and Indian Laws

Digital Forensics Forensic Forensic Forensic Engineering Odontology
Anthropology Forensics Intelligence Division Forensic Dexoyribo- nucleic
Narcotic Drugs acid (DNA) Division Division

Figure 1.2 New divisions in forensic science.

Forensics Intelligence Division

This division handles all forensic work, both proactive and preventative,
including all activities associated with building forensic databases for
homeland security in the areas of ink, textile fiber, automotive paints and
polymers, voice prints, guns, DNA profiles, etc.

Digital Forensics or Cyber Forensics or Forensic Electronics

This discipline involves investigating or examining digital evidence, such

as computer and smartphones, and network forensics, GPS forensics,
audiovisual authentications, speaker identification, facial recognition,
analysis of CCTV footage, and image processing. Digital/ cyber forensic
experts use data recovery, computer forensics, and mobile device
forensics to retrieve and examine digital evidence.

Forensic Engineering

This discipline involves the utilization of engineering rules to investigate

accidents and crimes. Forensic engineers use techniques such as accident
reconstruction, materials testing, and metallurgy to determine the cause
of accidents and to identify suspects.

Forensic Odontology

This discipline involves the examination of teeth and bite marks to identify
suspects and link them to crime scenes. Forensic odontologists use
techniques such as dental charting, bite mark analysis, and dental
radiography to identify suspects and to link them to crime scenes.

DID YOU KNOW? Cheiloscopy is the study of Lips.

Forensic Anthropology

This discipline involves the study of human remains, and forensic

anthropologists use techniques such as osteology, odontology, and facial
reconstruction to identify human remains and determine the cause of
death. They may also use forensic archaeology to excavate crime scenes
and recover evidence.

Forensic Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) Division

This division will analyze instances including rape, sexual assault,

mitochondrial DNA, paternity issues, disaster victim identification,
autosomal DNA analysis, and missing person identification. Dimethyl
sulfoxide is used as a preservative to preserve the hair sample for DNA
analysis.

Narcotic Drugs Division

This division handles cases involving psychotropic and narcotic drugs.

Illustrative Case Study

The 1967 collapse of the Silver Bridge in Point Pleasant, West Virginia, is
an illustration of a situation in which forensic engineering was used. The
Silver Bridge was a suspension bridge that connected Point Pleasant, West
Virginia, and Gallipolis, Ohio, across the Ohio River.
A total of 46 people were killed, and numerous others were hurt when the
bridge unexpectedly collapsed on December 15, 1967, in the middle of
rush hour. One eyebar in a suspension chain failed, which set off a chain
reaction that caused the entire structure to collapse.

The Silver Bridge on completion in 1928. (Source: https://

www.fhwa.dot.gov/byday/fhbd1215.htm.)

Forensic engineers were called in to inquire what caused the collapse.

They examined the remains of the bridge and the failed eyebar, and they
also conducted extensive testing of the other eyebars in the suspension
chain to determine whether they were also at risk of failure. The forensic
engineers discovered that the eyebar that failed had a small defect called
a “fatigue crack” that had developed over time due to the repeated stress
of the moving traffic on the bridge. The crack had gone unnoticed during
regular inspections, as the eyebar was not visible to the inspectors.

It was also discovered that the design of the bridge was not adequate to
handle the increased traffic loads that had developed over time. The
design of the bridge was based on outdated standards, and the engineers
determined that the bridge was not capable of handling the weight of the
vehicles that were crossing it.

The findings of this investigation were used to improve the inspection and
maintenance of bridges and to update the design standards for
suspension bridges. The National Bridge Inspection Standards were
established as a response to the collapse of the Silver Bridge and call for
routine inspections of all the bridges in the United States, including the
use of cutting-edge technology to find flaws that might not be obvious to
the naked eye.

6
The collapsed Silver Bridge, as seen from the Ohio side. (Source:
https://www.fhwa.dot. Gov/byday/fhbd1215.htm.)

EVOLUTION OF FORENSIC SCIENCE

The emergence of forensic science dates back to the early 19 th century,

but it was not until the 20th century that it became a recognized and
respected profession.

The earliest known use of forensic science can be traced back to ancient
China and Greece, where fingerprints were used as a form of
identification. In the 18th century, a French physician and chemist, Edmond
Locard, established the first forensic laboratory in Lyon, France. He is
considered the “Father of Forensic Science” and famous for his principle
“every contact leaves a trace,” which is still widely used nowadays.

The 19th century saw the development of many forensic techniques, such
as ballistics and fingerprint analysis. In 1892, Scotland Yard established
the first fingerprint bureau in the world, and in 1901, an Italian forensic
scientist, Alphonse Bertillon, developed the first system of identification
based on physical body measurements.

The 20th century saw the rapid advancement of forensic science. In the
1920s, the use of blood typing was developed, which allowed for the
identification of blood samples at crime scenes. In the 1930s, the use of
forensic toxicology was established, which allowed for the identification of
drugs and poisons in the human body. In the 1940s, the use of serology
was developed, which allowed for the identification of blood and semen
samples at crime scenes.

The 1950s saw the development of DNA analysis, which revolutionized

forensic science. In the 1980s, scientists developed the polymerase chain
reaction (PCR) technique, which allowed for the amplification of DNA
samples and made DNA analysis more accurate and reliable. Nowadays,
DNA analysis is considered one of the most powerful tools in forensic
science and is used in different criminal investigations.
In the 21st century, forensic science continues to evolve and advance. New
technologies such as mass spectrometry and imaging techniques are
being used to analyze evidence. The use of forensic psychology is also
becoming more prevalent in criminal investigations. This field of study
examines the behavior and mental processes of suspects and victims and
is used to understand and predict criminal behavior. The development of
forensic science has led to many advancements in the field, and it
continues to evolve and improve as new technologies and techniques are
developed.

Government Chemical Examiner’s Laboratory

The first laboratory to study chemicals was built in then Madras

Presidency under the aegis of the Health Department in 1849. The
primary reason for setting this up was the fact that poisoning was one of
the earliest methods adopted to kill a human being. The rampant use of
these poisons had an impact on legal agencies while interrogating any
case of poisoning and so there was a demand for establishing a separate
structure or branch for isolating, detecting, and estimating different types
of poisons absorbed in the human structure for analysis for legal
investigations.

Anthropometric Bureau

In 1879, to identify a criminal by unique body measurements, Alphonse

Bertillon introduced “anthropometry” The Anthropometric Bureau was
established in 1892 in Calcutta (now Kolkata), India. The bureau was set
up as a part of the Bengal Police to collect and preserve anthropometric
data, which include physical measurements and descriptions of
individuals, as a method of identification. It was the first of its kind in India
and one of the first in the world. The bureau was established to help the
police identify criminals and suspects, and to assist in the investigation of
crimes.

The bureau collected data such as fingerprints, handprints, footprints, and

photographs of individuals, as well as measurements of various parts of
the body. It also developed a system for classifying and organizing the
data, which allowed for easy retrieval and comparison of records. The
anthropometric data collected by the bureau were used to identify
suspects and solve crimes, and it played an important role in the early
development of forensic science in India.

Fingerprint Bureau

The Fingerprint Bureau, also known as the Central Fingerprint Bureau

(CFB), is an active unit within the Indian police system. It is responsible for
maintaining the national fingerprint database, which is used for
identification and criminal investigation purposes. The bureau was
established in the early 20th century as a part of the Bengal Police, as an
offshoot of the Anthropometric Bureau in Kolkata.

The bureau collects and preserves fingerprints, handprints, footprints, and

photographs of individuals. These data are used to identify suspects and
solve crimes. The bureau also developed a system for classifying and
organizing the data, which allows for easy retrieval and comparison of
records.

The CFB provides forensic services to the law enforcement agencies,

courts, and other government departments throughout India. The bureau
also maintains a database of fingerprints of convicted criminals and other
individuals who have been arrested or fingerprinted for various reasons.
The database is used to compare fingerprints found at the scene of crime
with those of known individuals, which can help to identify suspects and
solve crimes.

The CFB also promotes education and skill upgradation to other fingerprint
bureaus in India, and it participates in international fingerprint exchange
programs. It also has a mandate to develop and improve the fingerprint
identification techniques and technologies.

Department of Explosives

The Department of Explosives was built at Nagpur in the year 1898. Later,
five such workplaces were established in Kolkata (then Calcutta), Mumbai
(then Bombay), Agra, Chennai (then Madras), and Gwalior, besides three
suboffices at Sivakasi (Tamil Nadu), Gomia (Jharkhand), and Asansol (West
Bengal). The main functions of the department include:

Licensing and registration of manufacturers, dealers, and users of

explosives

Inspection of explosive factories, magazines, and other storage facilities

Regulation of the transport of explosives

Investigation of accidents involving explosives

Collection and analysis of samples of explosives for quality control

Training and education of personnel involved in the explosives industry

Research and development of new and improved explosive materials and
technologies Collaborating with other agencies and organizations on
issues related to explosives’ safety and security

Government Examiner of Questioned Document, Shimla

Post Indian independence movement, the British Government of Bengal

appointed Mr. C. R. Hardless, who was serving as Superintendent in police
in 1904, as the handwriting expert. After 2 years, the office was moved to
Shimla. Mr. Hardless was then succeeded by Mr. F. Brewester, who was an
officer in the police department and was nominated as the Government
Examiner of Questioned Documents (GEQD). In 1949, Mr. S. N. Sen
became the first Indian to be appointed to this post.

PIONEERS IN FORENSIC SCIENCE

Mathieu Orfila (1787-1853)

Mathieu Orfila (Fig. 1.3) is considered the “Father of Forensic Toxicology.”
He became famous for teaching medicine in France. In 1814, he published
a scientific report on how to detect different poisons and their respective
effects on animals.

Alphonse Bertillon (1853-1914)

Alphonse Bertillon (Fig. 1.4) was the one who initially developed the
scientific system used to identify a person. In 1879, he started taking
series of anthropometric measurements to distinguish how one body is
different from another. It took him two decades to develop his references
that was considered as the most precise technique to identify a person.
However, in the early 1900s, fingerprinting completely replaced
anthropometry, but the efforts made by Bertillon in establishing the roots
of forensics have gained him the title of “Father of Criminal Investigation.”

Figure 1.3 Mathieu Orfila.

Francis Galton (1822-1911)

Figure 1.4 Alphonse Bertillon.

Francis Galton (Fig. 1.5) published the first study for fingerprinting analysis
as well as filing. Galton published a book titled “Finger Prints,” giving the
first statistical proof of how effective fingerprinting is in identifying a
person.

Figure 1.5 Francis Galton.

Figure 1.6 Leone Lattes.

Leone Lattes (1887-1954)

Figure 1.7 Calvin Goddard.

Leone Lattes (Fig. 1.6) devised a very simple method of extracting DNA
from a dried bloodstain from the scene of crime to determine the blood
group, a technique which is readily applied to the criminal investigation
even in these days.

Calvin Goddard (1891-1955)

Goddard (Fig. 1.7), who was a Colonel in the U.S. Army, devised a very
crucial technique to identify whether a gun has fired a particular bullet.
This comparison microscope developed by Goddard is considered as the
most indispensable tool for the modern firearms examinations.

Hans Gross (1847-1915)

In 1893, Hans Gross (Fig. 1.8) wrote a very significant treatise outlining
the use of scientific disciplines in the area of criminal investigation. Gross
studied and created many investigative principles over a long period of
time. His work, eventually retitled “Criminal Investigation,” continues to
be a vehicle for disseminating advances in scientific crime detection
techniques.

Figure 1.8

Hans Gross.

DID YOU KNOW?

ABCs of Forensic Investigations

° Assume nothing.

° Believe no one. ° Check everything.

LAWS AND PRINCIPLES OF FORENSIC SCIENCE

The field of forensic science caters to the analysis of physical evidence,

including its identification, individualization, evaluation, and utilization of
natural science rules as well as concepts in order to settle any legal
disputes that: may arise.

The phrase “forensic” originates from the Latin term “forensis,” which is
translated as “the forum.” Additionally, forensic scientists actively
participate in civil litigation and regulatory matters. The forensic science’s
guiding principles directly impact the court proceedings.

Following forensic science laws are crucial for linking a suspect or criminal
to a crime scene and the survivor during investigation:

Law of individuality

Law of progressive change

Principle of comparison

0 Principle of analysis

Principle of exchange (Locard’s exchange principle)

• Law of probability
° Law of circumstantial evidence

Law of Individuality

It says that “Every object whether natural or man-made has a distinctive

quality or characteristic in it which is not duplicated in any other object.”
In simple terms, there are no two similar things in this universe. The
typical example is a person’s fingerprints, which are distinctive and
irreversible, and represent his/her identity. Even the twins’ fingerprints are
unique.

Consider the differences between man-made objects like money notes,

laptops, and typewriters, and how they look similar, but everything is
unique in its own way.

This concept is regarded as the most fundamental building block of

forensic science. On the basis of individuality, fingerprints, footwear
prints/footprints, and marks of weapon collected from the scene of crime
are investigated and analyzed.

Law of Progressive Change

The concept emphasizes the idea that “Nothing is ever constant and
everything changes with the passage of time.” But the speed with which
the change is occurring varies for various items and between samples.

The crime scene must be secured quickly to prevent changes occurring

due to climate (rain, heat, wind), the involvement of a human or animal at
the crime scene, or various other factors. A traffic accident that happened
on a busy highway, for example, has high chances of losing all crucial
evidence if it is not secured in time.

Bullet pieces can rust, gun barrels can become loose, shoes can get wear
and tear stains, wooden goods can rot from termites, etc. Longer the
delay, more significant are the changes. When samples are not reliable,
an inquiry might become complicated since the process of identification
can vary, which affects the investigation procedure. Tissue samples need
to be

Analyzed right away because they begin to deteriorate without the proper
preservation. With time, the criminals also change gradually. If the culprit
is not caught in time, everything except his/her fingerprints or other
permanent features is unidentifiable.

Locard’s Principle of Exchange (Law of Exchange)

This concept was presented by the pioneer of criminology, a famous

French scientist, Edmond Locard. It explains that “As soon as two things
come in connection with each other, they mutually interchange the traces
between them.”

Every time a person commits a crime, there is always some evidence that
is left at the scene of crime, on the person, or on the object he/she had
used (mutual exchange of matter). These negligible traces are particularly
useful while investigating because when they are recognized by an expert
and linked to their original source, the offender, the crime scene,

And the victim can all be conclusively linked. This principle is the
foundation of a scientific criminal investigation.

In every situation in which the crime has happened, there is the presence
of evidence like fingerprints, marks of a car tyre, fragments of gunshot,
footwear prints, sample of hairs, skin, muscles, bodily fluids, blood, and
fibers of clothes. This principle is validated when any such objects that
were used/owned by the offender are analyzed with the help of DNA
analysis.

This law’s fundamental requirement is that the physical evidence be kept

in the proper place:
• What are the exact spots and objects that the criminal or his/her weapon
exactly came into contact with at the time of crime?

• The officer investigating the case needs to make right contacts in order
to steer the inquiry in the right path.

Principle of Comparison

This law is essential for laboratory investigations. “Only the likes can be
compared,” the rule says. This emphasizes that there should be
availability of similar samples or specimens to compare along with
whenever a questionable item is examined. For instance, sending a knife
as a comparison if the murder was committed with a pistol is pointless.
The key requirement for this principle is to provide specimens or samples
of a similar kind for accurate comparison with the sample/specimen found
at the scene of crime.

Principle of Analysis

This law explains that “The quality of any analysis would be better by
collection of correct sample and its correct preservation in the prescribed
manner” to generate higher-quality outcomes and prevent sample
tampering, contamination, and destruction.

When a hard disc is placed in a paper bag and placed in the vicinity of a
powerful electromagnetic field, it may become damaged. Therefore, it is
essential to use practical and efficient data collection as well as packaging
techniques.

Law of Probability

This law refers to “All identifications (definite or indefinite), made

consciously or unconsciously on the basis of probability.”
Likelihood of the same thing happening in two different cases is negligible,
despite the fact that the blood group of the culprit matches that of many
other persons.

If a missing woman has a permanent scar on the left hand as well as an

old injury mark on the right hand, and if an unidentified woman’s body is
found with those same traits at the same time, there is a significant
likelihood that the unidentified body found by the police is that of the
missing woman. There is a one in a million chance that the body is that of
another woman.

Law of Circumstantial Facts

According to this law, “Facts cannot be wrong, they cannot lie not wholly
absent but men can and do.” Facts highlight the importance of
evidence/proofs and affirm that a human statement may or may not be
accurate. Facts that have been uncovered and found during an
investigation play a more important role than an eyewitness of the crime.

These concepts govern forensics which is applied to the identification,

individualization, and recognition of pieces of evidence gathered from
crime scenes. Forensic science also directs criminal procedures, exactly
from the occurrence of crime until the accused is convicted, thus aiding in
the investigation process.

FORENSIC SCIENCE LABORATORIES IN INDIA

The emergence of forensics as an independent branch in India has been a

gradual process. During the British colonial period, forensic science was
mainly used for identifying criminals and investigating crimes. However,
the field was not fully developed, and the forensic laboratories were not
well equipped.

After India’s independence in 1947, forensics was more widely utilized in

the country. The government established several forensic science
laboratories (FSLs; Fig. 1.9) throughout the country. In the 1970s and
1980s, initiatives were taken up by the government to improve the
standards of Figure 1.9 Forensic forensics in India by providing training
and upgrading equipment.

Laboratory.

The first FSL in India was founded on July 1, 1952, in Kolkata (then
Calcutta) in the state of West Bengal. Former West Bengal Chief Minister
and a brilliant visionary, Dr. B. C. Roy proposed the idea for establishing a
forensic laboratory in the state. Dr. N. K. Sen, the State Forensic Science
Laboratory Director, was instrumental in setting up and successful running
of the laboratory. To make biological and toxicological testing a part of
medicolegal investigations, the laboratory was placed in a building on the
Calcutta Medical College campus. In 1955, a minor Physics unit was
added, and it was completely operational by 1957.

In recent years, there is also an increasing awareness among the legal

fraternity and the public about the scope of forensics during a criminal
investigation. The Government of India has also focused on enhancing
forensic science infrastructure and capacity. Forensic education in India
has been growing with more universities opening up in recent years and
institutions offering undergraduate and postgraduate programs in forensic
science. These courses often cover a wide range of subjects including
computer forensics, forensic anthropology, forensic chemistry, and
forensic biology. The University Grants Commission (UGC) has also
recognized forensic science as a subject for Ph.D. research.

Divisions of Forensic Science Laboratories and their Functions

In order to establish a connection based on methodical scientific analysis,

the investigating officer gathers all pertinent evidence from the crime
scene, the victim, the suspect, and other sources and delivers it to the
FSL.

When properly located, removed, and scientifically assessed, the physical

evidence found at crime scenes has a strong chance of establishing a
connection between the crime
Ministry of Home Affairs Directorate of Forensic Science Service (DFSS) ,
CFSL, Bhopal CFSL, Delhi CFSL, Pune CFSL, Hyderabad CFSL CFSL. Kolkata
Guwahati

CFSLChandigarh

Figure 1.10 Organizational chart for Central Forensic Science Laboratories

(CFSL) in India. There are 7 CFSLs all over India.

And the perpetrator. The various branches of CFSL (Fig. 1.10) have the
potential to scientifically examine these evidences and submit a suitable
report or opinion. Some of the important divisions of the FSL and their
functions are discussed next.

Biology/DNA Division

This division is responsible for analyzing biological evidence such as

blood, semen, and tissue samples. The analysts in this division use
techniques like PCR and capillary electrophoresis to analyze DNA samples
and identify an individual or match samples to a suspect.

Chemistry Division

This division has the ability to conduct chemical analyses using high-tech
equipment like liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS), high-
performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), high-performance thin layer
chromatography (HPTLC), GC, ultraviolet (UV), and infrared (IR)
photometers on substances covered by the Narcotic Drugs and
Psychotropic Substances (NDPS) Act, remnants of accelerants in arson
cases, etc.

Toxicology Division
This division helps in identification of toxins that are volatile and inorganic,
such as hydrogen cyanide, phosphonate, arsine, yellow phosphorus,
carbonyl chloride, and sulphonyl chloride. Detection of poisonous volatile
organic compounds (Fig. 1.11), such as benzene, formalin, methanol, and
ethanol, and identification of nonvolatile inorganic anions, including, but
not limited to, nitrate, chlorate, fluoride, and selenide are also performed
by this department.

This division also performs the identification of various poisons from the
viscera, including mineral acids, alkalis, organic acids, organic insoluble
poisons such as antibiotics and sulfonamides, and poisons from toxic
plants, animals, and insects.

Firearm and Tool Mark Analysis Division

This division is responsible for analyzing firearms and tool marks found at
crime scenes. The analysts use microscopic examination and

Shelf 7

Figure 1.11

Organic compounds.

Comparison to match a firearm or tool to a suspect or to determine the

type of weapon used in a crime.

Trace Evidence Division

This division is responsible for analyzing trace evidence such as hair,

fibers, and paint. The analysts use techniques such as
microspectrophotometry and scanning electron microscopy to analyze
these types of evidence and provide valuable information in criminal
investigations.
Questioned Document Division

This division is responsible for analyzing documents, handwriting, and

forgery. The analysts use various techniques such as ink analysis and
handwriting comparison to determine the authenticity of a document or
handwriting.

Digital Forensics Division

This division is responsible for analyzing digital evidence such as

computer systems and cell phones. The analysts use techniques such as
data recovery and forensic analysis of digital media to recover data and
information that can be used in criminal investigations.

Audio/Video Analysis Division

This division is responsible for analyzing audio and video evidence. The
analysts use techniques such as audio enhancement and video analysis to
recover information that can be used in criminal investigations.

Roles and Responsibilities

FSLs are responsible for analyzing physical evidence collected from crime
scenes and determining its significance in criminal investigations. Some of
their key roles and responsibilities are given next.

Evidence Collection and Preservation

Forensic scientists are responsible for properly collecting and preserving

physical evidence from crime scenes to ensure that it can be analyzed and
used in the court. This requires a thorough understanding of proper
collection techniques and the use of protective gear to prevent
contamination.
Evidence Analysis

After the collection of evidence, various high-tech techniques like DNA

analysis, fingerprint analysis, and ballistics analysis are used to determine
its significance in a criminal investigation. This involves conducting
laboratory tests, interpreting results, and writing reports that summarize
the findings.

Testimony

Forensic scientists are often summoned to testify during legal proceeding

to present their findings and explain their analytical methods. This
requires a deep understanding of the scientific and legal principles
involved in criminal investigations and the ability to effectively
communicate their results to judges, juries, and other legal stakeholders.

Box 1.1 Other Significant Duties Performed by Forensic Laboratories

• Research and development in forensic science

Development of new technologies

Formulation of polices in promoting capacity building in forensic science

Development of national database for forensic indices

Providing high-quality and timely forensic services in criminal justice

delivery

Quality Control

FSLs must adhere to strict quality control standards to maintain reliability

and accuracy of their analytical results. This involves regular calibration of
equipment, implementation of standard operating procedures, and
participation in proficiency testing programs.

Data Management

Forensic scientists are responsible for maintaining accurate and secure

records of their analytical results and maintaining accessible data for
other members involved in legal system. This is practiced with the help of
specialized software as well as databases to manage and analyze large
amounts of complex data.

Collaboration

To make sure that physical evidence is correctly analyzed and used to

support criminal investigations, forensic scientists frequently collaborate
closely with law enforcement agencies, criminal investigators, and other
members of the criminal justice system.

Other significant duties performed by forensic laboratories are listed in

Box 1.1.

Hence, the roles and responsibilities of FSLs are diverse and encompass
many components of the legal system from collecting and analyzing
physical evidence to collaborating with other stakeholders. Justice must be
protected and crimes should be resolved with the help of forensic
scientists.

IMPORTANCE OF FORENSICS IN MEDICAL SCIENCES

Forensics, in the context of medical sciences, means the use of scientific

principles and practices to examine medical and legal concerns. This
includes the analysis of biological evidence, such as DNA, to identify
suspects or victims in criminal cases, as well as the examination of
medical records and other medical evidence in civil or criminal trials. The
importance of forensics in medical sciences cannot be overstated, as it
plays a crucial role in ensuring justice and providing answers for families
and loved ones who have been affected by crimes or accidents.

One of the key areas in which forensics plays a vital role is in criminal
investigations. The analysis of biological evidence, such as DNA, can be
used to identify suspects and link them to specific crimes. This is
particularly important in cases in which traditional forms of evidence, such
as fingerprints or eyewitness testimony, are not available or are
inconclusive. For example, DNA analysis can be used to identify suspects
in cases of sexual assault or murder, even when there are no other
witnesses or physical evidence to link the suspect to the crime.

Another important aspect of forensics in medical sciences is the

examination of medical records and other medical evidence in civil or
criminal trials. This can include the examination of medical records to
ascertain the reason for death in cases of suspected death or medical
malpractice, as well as the examination of medical evidence to determine
the extent of injuries in personal injury cases. Medical experts can also
provide testimony in the court to explain the medical evidence and its
significance.

Forensics in medical sciences also plays a crucial role in recognizing

human remains especially in missing persons cases. This can include the
examination of dental records, X-rays, and other medical records to
identify the victim and to find out the reason of death. This is especially
important in situations in which the victim’s body is found in a state of
decomposition or has been mutilated, making it difficult to identify the
victim.

Forensics in medical sciences can also be utilized to determine the precise

time and causative factor of death in cases of a suspicious death. This can
include the examination of the victim’s body, as well as the examination
of medical records and other evidence, to determine the time and cause
of death. This is important in criminal investigations, as it can help to
establish whether the death was the result of natural causes, accident, or
foul play.
Forensics in medical sciences is also important in identifying victims of
mass disasters. This can include the examination of medical records,
dental records, and DNA samples to identify victims who have been killed
or injured in natural disasters, plane crashes, or other mass disasters. This
is particularly important in cases in which the victims’ bodies are severely
damaged or mutilated, making it difficult to identify them.

In addition, forensics in medical sciences plays a crucial role in identifying

survivors who have been involved in cases in which there is violation of
human rights. This involves thorough scrutiny of medical records, dental
records, and DNA samples to identify victims who have been killed or
injured in war, genocide, or other human rights violations. Additionally,
forensic science helps in identifying the victim whenever buried, hidden,
or damaged bodies are received by police. Forensics in medical sciences,
hence, plays a very crucial role in ensuring justice and providing answers
for families and loved ones who have been affected by crimes or
accidents. The analysis of biological evidence such as DNA and the
examination of medical records as well as other medical evidence are
essential tools in criminal investigations and civil and criminal trials. The
importance of forensics in medical sciences cannot be ignored as it plays
a vital role in the society these days.

Illustrative Case Study

One example of a case in which forensics contributed significantly is

identification of casualties during 9/11 terrorist attacks that happened in
New York City. On September 11, 2001, a terrorist attack on the World
Trade Center’s Twin Towers resulted in the death of more than 3000
people. The scale of the disaster and the destruction of the buildings
made it difficult to identify many of the victims.

In response to this, a forensic expert team was assembled to help in

identification of the victims. This team included forensic scientists,
medical examiners, and dental experts, who worked together to analyze
the remains of the victims. Techniques like DNA analysis, dental
identification, as well as fingerprint analysis were used to identify the
victims.
One of the key challenges in this case was the fact that many of the
victims had been reduced to small fragments in the collapse of the
towers. To overcome this, the forensic team

The 9/11 attack on World Trade Center. (Source:

https://www.britannica.com/topic/ World-Trade-Center,
https://www.chronline.com/stories/two-911-victims-remains- identified-
just-days-before-anniversary, 272063.)

Used DNA analysis to identify the victims. They collected DNA samples
from the victims’ families and compared them with the DNA samples
collected from the remains of the victims. This process was time-
consuming and required a large number of samples, but it was ultimately
successful in identifying many of the victims.

The forensic team also used dental identification to identify the victims.
They collected dental records from the victims’ families and compared
them with the remains of the victims. This was particularly useful in cases
in which the remains of the victims were too small or fragmented for DNA
analysis to be effective.

The use of forensics was instrumental in the identification of victims who

suffered during 9/11 terrorist attacks. The combination of DNA analysis,
dental identification, and other techniques of forensic science allowed the
team to identify many of the victims, even when the remains were small
or fragmented.

VIOLENCE

Violence is defined as the threat or application of physical force or

authority against oneself, another individual, or a community with the
intent or the risk of causing physical harm, death, psychological harm,
maldevelopment, or deprivation. This can take many forms, including
domestic violence, sexual assault, hate crimes, and mass shootings.
Violence can also be structural, such as systemic racism and poverty,
which can lead to higher rates of violence in marginalized communities.
Violence can have severe consequences for both the victims and the
perpetrator, as well as for the broader community. It can lead to physical
and emotional trauma, loss of life, and damage to social and economic
systems. It can also perpetuate cycles of violence and create a culture of
fear and mistrust.

There are various factors that contribute to violence in the society,

including poverty, lack of education, mental health issues, and access to
weapons. Addressing these underlying issues is crucial in preventing and
reducing violence in the society. This can involve implementing policies
and programs that address poverty, providing mental health services and
education, and enacting stricter gun control laws.

Theories

There are several criminological theories that aim to explain the causes
and patterns of violence in the society. Some of the most prominent
theories are discussed next.

Biological Theories

Biological theories of violence suggest that certain individuals are

predisposed to committing violent acts due to genetic or biological
factors. The genetic factors suggest that certain individuals may have a
genetic predisposition to violence, based on studies of families with high
rates of violent crime. Brain physiology is another aspect which suggests
that certain brain functions such as low serotonin levels, or abnormal
structure of the brain such as the amygdala, may contribute to violent
behavior. Certain hormonal imbalances, such as high levels of
testosterone, may also contribute to violent behavior. Theories have also
suggested that certain individuals may be more likely to engage in violent
behavior due to substance abuse such as drug or alcohol abuse, which
can affect brain function and behavior.

Environmental Factors
Environmental factors have a major role in contributing to violence in the
society. Living in poverty can increase the risk of violence, as individuals
may have limited access to resources and opportunities, which can lead to
feelings of frustration, hopelessness, and desperation. Individuals with
limited education may have fewer opportunities for employment and
upward mobility, which can increase the risk of violence. Individuals with
lack of social support, such as family and friends, may be more likely to
engage in violent behavior. Individuals who have been exposed to
violence, as either victims or witnesses, may be more likely to engage in
violent behavior themselves. Additionally, easy access to weapons can
increase the likelihood of violence, as individuals may be more likely to
use them in a violent situation. Also, living in a neighborhood or
communities with high crime rates, poor living conditions, and a lack of
community resources can increase the risk of violence. Discriminated and
marginalized individuals, such as minorities, may be more likely to
experience violence. Political instability and economic crisis can also lead
to an increase in crime and violence, as individuals be more likely to resort
to violent means to survive. May

Psychological Theories

These theories suggest that violence is a result of mental health issues or

personality disorders, such as antisocial personality disorder. The
psychological theory of violence suggests that violent behavior is caused
by an individual’s psychological makeup, including personality traits and
past experiences. It suggests that early childhood experiences and
traumas, such as physical or emotional abuse, can lead to the
development of aggressive behavior and a tendency toward violence in
adulthood. The theory also suggests that other factors, such as substance
abuse and mental illness, can contribute to violent behavior. It
emphasizes the importance of understanding and treating the
psychological factors that contribute to violence to prevent and reduce
violent crime.

Social Learning Theories

These theories suggest that violence is learned through observation and

imitation of others, such as family members or peers. Social learning
theories of violence suggest that violent behavior is learned through
observation, imitation, and reinforcement of aggressive models in

An individual’s social environment. This includes exposure to violence in

media and exposure to violent peers, family members, or community.
These theories propose that violent behavior is not solely due to individual
factors, but is also shaped by the social and cultural context in which
individuals live. The reinforcement of violent behavior through positive
consequences, such as gaining status or material rewards, can further
increase an individual’s tendency toward violence. Social learning theories
highlight the importance of addressing the social and cultural factors that
contribute to the development and maintenance of violent behavior.

These theories provide a separate viewpoint on the causes of violence and

also can help form strategies for preventing and reducing violence in the
society.

Epidemiology of Violence

Epidemiology of violence refers to review of distribution, finding out the

causes, and future implication of violent acts in the society. Violence can
take many different forms in every community, including physical
violence, sexual violence, domestic violence, as well as other forms of
interpersonal violence.

Prevalence

India has a high prevalence of violence with studies showing that as many
as one in three women in the country have suffered a violent act like
physical or sexual violence inside or outside home. In addition to this,
there are increased reports of abuse of children as well as intimate partner
violence particularly in rural areas.

Risk Factors
Several risk factors have been identified that contribute to the high
prevalence of violence, including poverty, gender inequality, and social
norms that condone violence. Other factors, such as substance abuse,
unemployment, and exposure to violence in childhood, have also been
linked to an increased risk of violence.

Consequences

The implications can be lifelong and severe including physical injuries,

post-traumatic stress, and increased risk of chronic health problems, such
as cardiovascular diseases and depression. In addition, violence can also
lead to disruptions in education and work, as well as increased poverty
and social isolation.

Prevention and Intervention

To address the epidemiology of violence, there is a need for effective

prevention and intervention strategies. These may include addressing the
root causes of violence, such as poverty and gender inequality, and
providing support and rehabilitation to the victims of violence.
Additionally, education and awareness campaigns can play a critical role
in promoting nonviolent behavior and changing attitudes toward violence.

Sources of Data

Violence against women is a serious public health issue with violation to

human rights especially in terms of intimate relationship and sexual
violence. According to the research article published in The Lancet in
2018, a total of 27% of women globally suffered at least one incident of
physical

Or sexual intimate partner abuse throughout their lives. Women from low-
and middle-income countries (LMICs) were especially at risk. Additionally,
according to a report published by the WHO in 2022, around one in three
(30%) women globally have experienced intimate relationship violence,
which includes both physical and sexual abuse, or non-partner sexual
assault at some point in their lives. The majority of these violent acts
involve intimate partners. Approximately 27% of women worldwide
between the ages of 15 and 49 years who have been in a relationship
claim that their intimate partner has physically or sexually abused them.

As per reports, 38% of all female homicides worldwide are carried out by
intimate partners. In addition to intimate relationship violence, 6% of
women worldwide report experiencing non-partner sexual assault. During
COVID-19 epidemic in 2021, a total of 45% of women had personally
experienced violence.

SEXUAL ABUSE IN WOMEN AND CHILDREN

Sexual Abuse in Women

Physical and sexual abuse against women is a widespread and persistent

issue in many societies. A range of factors contribute to the perpetration
of abuse, including individual, relational, community, and societal factors.
Some of the causative factors that contribute to the physical and sexual
abuse of women are discussed next.

Individual Factors

Perpetrator’s History of Abuse

As s per literature, it has been reported quite often that if a person had an
abusive relationship as a child, there are high chances that he/she will
perpetrate abuse in his/her adult life. Hence, an individual with a history
of abuse shows violent behavior and has less empathy toward others.

Substance Abuse
Substance abuse, including alcohol and drug abuse, has been linked to an
increased risk of abusive behavior. It can impair judgment and increase
impulsivity, leading to abusive behavior.

Mental Health Issues

These include depression, anxiety, and personality disorders which

increase the likelihood of abusive behavior. A mentally unhealthy
individual has poor control on his/her emotions that often leads to abusive
behavior.

Lack of Empathy

Individuals who lack empathy and compassion for others are more likely
to engage in abusive behavior. This can result from a lack of emotional
intelligence or a failure to develop the capacity for empathy.

Relational Factors

Power and Control

Abusive behavior is often motivated by a desire to exert power and control

over another person. This can occur in intimate relationships, in which one
partner seeks to dominate the other through physical or sexual violence.

Inequality

Inequalities in relationships, including gender inequalities, can contribute

to the perpetration of abuse. In a patriarchal society, men may feel
entitled to exert power and control over women. Leading to abusive
behavior.

Intimate Partner Violence

It is a major contributor to physical and sexual abuse against women. This
type of abuse can occur in romantic relationships, including marriages,
and can involve a pattern of controlling behavior, including physical and
sexual violence.

Community Factors

Social Norms

Social norms that support violence and condone abusive behavior can
increase the likelihood of physical and sexual abuse against women.
These norms can be perpetuated through cultural, religious, and political
institutions.

Economic Factors

These include poverty, lack of jobs, and homelessness, which can increase
the vulnerability for abuse. Financial stress and instability can contribute
to abusive behavior, especially in relationships in which power imbalances
exist.

Social Isolation

Women who are socially isolated, such as those living in rural areas or who
lack supportive networks, are more vulnerable to abuse. Social isolation
can increase the difficulty of seeking help or leaving abusive relationships.

Societal Factors

Patriarchy
Patriarchy is a social system that values male domination and control over
women. This system can promote violence against women and contribute
to a culture of abuse.

Gender-based Violence

It includes mainly physical or sexual abuse and is a widespread problem

among females in many societies. This type of violence is motivated by
gender inequality and is often perpetuated through cultural norms that
support the abuse of women.

Lack of Legal Protection

In many countries, legal protection for women who underwent abuse like
physical or sexual abuse is inadequate. This can include a lack of laws
specifically addressing violence against women, as well as a lack of
enforcement of existing laws.

Stigma

Stigma surrounding abuse can prevent women from seeking help and can
contribute to the perpetuation of abuse. Women who experience abuse
may feel ashamed, embarrassed, or afraid of being blamed for the abuse,
leading to a culture of silence and denial.

Sexual Abuse in Children

Causative Factors of Child Abuse

There is no one single cause or straightforward explanation for child abuse

because the causes are frequently multifaceted. While the majority of
parents hope to provide their children with a safe environment filled with
love and care, issues like stress, lack of parenting skills, and lack of family
support can put pressure on the carers and lead to various types of abuse.
Child abuse refers to any form of maltreatment of children, including
physical, emotional, and sexual maltreatment and neglect. The reasons
for child abuse are complex and multilayered, and can include a
combination of individual, familial, societal, and cultural factors.

⚫ The most common factor of child abuse is being a survivor of childhood

abuse. Those who have experienced abuse or neglect as children may
continue the cycle of violence in their own families, as they are more likely
to abuse their own children.

• Another reason for child abuse is poverty and stress. Financial stress,
unemployment, and other life changes can result in overwhelming stress
for parents, which can lead to abusive behavior. Substance abuse and
addiction can also contribute to child abuse, as these individuals may act
impulsively or irrationally.

• Another contributing factor for child abuse is poor education and

support. Lack of education leads to poor understanding of appropriate
parenting methods that can lead to harmful or neglectful behavior, as well
as a lack of access to support systems, such as mental health services,
community resources, and support groups, can leave parents feeling
isolated and overwhelmed.

Cultural beliefs and attitudes can also play a role in child abuse. Some
cultures may condone or even encourage abusive behavior, such as
physical discipline, and may not recognize it as abuse. Stereotypical
gender roles can also lead to abusive behavior, as some individuals may
feel that their masculinity or femininity is threatened and use violence as
a means of asserting their dominance. •

Mental illness can also be a factor in child abuse, as individuals with

mental health disorders may struggle with impulse control, aggression,
and poor judgment. This can result in abusive behavior, especially if the
individual is not receiving appropriate treatment and support for his/her
illness.
Finally, a lack of resources and support for families can contribute to child
abuse. This can include a lack of affordable housing, a lack of access to
affordable and quality childcare, and limited support for families in crisis.
This can result in families feeling isolated and overwhelmed, and failing to
give their kids a stable and safe environment.

Addressing these underlying causes and providing families with the

necessary resources, support, and education can help to prevent child
abuse and promote safe and healthy families.

Types of Child Abuse

Child abuse can occur as a single event or as a series of events spread out
over time. There are four types of child abuse (Fig. 1.12).

Physical abuse

Sexual abuse

Physical Abuse

Emotional abuse

Neglect

This includes any type of physical pain or harm done to a child, such as
hitting, kicking, or burning.

Figure 1.12 Types of child abuse.

Sexual Abuse

Unit 1 Introduction to Forensic Science

This includes any kind of sexual exploitation or abuse such as molestation,
rape, or prostitution involving a child.

Emotional Abuse

This involves any form of psychological or emotional abuse, such as verbal

abuse, humiliation, or isolation.

Neglect

This involves any form of failure to provide for the basic needs of a child,
including food, clothing, shelter, and medical care.

DID YOU KNOW?

An 8-year-old girl was kidnapped, sexually assaulted, and killed. The

Protection of Children from Sexual Offences (POCSO) Act was changed in
response to this incident, and harsh penalties were enforced. Three of the
defendants received life sentences for rape, while the other three received
5-year sentences for evidence destruction.

Impact of Child Abuse

The impact of abuse can be far-reaching and lifelong, and can affect all
areas of a development during childhood. Some of the most common
effects include those given next.

Physical Health Issues

Physical injuries, chronic discomfort, and long-term health issues can

occur in children who are physically abused.
Emotional and Mental Health Problems

Children who are abused may experience depression, anxiety, fear, and
other emotional and mental health problems.

Difficulty in Trusting Others

Children who have experienced abuse may find it difficult to trust others,
making it challenging for them to establish healthy connections.

Substance Abuse

Children who have been abused may turn to drugs or alcohol to cope with
the trauma they have experienced, which can lead to further problems
down the road.

Poor Academic Performance

Children who have been abused may struggle in school, and may have
trouble concentrating, learning, and retaining information.

Behavior Problems

Children who have been abused may display aggressive, disruptive, or

other problematic behaviors that can further isolate them from their
peers.

Increased Risk of Criminal Behavior

Children who have been abused may be more likely to engage in criminal
behavior as they get older, which can lead to further problems and
difficulties.

A child’s life can be severely impacted by any kind of abuse. It is

important for adults to be vigilant in identifying and preventing abuse in
order to protect the well-being of children.

SEXUAL VIOLENCE

Throughout history, nearly all societies and religions have regarded sexual
offences as crimes. It is a serious violation of the person’s human rights.
Sexual violence causes damage to the victim’s body and mental health. It
is a competent form of sexual offence. The human race may have made
progress in terms of material and professional advancement, but it is
happening at the cost of a person’s integrity and temperament. The
sexual offence is explained in simpler terms as “Any unwelcome sexual
activity, whether on the physical, intellectual, or mental degree of
consciousness, that results in the victim’s will being suppressed by
invading their personal space, where they feel compelled or manipulated,
and that involves the infliction of pain” (kissing, groping, sexual activity,
etc.). Inducing adults or children without their consent can also be seen as
an assault. Numerous injuries are suffered by the victim, including serious
risks to reproductive health, STIs, severe depression, and suicidal ideation.

Types

Rape

The most offensive crime that undermines a woman’s bodily integrity and
honor is rape. The Latin word “rapio,” meaning “to seize, is the source of
the English word “rape.” The provisions pertaining to rape are covered in
Section 375 of the Indian Penal Code (IPC).

According to Section 375 of the IPC, rape is believed to have occurred

when there is insertion of the male reproductive organ (penis) into the
female reproductive organ (vagina), mouth, urethra, or anus up to any
extent, or insertion of any other unnatural object or any part of the body
other than the male reproductive organ under the following conditions:

· Against her consent

• With her permission but obtaining it by putting her or any of her

relatives in fear of harm or death

• With agreement given under the false impression that the guy was the
spouse she had been legally married to

• When the consent is given because the person is mentally unstable or

under the influence of a stupefying or unhealthy drug

Regardless of whether consent is given, when the girl is a minor

• In the event that she is unable to provide her permission

The punishment for the offence is given in Section 376 with rigorous
imprisonment which shall not be less than 10 years, but which may
extend to imprisonment for life, and shall also be accountable to fine.

Some entities in Section 376 are mentioned individually; to be specific,

public servants, police officers, members of armed forces, members of jail
staff management, hospital management staff, relatives, or guardians are
also subjected to rigorous imprisonment for not less than 10 years which
can be extended up to life imprisonment and will be liable for fine.

Rape cases that lead to death or permanent vegetative state of the victim
become more serious. The offender will then be punished for rigorous
imprisonment for a term which shall not be less than 20 years, which may
extend to life imprisonment. Whoever has sexual intercourse with his
spouse, living separately, without her consent, shall be punished with
imprisonment for a term which shall not be less than 2 years, but which
may extend to 7 years. And shall also be accountable to fine.

Gang Rape

When a woman is raped by one or more persons constituting a group or

acting in furtherance with the common intention, each of those persons
shall be liable for imprisonment for not less than 20 years which can be
extended to imprisonment for life, and they would also be liable for fine
and the fine will be in accordance with the medical expenses of the victim
and the rehabilitation of the victim.

Illustrative Case Study

The most unusual of all cases is the gang rape case of 2012. After this
horrible crime, several changes to the rape laws were made. The trial
court imposed the death punishment on the defendant, and the High
Court upheld that decision. The Supreme Court upheld the death sentence
clarifying that whenever a crime has happened in the society with cruelty
against another human being that has shocked the collective conscience
of the society, it is the duty of law bearers to impose death penalty. The
apex court did this by relying on the victim’s deathbed declaration.

Unnatural Offences

Individuals are issued a fine with or without jail term of 10 years or life
imprisonment if they engage in sexual activity with another human/animal
against the law of nature. Violations of the natural order, such as
voluntary sexual contact, are prohibited by this provision. It first appeared
in the British era, when gay behavior was considered to be “against
nature.” Additionally, sodomy, bestiality, and sterilization are considered
unnatural offences.

Sexual Harassment
The definition of sexual harassment as given under Section 354A of the
IPC is “if a man wants anyone of the following favors”:

i. Unwanted physical contact and advances involving explicit

sexual provocations

ii. A demand or request for sexual favors

iii. The showing of pornography against the will of a woman

iv. The making of sexually charged remarks

For offences (i), (ii), and (iii) listed above, the punishment is either simple
or harsh imprisonment for a term that may not exceed 1 year, or a fine, or
both. For offence (iv), the punishment is either simple or rigorous
imprisonment for a time that may not exceed 1 year, or both.

Sexual Harassment in Workplace

Sexual harassment is a widespread problem in India, both in the

workplace and The number of sexual harassment incidents that have

Rape cases that lead to death or permanent vegetative state of the victim
become more serious. The offender will then be punished for rigorous
imprisonment for a term which shall not be less than 20 years, which may
extend to life imprisonment. Whoever has sexual intercourse with his
spouse, living separately, without her consent, shall be punished with
imprisonment for a term which shall not be less than 2 years, but which
may extend to 7 years. And shall also be accountable to fine.

Gang Rape
When a woman is raped by one or more persons constituting a group or
acting in furtherance with the common intention, each of those persons
shall be liable for imprisonment for not less than 20 years which can be
extended to imprisonment for life, and they would also be liable for fine
and the fine will be in accordance with the medical expenses of the victim
and the rehabilitation of the victim.

Illustrative Case Study

The most unusual of all cases is the gang rape case of 2012. After this
horrible crime, several changes to the rape laws were made. The trial
court imposed the death punishment on the defendant, and the High
Court upheld that decision. The Supreme Court upheld the death sentence
clarifying that whenever a crime has happened in the society with cruelty
against another human being that has shocked the collective conscience
of the society, it is the duty of law bearers to impose death penalty. The
apex court did this by relying on the victim’s deathbed declaration.

Unnatural Offences

Individuals are issued a fine with or without jail term of 10 years or life
imprisonment if they engage in sexual activity with another human/animal
against the law of nature. Violations of the natural order, such as
voluntary sexual contact, are prohibited by this provision. It first appeared
in the British era, when gay behavior was considered to be “against
nature.” Additionally, sodomy, bestiality, and sterilization are considered
unnatural offences.

Sexual Harassment

The definition of sexual harassment as given under Section 354A of the

IPC is “if a man wants anyone of the following favors”:

i. Unwanted physical contact and advances involving explicit

sexual provocations
 ii. A demand or request for sexual favors

iii. The showing of pornography against the will of a woman

iv. The making of sexually charged remarks

For offences (i), (ii), and (iii) listed above, the punishment is either simple
or harsh imprisonment for a term that may not exceed 1 year, or a fine, or
both. For offence (iv), the punishment is either simple or rigorous
imprisonment for a time that may not exceed 1 year, or both.

Sexual Harassment in Workplace

Sexual harassment is a widespread problem in India, both in the

workplace and The number of sexual harassment incidents that have

Significantly increased during the last several years. Sexual harassment is

defined by the Supreme Court as “any unwanted physical, verbal, or
nonverbal behavior of a sexual nature, such as leering, dirty jokes, and
inappropriate remarks about a person’s body” (Vishakha v. State of
Rajasthan, August 1997). It also includes any sexually motivated demands
or requests for favors. Whistling, sexually suggestive or pornographic
content, unnecessary sexual advances either verbally or physically, as
well as any demands for sexual favors or comments about one’s
attractiveness should all be avoided. Comments about appearance,
requests for sexual favors, threats, unnecessary physical contact,
touching, patting, pinching, physical assaults, and molestation of and
toward female employees by their male coworkers or anyone else who is
currently in a position to sexually harass the women in their care are all
prohibited.

Sexual Violence by Intimate Partners

In numerous nations, a large proportion of physically abused women also

experience sexual assault. According to research conducted in Mexico and
the United States, 40%-52% of women who have experienced physical
abuse from an intimate relationship have also experienced sexual
harassment (Campbell, 1999). There are situations in which sexual assault
happens without any physical violence. Any type of sexual abuse or
violence performed by a current or ast intimate partner, such as a spouse,
boyfriend, or girlfriend, is referred to as sexual violence vintimate
partners.

Survivors of intimate partner abuse may suffer serious and long-lasting

consequences, uch as bodily harm, psychological anguish, and issues with
their sexual health. It can also have a negative impact on their
relationships with others and their ability to trust others in the future.
Intimate partner sexual violence is often accompanied by other forms of
domestic violence, such as physical, emotional, and psychological abuse.
This type of violence can be difficult for survivors to report or escape, as
they may feel trapped in the relationship or fear further harm or
retaliation.

ROLE OF FORENSIC NURSE

The responsibilities while providing comprehensive care for victims

explained in reference with the definition of health as described by the
state of physical, mental and social wellbeing.” Additionally, they provide
expert witness testimony in the court. Forensic nurses may work in
hospitals, clinics, or the field, and they often collaborate with other
healthcare professionals, law enforcement agencies, and legal
professionals to provide comprehensive care and support to patients and
to gather evidence. Some forensic nurses also specialize in death
investigation and are trained to investigate and document deaths that
occur in suspicious or unusual circumstances (Fig. 1.13). Figure 1.13
Forensic nurse investigation.

Of sexual assault are better WHO as “an individual’s could be requested to

Maintaining Physical Health

High risk of HIV infection, STIs, and pregnancy are all consequences of
sexual violence. Initiation of prophylaxis for pregnancy, STIs, and post-HIV
exposure in survivors should be done by healthcare providers. Wounds,
lacerations, cuts, bruises, contusions, irregular menstruation, vaginal
discharge, dizziness, severe sexual dysfunction, and memory loss are
other symptoms that require medical treatment. To provide
comprehensive support in a suspected situation, especially for women
who present to general hospitals with physical injuries, a coordinated
strategy should be put into place. Admission to the hospital may be
required depending on the proper evaluation of suspected violent crime. A
certified full-time forensic medical practitioner should be available in taluk
hospitals as well as district hospitals. There should be mandatory
reporting of all the incidents of violence against women and children.
Standard procedure with thorough methodical examination for the
survivors should be provided.

Promoting Mental Health

Any form of violence increases the risk of mental illnesses such

depression, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), anxiety disorders, self-
harm, and sleep difficulties. Serious depressive illnesses are correlated
with persistent aggression. The physical symptoms that are currently
present may have psychological causes, such as somatoform disorders
when survivors use physical problems to mask their own mental suffering.
These include headaches, backaches, neckaches, joint problems, and
cramps in the stomach. Psychologically, feelings of powerlessness, guilt,
shame, and loss of confidence predominate. All such patients who present
with a history of violence should have a standardized and expedited
mental health assessment to rule out depression, PTSD, and suicide risk.
For some people, a recommendation for a qualified mental health
assessment may be necessary. Psychological support and counseling
should be available and started as soon as possible.

Promoting Social Well-being

Sexual assault has significant social and economic costs that affect our
entire society. Due to associated social stigma, very few survivors often
report to the authority, while majority keep the violence under wraps. The
victim rarely reports the event to the police or a higher authority. In the
case of intimate partner violence, the victims feel that they have nowhere
to go and end up staying with the accused which expose them to more
violence. The victims are often too weak to save themselves from another
violent attack at the hands of the accused as well as during subsequent
struggle for justice. It is important to support nongovernmental
organizations (NGOs) that deal with women and children since they can
help provide comprehensive care. Every district hospital needs to support
community education and sensitization efforts addressing domestic abuse
and women’s rights. For the broader public to stop victimizing or blaming
the survivors, education is necessary. Therefore, family therapy is required
to support the survivor and assist the family in coping.

Providing Comprehensive Care for Survivors (CCS)

While providing comprehensive care to the victim, a multidisciplinary

approach is adopted. The court should work collaboratively with women
and children welfare department,

The social welfare department, the police department, and NGOs. Care
should be provided like crisis intervention, physical and mental care, legal
assistance, socioeconomic support, temporary housing, child custody,
reintegration into the society, confidence building, psychosocial support,
and follow-up. There are critical issues that arise from violent incidents
that should be managed gently. A support system should be developed
with the help from the recovered survivor to educate, sensitize, support,
counsel, help in lodging complaints, provide assistance during physical
examination, help in fighting for justice, provide rehabilitation, and help in
reintegration into the society. Training and education should be provided
to all the departments directly or indirectly involved in providing the best
possible care for the victims such as healthcare professionals, police, legal
system, and department of women and child.

SUMMARY

• Forensic science is the application of science to determine the

occurrence of historical events and collection of impartial evidence which
is utilized during the trials. It was originated by scientists Mathieu Orfila,
Alphonse Bertillon, Francis Galton, Leone Lattes, Calvin Goddard, and
Hans Gross.

• This chapter emphasizes on the importance of forensics in medical

sciences and the development of crime laboratories in India and abroad.

• At present, there are several forensic laboratories functional in the

country.

• There are various sections of forensic laboratories like fingerprint

analysis unit, ballistics unit, documentation examination unit, bloodstain
pattern analysis unit, forensic pathology unit, and forensic toxicology unit.

• Sexual assault, child maltreatment, verbal abuse, insults, threats,

harassment, and other forms of psychological abuse all constitute
violence. Violence happens in areas like homes, workplaces, public
spaces, and schools. Sexual and gender-based violence is any act carried
out against the victim’s will and driven by gender norms and unequal
power structures. It could involve sexual assault as well as physical,
mental, or psychological abuse.

CRITICAL THINKING EXERCISE

In March 2019, a minor girl was shot in Mumbai while riding on a safari
tour bus with her family. She was struck multiple times by gunshots. She
appeared to have been caught in the crossfire of a conflict between two
competing gangs. The youngster was a passenger on a cruise liner that
had made a daytime stop to explore the market. In the shooting, another
passenger was hurt. While the intended victim was confirmed dead in the
street close to the bus, the girl was discovered injured on the bus.

• As per the responsibilities of an emergency nurse, how can nursing care

have an impact on the clinical patient outcome?

• How is this act of violence classified?

What are the different types of violent events and different mechanisms of
occurrence?

Unit 1 Introduction to Forensic Science

SELF-ASSESSMENT

Multiple Choice Questions

29 29

1. Which of the following fluids is the best for analysis of DNA?

a. Blood

b. Saliva

c. Semen

d. All of the above

2. Whenever there is a case of forcible oral copulation (or attempt) or

in scenarios in which the patient history is uncertain of the assault,
what swabs should be obtained from the patient?

a. Tongue swab

b. Swabs from tonsillar fossae

 c. Swabs from the back side the buccal sulci

d. All of the above-mentioned swab samples

3. All of the following statements about written consent are true

EXCEPT:

a. Should be done prior to any procedure

b. Should include the evidence collected

c. Should include interpretation of the nurse when the event

took place d. Should include the name of the organization
where the evidence will be submitted 4. The famous principle
“everything leaves a trace” was postulated by which scientist?
A. Henry Faulds

b. Thomas Taylor

d. William Herschel

e. Dr. Edmond Locard

4. Cheiloscopy is the study of:

a. Lips
 b. Iris

c. Pores

d. Sinus

5. To preserve the hair sample for DNA analysis, which preservative

chemical is commonly used?

a. Normal saline

b. No preservative required

c. Dimethyl sulfoxide

d. Rectified spirit

6. Forensic entomology is the branch of forensic sciences that deals

with the:

a. Human insects related to death

b. Identification of dead bodies

C. Bite marks and teeth structure

 c. Study of marks

7. All of the following principles should be followed by a nurse while

caring for patient with child abuse EXCEPT:

a. Calm and gentle attitude

b. Being supportive and nonjudgmental

c. Following “Do no harm”

d. Use of restraints

8. Forensic care components are:

a. Analyzing the samples before the arrival of police

b. Only brief documentation

c. Head-to-toe examination

d. Discarding the collected samples

9. All of the following are the laws of forensics EXCEPT:

a. Law of individuality
 b. Law of progressive change

c. Law of information

d. Principle of comparison

Answers: 1. (d) 2. (d) 3. (c) 4. (d) 5. (a) 6. (b) 7. (a) 10. (c) 8. (d) 9.

Very Short Answer Questions (2 Marks)

1. Enlist various traditional forensic disciplines.

2. Define forensic engineering.

3. Who is considered the “

Father of Toxicology” in forensics?

4. Define the principle of exchange in forensics.

5. Define violence and its causative factors.

Short Answer Questions (5 Marks)

1. Explain the different divisions of forensic laboratories in India.

 2. Write a short note on the Department of Explosives.

3. Explain the various laws implemented in forensic sciences.

4. Discuss the role of a forensic nurse in caring of a sexual abuse

victim.

Long Answer Questions (10 Marks)

1. Define forensic science. Explore the historical significance of

forensic science in India and abroad.

2. What are the functions of forensic science laboratories during

collection and preservation of evidence from the scene of crime?
Explain their importance in medical science. 3. Define violence.
What are the various sources of data? Discuss in detail about the
roles and responsibilities of a forensic nurse.

3. Explain in detail about the psychosocial effects of sexual violence on

women and children in relation with the POCSO Act.

4. Describe the duties of a forensic nurse while handling a victim.

SUGGESTED READINGS

1. Angela AF, Sekula KL. (2015). A Practical Guide to Forensic Nursing:

Incorporating Forensic Principles into Nursing Practice Indianapolis:
Sigma Theta Tau International; p. 408.
2. Campbell J, Jones A S, Dienemann J, et al. (2002). Intimate Partner
Violence and Physical Health Consequences. Arch Intern Med, 162,
1157-1163.

3. Pathsala (n.d.). Criminology and law. Forensic Sciences (Module No.

21). Fundamental Rights and Duties. Available at:
https://epgp.inflibnet.ac.in/epgpdata/uploads/epgp_
content/S000016FS/P000689/M011393/ET/1453176761FSC_P2_M24
_e-text.pdf.

4. Pyrek K. (2006). Forensic Nursing. Boca Raton: Taylor & Francis; p.

650.

5. Saferstein R. (2011). Criminalistics: An Introduction to Forensic

Science. 10th ed. Boston: Prentice Hall; p. 551.

6. Sardinha L, Maheu-Giroux M, Stöckl H, Meyer SR, García-Moreno C.

(2022). Global, regional, and national prevalence estimates of
physical or sexual, or both, intimate partner violence against women
in 2018. Lancet, 399, 803–813.

7. UN Women. (2021). Measuring the Shadow Pandemic: Violence

Against Women During COVID-19. Available at:
https://data.unwomen.org/publications/vaw-rga.

8. World Health Organization. (2021). Violence Against Women

Prevalence Estimates, 2018. Available at: Violence Against Women
Prevalence Estimates (who.int).