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Learn iOS 11 Programming with Swift 4
Second Edition

Learn the fundamentals of iOS app development with Swift 4 and

Xcode 9

Craig Clayton

BIRMINGHAM - MUMBAI
Learn iOS 11 Programming with
Swift 4 Second Edition
Copyright © 2018 Packt Publishing

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or
transmitted in any form or by any means, without the prior written permission of the publisher,
except in the case of brief quotations embedded in critical articles or reviews.

Every effort has been made in the preparation of this book to ensure the accuracy of the information
presented. However, the information contained in this book is sold without warranty, either express
or implied. Neither the author, nor Packt Publishing or its dealers and distributors, will be held liable
for any damages caused or alleged to have been caused directly or indirectly by this book.

Packt Publishing has endeavored to provide trademark information about all of the companies and
products mentioned in this book by the appropriate use of capitals. However, Packt Publishing cannot
guarantee the accuracy of this information.

Acquisition Editor: Reshma Raman

Content Development Editor: Vikas Tiwari
Technical Editor: Madhunikita Sunil Chindarkar
Copy Editor: Muktikant Garimella
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Proofreader: Safis Editing
Indexer: Tejal Daruwale Soni
Graphics: Jason Monteiro, Tom Scaria
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First published: December 2016

Second edition: January 2018

Production reference: 1290118

Published by Packt Publishing Ltd.

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Birmingham
B3 2PB, UK.

ISBN 978-1-78839-075-0

www.packtpub.com
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Contributors
About the author
Craig Clayton is a self-taught, senior iOS engineer at Adept Mobile
specializing in building mobile experiences for NBA and NFL teams. He
also volunteers as the organizer of the Suncoast iOS meetup group in the
Tampa/St. Petersburg area, and prepares presentations and hands-on talks
for this group and other groups in the community. He has also launched
Cocoa Academy online, which specializes in bringing a diverse list of iOS
courses ranging from building apps to games for all programming levels.
About the reviewer
Cecil Costa, also known as Eduardo Campos in Latin countries, is a Euro-
Brazilian freelance developer. He has been giving onsite courses for
companies such as Ericsson, Roche, TVE (a Spanish TV channel), and
others. He has also worked for different companies, including IBM,
Qualcomm, Spanish Lottery, and Dia. He is also the author of Swift
Cookbook, Swift 2 Blueprints, Reactive Programming with Swift, and a
video course called Building iOS 10 Applications with Swift, by Packt
Publishing.
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Table of Contents
Preface
Who this book is for
What this book covers
To get the most out of this book
Download the example code files
Download the color images
Conventions used
Get in touch
Reviews
1. Getting Familiar with Xcode
Getting started
The Xcode interface
Navigator panel
Standard editor
Utilities panel
Debug panel
Toolbar
Generic iOS device
iOS device
Connecting wirelessly
Window pane controls
Summary
2. Building a Foundation with Swift
Playgrounds – an interactive coding environment
Data types – where it all starts
String
Integer data type
Floating-point numbers
Booleans
Variables and constants – where data is held
Creating a variable with a string
Creating a variable with an integer (Int)
Debug and print() – detecting your bugs
Adding floating-point numbers
 Creating a Boolean
Hungarian notation
Why constants versus variables?
Comments – leaving yourself notes or reminders
Type safety and type inference
Concatenating strings
String interpolation
Operations with our integers
Increment and decrement
Comparison operators
Summary
3. Building on the Swift Foundation
Creating a Playground project
The if statements – having fun with logic statements
Optionals and optional bindings
Why optionals?
Functions
Summary
4. Digging Deeper
Creating a Playground project
Ranges
Closed range
Half-closed range
Control flow
The for...in loop
One-sided range
The while loop
The repeat...while loop
Summary
5. Digging into Collections
Arrays
Creating an empty array
Creating an array with initial values
Creating a mutable array
Adding items to an array
Checking the number of elements in an array
Checking for an empty array
 Retrieving a value from an array
Iterating over an array
Removing items from an array
Dictionaries
Creating a dictionary
Adding and updating dictionary elements
Accessing an item in a dictionary
Iterating over dictionary values
Iterating over dictionary keys
Iterating over dictionary keys and values
Checking the number of items in a dictionary
Removing items from a dictionary
Sets
Creating an empty set
Creating a set with an array literal
Creating a mutable set
Adding items into a set
Checking if a set contains an item
Iterating over a set
Intersecting two sets
Joining two sets
Removing items from a set
Summary
6. Starting the UI Setup
Useful terms
View Controller
Table View Controller
Collection View Controller
Navigation Controller
Tab Bar Controller
Storyboard
Segue
Auto Layout
Model View Controller (MVC)
App tour
Explore tab
Locations
 Restaurant listings
Restaurant detail
Map tab
Project setup
Creating a new project
Summary
7. Setting Up the Basic Structure
Starting from scratch
Storyboard setup
Adding our app assets
Storyboards
Creating our launch screen
Adding a Navigation Controller
Summary
8. Building Our App Structure in Storyboard
Adding a Collection View Controller
Hooking up our outlets
Creating a custom color
Setting up our cell
Section header
Updating the grid
Adding a modal
Updating Bar Button Items
Unwinding our Cancel button
Adding our first Table View
Summary
9. Finishing Up Our App Structure in Storyboard
Adding our Restaurant List View
Hooking up our outlets
Setting up our cell
Adding Reviews View
Viewing reviews
Map Kit View
Summary
10. Designing Cells
Setting up the Explore header
Adding Auto Layout to the Explore header
 Setting up the Explore cell
Adding Auto Layout to the Explore cell
Setting up the Restaurant cell
Adding Auto Layout to the Restaurant cell
Location cell
Summary
11. Designing Static Tables
Setting up cells
Creating our section headers
Creating our address section
Adding Auto Layout to the headers
Photos section
Adding Auto Layout to the photos section
Reviews section
Adding Auto Layout to the Review cells
Updating the reservation times cells
Reservation information
Reservation header
Summary
12. Designing a Photo Filter and Review Form
Setting up our View Controllers
Adding our Photo Filter View
Adding Auto Layout for the Photo Filter View
Creating the Photo Filter View cell
Adding Auto Layout to our Photo Filter cell
Creating reviews
Setting up the Review storyboard
Creating a Review form
Updating the Review cells
Updating our first cell
Positioning UI elements
Adding Auto Layout for creating reviews
Refactoring the storyboard
Creating a new storyboard for the Map tab
Creating a new storyboard for the Explore tab
Summary
13. Getting Started with the Grid
 Understanding the Model View Controller architecture
Getting familiar with the setup
Classes and structures
Controllers and classes
Creating our controller
Understanding Collection View controllers and Collection View
cells
Getting data into Collection View
Understanding the data source
Summary
14. Getting Data into Our Grid
Model
ExploreData.plist
ExploreItem.swift
ExploreDataManager.swift
Getting data
Connecting to our cell
Hooking up our UI with IBOutlets
Restaurant listing
Summary
15. Getting Started with the List
Creating our Location View Controller class
Connecting our Table View with our Location View Controller
Digging into our Table View code
Adding the data source and delegate
Adding locations to our Table View
Creating our first property list (plist)
Adding data to our property list
Creating our location data manager
Working with our data manager
Creating folders
Summary
16. Where Are We?
Setting up map annotations
What is an MKAnnotation?
Creating a restaurant annotation
Creating our Map Data Manager
 Creating a base class
Refactoring code
Refactoring ExploreDataManager
Creating and adding annotations
Creating our Map View Controller
Creating custom annotations
Map to restaurant detail
Creating a storyboard reference
Map to restaurant detail
Passing data to restaurant detail
Organizing your code
Refactoring ExploreViewController
Using the MARK comment
Refactoring RestaurantViewController
Refactoring MapViewController
Summary
17. Working with an API
Creating an API Manager
What is an API?
Understanding a JSON file
Exploring the API Manager file
Location list
Selecting a location
Adding a Header view
Passing a selected location back to Explore View
Unwinding our Done button
Getting the last selected location
Passing location and cuisine to the restaurant list
Creating our restaurant cell class
Setting up restaurant list cell outlets
Creating a restaurant data manager
Handling no data
Summary
18. Displaying Data in Restaurant Detail
Adding a navigation button
Displaying data in our static Table View
Summary
19. Foodie Reviews
Getting started with reviews
Displaying ratings in our custom UIControl
Adding our touch events
Setting up the unwind segues
Setting up our rating control
Creating our review form controller
Summary
20. Working with Photo Filters
Understanding filters
Creating our filter scroller
Creating a filter cell
Creating our apply filter view controller
Getting permission
Summary
21. Understanding Core Data
What is Core Data?
Creating a data model
Entity auto-generation
Restaurant Photo Entity
Review item
Core Data manager
Summary
22. Saving Reviews
Saving reviews
Saving photos
Setting up the cell UI
Adding Auto Layout
Adding an overall rating
Summary
23. Universal
Explore
Location listing
Restaurant listing
Updating restaurant details
Summary
24. iMessages
 Understanding iMessages
Creating our extension
Updating our assets
Implementing our Messages UI
Adding Auto Layout to our cell
Creating a framework
Connecting our message cell
Showing restaurants
iMessage crashing
Sending reservations
Summary
25. Notifications
Starting with the basics
Getting permission
Setting up notifications
Showing notifications
Customizing our notifications
Embedding images
Adding buttons
Custom UI in notifications
Summary
26. Just a Peek
Adding 3D Touch quick actions
Adding favorites
Creating a new model object
Updating our Core Data manager
Summary
27. Drag and Drop
Accepting drag from other apps
Dragging and dropping filter items
Summary
28. SiriKit
Understanding SiriKit
Supported intents
Enable Siri capabilities
Creating users
Updating our intent handler
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 Testing Siri
Summary
29. Beta and Store Submission
Creating a bundle identifier
Creating a certificate signing request
Creating production and development certificates
Creating a production provisioning profile
Creating a Development Provisioning Profile
Creating an App Store listing
Creating an archive build
Internal and external testing
Internal testing
External testing
Summary
Other Books You May Enjoy
Leave a review - let other readers know what you think
Preface
In this book, we will build a restaurant reservation app called Let's Eat. We
will start the book off by exploring Xcode, our programming environment,
which is also known as Interface Development Environment (IDE). Next,
you will start learning the foundations of Swift, the programming language
used in iOS apps. Once we are comfortable with the basics of Swift, we will
dig deeper to build a more solid foundation.

After we have a solid foundation of using Swift, we will start creating the
visual aspects of our Let's Eat app. During this process, we will work with
storyboards and connect our app's structure together using segues. With our
UI complete, we will go over the different ways in which we can display
data. To display our data in a grid, we will use Collection Views, and to
display our data in a list, we will use Table Views.

We will also look at how to add basic and custom annotations on to a map.
Finally, it's time to get real data; we will look at what an Application
Programming Interface (API) is and how we can get real restaurant data
into our Collection Views, Table Views, and Map.

We now have a complete app, but how about adding some bells and
whistles? The first place we can add a feature will be on the restaurant
detail page where we can add restaurant reviews. Here, users will be able to
take or choose a picture and apply a filter on to their picture. They will also
be able to give the restaurant a rating as well as a review. When they are
done, we will save this data using Core Data.

Since we built our app to work on both iPhone and iPad, we should add the
ability to make our app support iPad Multitasking. Doing this will allow our
app to be open alongside another app at the same time.

If we want to be able to send our reservation to a friend, we can create a

custom UI for iMessages, which will send them the details for the
reservation along with the app it came from. The one thing missing from
our app is the ability to notify the user with a custom notification to alert
when they have an upcoming reservation.

Finally, let's create a quick access for our app using 3D touch where, by
tapping our app icon, the user can quickly jump to their reservations. Now
that we have added some bells and whistles, let's get this app to our friends
using TestFlight,
and finally get it into the App Store.
Who this book is for
This book is for beginners who want to be able to create iOS applications. If
you have some programming experience, this book is a great way to get a
full understanding of how to create an iOS application from scratch and
submit it to the App Store. You do not need any knowledge of Swift or any
prior programming experience.
What this book covers
Chapter 1, Getting Familiar with Xcode, takes you through a tour of Xcode
and talks about all the different panels that we will use throughout the book.

Chapter 2, Building a Foundation with Swift, deals with the basics of Swift.

Chapter 3,Building on the Swift Foundation, teaches us to build on our

Swift foundation and learn some more basics of Swift.

Chapter 4, Digging Deeper, talks about ranges and control flow.

Chapter 5,Digging into Collections, talks about the different types of

Collections.

Chapter 6,Starting the UI Setup, is about building the Let's Eat app. We will
focus on getting our structure set up using storyboards.

Chapter 7, Setting Up the Basic Structure, deals with working on our Let's
Eat app in a storyboard.

Chapter 8, Building Our App Structure in Storyboard, is about adding more

to our app structure in the storyboard

Chapter 9, Finishing Up Our App Structure in Storyboard, finishes up our

app structure in the storyboard

Chapter 10, Designing Cells, is about designing the table and collection view
cells in storyboard.

Chapter 11, Designing Static Tables, teaches how to work with a static table
view.

Chapter 12,Designing a Photo Filter and Review Form, teaches you how to
design a basic form.
Random documents with unrelated
content Scribd suggests to you:
supraoccipital from the frontals; opercular bones well developed.
Vertebral centra well ossified, but always pierced by the notochord; ribs
delicate; epipleurals present; no fused or expanded haemal arches at the
base of the caudal fin. Dorsal and anal fins small, the former above or
behind the ventrals. Ventrals with 5 to 10 rays. Scales thin, cycloid and
deeply imbricate, usually coated with ganoin in their exposed portion.

Fig. 325.—Leptolepis dubius. (Restoration of skeleton by A. S. Woodward.)

Leptolepis, with numerous species, from the Jurassic and Cretaceous of

Europe and New South Wales; Vidalia, Jurassic of France; Aethalion,
Jurassic of Bavaria; Thrissops, Jurassic and Cretaceous of Europe; and
Lycoptera, Jurassic of Asia.

Fam. 5. Elopidae.—Margin of the upper jaw formed by the

praemaxillaries and the maxillaries, the latter the more developed, and
movably articulated above the former to the ethmoid. Parietal bones in
contact behind the frontals; opercular bones well developed. Basis cranii
double. A bony intergular or sublingual plate. Jaws, palatines, pterygoids,
vomer, parasphenoid, glossohyal, and pharyngeals toothed. Ribs mostly
sessile, inserted very low down, behind parapophyses; epineurals similar
to the ribs, but directed upwards. Pectorals low down, folding like the
ventrals. Post-temporal forked, the upper branch attached to the epiotic,
the lower to the opisthotic; post-clavicle small; scapular foramen in the
scapula; pterygials well developed, three in contact with coracoid.
Ventrals with 10 to 16 rays. Branchiostegal rays very numerous (over 20).
Air-bladder large.

This family is abundantly represented in Cretaceous times by the genera

Osmeroides and Elopopsis, and from the Lower Eocene to the present
day by Elops and Megalops. Elops saurus is a handsome elongate silvery
Fish, found in all the warm and tropical seas; the young are ribbon-
shaped like those of Albula. A second species, E. lacerta, is from the West
Coast of Africa, entering rivers. Megalops, distinguished by larger scales,
the absence of pseudobranchiae, and the curious prolongation of the last
ray of the dorsal fin, includes the well-known Tarpon M. atlanticus, and
the Indian M. cyprinoides. The Tarpon occurs from the south-eastern
coasts of North America and the West Indies to Brazil, and reaches a
length of 6 feet and a weight of 110 lbs. It often leaps out of the water,
after the manner of Grey Mullets, and its chase when hooked affords
good sport, the landing of so active a giant being attended with great
difficulties. Its remarkably large scales, over two inches in diameter, are
much prized for fancy work in the Florida curiosity shops.

Fig. 326.—Tarpon, Megalops atlanticus, much reduced. (After Goode.)

Fam. 6. Albulidae.—Margin of the upper jaw formed by the

praemaxillaries and the maxillaries, the latter movably articulated above
the former to the ethmoid. Parietal bones separating the supraoccipital
from the frontals; suboperculum large; interoperculum small and entirely
or nearly entirely hidden below the praeoperculum. Basis cranii double.
Praemaxillaries, mandible, vomer, palatines, pterygoid, parasphenoid,
glossohyal, and pharyngeals toothed. Ribs sessile, inserted behind and
somewhat below small parapophyses, which are absent or merely
indicated on the anterior vertebrae, and gradually increase in size towards
the caudal region; these parapophyses, as well as the neural and haemal
arches, are autogenous bones; epineurals, no epipleurals. Pectorals low
down, folding like the ventrals. Post-temporal trifid, the upper branch
attached to the epiotic, the median to the squamosal, the lower to the
opisthotic; post-clavicle large (formed of three pieces); scapular foramen
between scapula and clavicle; pterygials well developed, two in contact
with coracoid. Ventrals with 10 to 14 rays. Branchiostegal rays 6 to 14.
Air-bladder large, not communicating with the ear.
Elongate fusiform Fishes, covered with large silvery scales forming regular
longitudinal series; head naked; mouth rather small, with thick lips; gill-
openings wide. Dorsal fin originating in front of ventrals; anal short;
caudal well developed, forked.

Fig. 327.—Albula conorhynchus. ¼ nat. size.

The type of this family, Albula or Butirinus, is remarkable among Teleosts

in possessing a rudiment of a conus arteriosus to the heart, provided with
two rows of valvules.[642] Its single species inhabits all the warm and
tropical seas. Prof. Gilbert has ascertained that the young pass through a
metamorphosis, analogous to that of the Eels. The "Leptocephalid"
described as Esunculus by Kaup is probably a larval Albula.

Fig. 328.—Larva of Albula conorhynchus. (After Gilbert.)

The deep-sea Japanese Pterothrissus (Bathythrissa) must be placed in

this family; its skeleton is very similar to that of Albula. It differs in the
elongate dorsal fin, in the presence of small teeth on the maxillary bone,
and in the small number of branchiostegal rays (6 instead of 12 to 14).

Albula is represented in the Eocene (London Clay and Bruxellian); and the
Cretaceous Istieus and Anogmius are believed to be possibly related to
Pterothrissus. Four Cretaceous types (Plethodus, Thryptodus,
Syntegmodus, and Ancylostylus) are referred with doubt to the Albulidae.

Fam. 7. Mormyridae.—Margin of the upper jaw formed by the single

praemaxillary and the maxillaries, the latter articulated above the former
to the ethmoid. Parietal bones separating the supraoccipital from the
frontals; a large hole on each side of the skull, between the squamosal,
the epiotic, and the opisthotic, covered by a large, thin, bony plate (the
supratemporal), which may extend over a part of the parietal; symplectic
absent; suboperculum small and hidden under the operculum, or absent;
interoperculum well developed. Basis cranii simple. No pharyngeal teeth.
Opercular bones hidden under the skin; gill-clefts narrow. Anterior ribs
sessile; epineurals, no epipleurals. Pectorals directed upwards. Ventrals
with 6 or 7 rays. Air-bladder communicating with the ear.

Fig. 329.—Mormyrus caballus. ⅕ nat. size.

Curious-looking Fishes, very variable in the form of the head and body
and in the extent of the fins. Mouth often very small; teeth in jaws
usually few; teeth usually present on the parasphenoid, working against a
similar patch on the glossohyal; eye covered over by skin, sometimes very
indistinct; scales small, cycloid; branchiostegal rays 4 to 8. The dorsal and
anal fins may be nearly equally developed (Genyomyrus, Gnathonemus);
or the former (Mormyrus) or the latter (Hyperopisus) are several times
the longer. Gymnarchus, Eel-shaped, apodal, and deprived of the caudal
fin, lacks the anal fin, the dorsal extending over the whole extent of the
body. Some species of Mormyrops show how a form like Gymnarchus may
have been evolved out of a more typically-formed Fish. Nothing is more
striking than the variation in shape of the snout within one and the same
genus, and the names given to some of the species (ovis, caballus,
elephas, tamandua, numenius, ibis) are suggestive of resemblances with
the heads of various animals.
 Fig. 330.—Head of Gnathonemus curvirostris.

Fig. 331.—Head of Gnathonemus numenius.

The Mormyrids are highly remarkable for the enormous development of

the brain, the weight of which equals 1⁄52 to 1⁄82 of the total, a thing
unparalleled among lower Vertebrates; and for the problematic organ
which surmounts it; also as being among the few Fishes in which an
electric organ has been discovered. The organ, situated on each side of
the caudal region, is derived from the muscular system and is of feeble
power, as ascertained by Babuchin and by Fritsch; it was long considered
as "pseudo-electric." The natural affinities of this family appear to be with
the Albulidae, and there is nothing to justify the term "Nilhechte" (Nile-
pike) which has been bestowed on them by German authors. Ninety-three
species are known from the fresh waters of Africa north of the Tropic of
Capricorn, and may be referred to two sub-families and ten genera[643]:—

(i.) Mormyrinae, with teeth on the parasphenoid and tongue, with ventral,
anal, and caudal fins, and a simple air-bladder; vertebrae 37 to 64;
peculiar (Gemmingerian) linear bones, without known homologues, along
each side of the tail, above and beneath the electric organ; scapular
foramen in the scapula, or between the scapula and the coracoid.
Mormyrops, Petrocephalus, Isichthys, Marcusenius, Stomatorhinus,
Myomyrus, Gnathonemus, Genyomyrus, Mormyrus.
(ii.) Gymnarchinae, without teeth on the parasphenoid and tongue, without
ventral, anal, or caudal fins, and with a cellular air-bladder; vertebrae
about 120; Gemmingerian bones absent; scapular foramen in the
coracoid. Gymnarchus.

Fossil Mormyrids are unknown.

Venerated by the ancient Egyptians, the Mormyrs of the Nile are

frequently represented on hieroglyphics and mural paintings as well as in
bronze models. Very little is known of the habits of these Fishes. Prof. G.
Fritsch, of Berlin, during his stay in Egypt for the purpose of
experimenting on electric Fishes, observed that they perish very rapidly
when removed from the river, and he had the greatest difficulty in
keeping some alive in an aquarium for two or three days. The species
with comparatively large mouths (Mormyrops, Gymnarchus) feed
principally on fishes and crustaceans, the others on tiny animals and
vegetable and more or less decomposed matter. Delhez, on the Congo,
found that many are attracted to the borders of the river in the
neighbourhood of human dwellings, where they feed on the refuse
thrown into the water. It is probable that the species with a rostrum use it
to procure small prey hidden between stones or buried in the mud, and
that the fleshy mental appendage with which many are provided is a
tactile organ compensating the imperfection of the vision in the search for
food. A small Mormyrid from the Congo (Stomatorhinus microps) has the
eyes so much reduced and the skin so feebly pigmented as to convey the
impression of a cave Fish. Until quite recently, absolutely nothing was
known of the breeding habits and development in this important family.
To the late J. S. Budgett we owe some very interesting observations
made in the Gambia on Gymnarchus niloticus.[644] The Fish makes a
floating nest, emerging on three sides, over which the male keeps a fierce
watch; the recently-hatched larvae are remarkable for the enormous size
of the yolk-sac, which hangs down, acting as a sort of anchor, and for the
presence of long external branchial filaments, as in Selachian embryos.
The Fish propels itself through the water entirely by the action of its
dorsal fin, forwards and backwards with equal facility; when swimming
rapidly backwards, it may be seen to use the end of its tail as a feeler to
guide the way. Budgett has also identified, with some doubt, the eggs of
Hyperopisus bebe, out of which emerged embryos not unlike those of
some tailless Batrachians, which hung suspended to rootlets of grass in
swamps by means of threads of viscid mucus secreted from glands on the
top of the head.

Fig. 332.—Gymnarchus niloticus. ¼ nat. size.

Fam. 8. Hyodontidae.—Margin of the upper jaw formed by the

praemaxillaries and the maxillaries, the latter the more developed and
firmly united to the end of the former. Parietal bones separating the
supraoccipital from the frontals; a large hole on each side of the skull,
between the parietal, the squamosal, and the epiotic (paroccipital), closed
by a large, thin, bony plate (the supratemporal), which extends over the
greater part of the parietal; suboperculum and interoperculum small, the
latter partly hidden below the praeoperculum. Basis cranii double. Jaws,
palatines, pterygoids, vomer, parasphenoid, and glossohyal toothed; no
pharyngeal teeth. Ribs sessile, inserted above and behind well-developed
parapophyses; epineurals, no epipleurals. Pectorals low down, folding like
the ventrals. Post-temporal forked; the upper branch attached to the
epiotic, the lower to the squamosal; no post-clavicle; coracoids forming
together a ventral keel; scapular foramen between scapula and clavicle;
pterygials well developed, three in contact with coracoid. Ventrals with 7
rays. Branchiostegal rays in moderate number (8 to 10). Air-bladder
communicating with the ear. No oviducts, the eggs falling into the
abdominal cavity before exclusion.
 Fig. 333.—Upper (A) and posterior (B) views of skull and pectoral arch of
Hyodon alosoides (the supratemporal removed on the left side). bo,
Basioccipital; cl, clavicle; cor, coracoid; eo, exoccipital; eot, epiotic;
eth, ethmoid; f, frontal; m, maxilla; mcor, mesocoracoid; n, nasal; oo,
opisthotic; p, parietal; pcl, postclavicle; pm, praemaxilla; por,
praeorbital; ptf, postfrontal; ptr, pterygials; ptte, post-temporal; scl,
supraclavicle; so, supraoccipital; sor, suborbital; sq, squamosal; ste,
supratemporal.

Elongate, compressed, silvery Fishes, covered with moderate-sized cycloid

scales; head naked; mouth large, with strong dentition; gill-openings
wide; dorsal fin short, posterior to the ventrals; anal rather elongate;
caudal well developed, forked.

A single genus (Hyodon) with three species (Moon-Eyes of the

Americans), all reaching the length of about a foot, inhabiting the fresh
waters of North America east of the Rocky Mountains.

Fam. 9. Notopteridae. The Fishes which form this family may be

regarded as an eccentric modification of a type very similar to the
preceding, with which they agree in most osteological features as well as
in the dentition, in the connexion between the air-bladder and the ear,
and in the absence of oviducts. They differ in the absence of the lid-like
supratemporal, the hole which it covers in Hyodon being here bordered
by the post-frontal and the squamosal (fused with the opisthotic),
sometimes also by the epiotic, in the absence of the suboperculum, in the
absence or incomplete ossification of the upper branch of the post-
temporal (the lower articulating with the opisthotic), and in the presence
of accessory bones (named adpleurals) attached to or fused with the
distal extremity of the anterior ribs, which they prolong to the mid-ventral
line, where they are embraced by dermal ossifications forming a doubly
serrated crest.

Fig. 334.—Notopterus afer, skeleton, with outline of soft parts. ⅔ nat. size.

The bones of the head are cavernous, the mouth is large; the anterior
nostril is produced into a tentacle. The body is very strongly compressed,
with very short precaudal region, attenuate behind; the ventral fins are
much reduced or absent; the dorsal is short or absent, and the anal is
much elongate and confluent with the caudal, which may be regarded as
aborted. The scapular foramen is entirely in the scapula. The air-bladder
is very large, with several divisions, forked in front and behind, and
prolonged along each side of the caudal region; its extraordinary
condition has been described by Bridge.[645]

These Fishes live in marshes and lakes, fresh-water or brackish, and feed
on worms and insects. Nothing is known of their breeding habits and
development.

Two genera: Notopterus, with a dorsal fin and 6 to 9 branchiostegal rays

—three species from India, Burma, and the Malay region, and one from
West Africa; Xenomystus, without dorsal fin and with only 3
branchiostegal rays, the unique species inhabiting the White Nile and
West Africa. Remains of Notopterus have been found in the marl slates
(Tertiary) of Padang, Sumatra. The largest species, the Indian N. chitala,
attains 4 feet in length; its flesh is said to be uncommonly rich and well
flavoured, but a strong prejudice exists against it, owing to the Fish being
supposed to live on human carcases.
Fam. 10. Osteoglossidae.—Margin of the upper jaw formed by the
praemaxillaries and the maxillaries, the latter the more developed and
firmly attached to the end of the former. Parietal bones separating the
supraoccipital from the frontals; suboperculum much reduced, and
entirely or partially concealed under the praeoperculum. Basis cranii
simple. Teeth in jaws, and on pterygoid and hyoid bones; no pharyngeal
teeth. Head scaleless, the thin skin confluent with the bones; body
covered with large bony scales, composed of pieces like mosaic. Ribs
inserted on the strong parapophyses; epineurals, no epipleurals. Pectoral
fins low down. Post-temporal forked, the upper branch attached to the
epiotic, the lower to the squamosal; post-clavicle present; scapular
foramen in scapula; pterygials well developed, only one in contact with
coracoid. Dorsal and anal fins originating behind the ventrals; latter with
5 or 6 rays. No oviducts, the eggs falling into the abdominal cavity before
exclusion (at least in Heterotis, as observed by Budgett).

This family is represented at the present day by five species, referred to

four genera; thus characterised:—
 Fig. 335.—Principal forms of Osteoglossids. A, Dapedoglossus testis
(restoration); B, Scleropages leichardti; C, Osteoglossum bicirrhosum;
D, Arapaima gigas; E, Heterotis niloticus. All much reduced.

Scleropages.—Mouth large; vomer, palatines, pterygoids, and glossohyal

toothed; mandibular barbels; branchiostegal rays 15 to 17; body
compressed, with trenchant abdomen; coracoids forming a ventral keel;
dorsal fin short; ventral fins nearly equally distant from end of snout and
caudal fin; vertebrae 29 to 31 + 30; air-bladder not cellular. One species
from the northern parts of Australia, and one from Sumatra, Banka, and
Borneo.

Osteoglossum.—Mouth large; vomer, palatines, pterygoids, and glossohyal

toothed; mandibular barbels; branchiostegal rays 10; body compressed,
with trenchant abdomen; coracoids forming a ventral keel; dorsal fin
long; ventral fins nearly twice as far from the caudal as from the end of
the snout; vertebrae 28 + 59; air-bladder not cellular.—South America
(Guianas, Brazil).
Arapaima.—Mouth rather large; vomer, palatines, pterygoids, and
glossohyal toothed; branchiostegal rays 16; belly rounded; dorsal fin
rather long; ventral fins equidistant from head and caudal fin; vertebrae
36 to 38 + 41 to 42; air-bladder cellular.—South America (Guianas,
Brazil).

Heterotis.—Mouth moderate; branchiostegal rays 7; belly rounded; dorsal

fin rather long; ventral fins nearer end of snout than caudal fin; vertebrae
27 + 42 to 43; air-bladder cellular; fourth branchial arch with an
accessory breathing-organ. Africa (Nile, Senegal, Gambia, Niger).

Dapedoglossus, from the Eocene of Wyoming, appears to be nearest to

Scleropages, and Brychaetus, from the Eocene (London Clay) of Sheppey,
Kent, to Arapaima, so far as the state of preservation of these fossils
enables us to form an opinion.

Fig. 336.—Distribution of the Osteoglossids.

Dr. Günther has directed attention to the remarkable coincidence of the

geographical distribution of this family and the Dipneusti, although,
however, the latter are not known to be represented in the Malay
Archipelago. "Not only," he adds, "are the corresponding species found
within the same region, but also in the same river systems; and although
such a connexion may and must be partly due to a similarity of habit, yet
the identity of this singular distribution is so striking that it can only be
accounted for by assuming that the Osteoglossidae are one of the earliest
Teleosteous types which have been contemporaries of and have
accompanied the present Dipnoi since or even before the beginning of
the Tertiary epoch."
The Queensland species of Scleropages (S. leichardti) is known to the
settlers by the name of Barramunda, which has also been applied to
Neoceratodus. Arapaima gigas is one of the largest fresh-water Fishes
known, exceeding a length of 15 feet and a weight of 400 pounds. Its
flesh is much valued. Sir R. Schomburgh has observed that the mother
protects the young, who, for some time after their birth, always swim in
front of her. A similar observation has been made in the Gambia on
Heterotis niloticus by the late J. S. Budgett, who states that the Fish
builds enormous nests in swamps, in about two feet of water; the walls of
the nest are made of the stems of the grasses removed by the Fish from
the centre; the floor is the swamp-bottom, and is made perfectly smooth
and bare. The nest appears to be used for at most four or five days; the
newly-hatched larvae are provided with long external gill-filaments of a
blood-red colour.[646]

Fam. 11. Pantodontidae.—The little West African Fish described by

Peters as Pantodon buchholzi is the unique representative of a family
closely related to the Osteoglossidae, but distinguished by the very small,
single praemaxillary and the absence of suboperculum and
interoperculum. The pectoral fins are very large and are remarkable for
the fleshy process to which the inner ray is adnate; the ventrals, formed
of 7 rays, some of which are simple and prolonged into filaments, are
placed more forward than in any other type of this sub-order, the
Ctenothrissidae excepted, viz. immediately behind the pectorals. Teeth in
the jaws and on the vomer, palatines, pterygoids, parasphenoid,
glossohyal, and pharyngeal bones. Mesocoracoid arch slender, strongly
curved, and meeting its fellow on the median line; coracoids forming a
ventral keel. Vertebrae few (16 + 14).

Fig. 337.—Pantodon buchholzi, natural size.

Observed by M. de Brazza to be a freshwater Flying-Fish.

Fig. 338.—Ctenothrissa vexillifer (restored by A. S. Woodward).

Fam. 12. Ctenothrissidae.—A curious type characterised by small

praemaxillaries, large maxillaries, with feeble dentition, the parietals in
contact on the median line, vertebral centra without transverse processes,
a moderately large dorsal with simple anterior rays, and large ventrals
advanced far forwards and formed of 8 rays. Its affinities are still obscure,
but the condition of the jaws decides its allocation to the suborder
Malacopterygii, whilst in the position of the ventrals it is most nearly
approached by the Pantodontidae. Small Fishes known only by two
genera, of the Cretaceous period (England and Mount Lebanon), one with
ctenoid scales (Ctenothrissa), the other with cycloid scales (Aulolepis).

Fam. 13. Phractolaemidae.—Mouth edentulous, projectile, bordered

by the very slender praemaxillaries and maxillaries. Supraoccipital in
contact with the frontals, widely separating the small parietals; operculum
and suboperculum well developed; praeoperculum small; interoperculum
enormous, covering the gular region and overlapping its fellow;
symplectic absent. Basis cranii single. No pharyngeal teeth. Only 3
slender branchiostegal rays. Ribs stout, sessile, nearly completely
encircling the body; slender epineurals; no epipleurals; caudal region very
short. Supratemporal small, simple, fixed to the parietal and squamosal;
no postclavicle; scapular foramen in the scapula. Pectoral fin inserted low
down, folding like the ventrals; latter with 6 rays.
 Fig. 339.—Phractolaemus ansorgii. ⅔ nat. size.

The remarkable little Fish, Phractolaemus ansorgii, discovered by Dr. W. J.

Ansorge in the Niger Delta in 1900, and which has since also been found
in the Congo, stands quite apart among the Malacopterygians, its nearest
allies being apparently the Osteoglossidae. The body is elongate and
subcylindrical, covered with large striated scales; the head is small, the
skull strongly ossified, covered with thin skin; the mouth small,
proboscidiform, capable of being thrust forwards, when at rest folded
over and received into a depression on the upper surface of the head; the
narial orifice is single, and preceded by a barbel; the gill-openings are
narrow, restricted to the sides. The ventral fins are inserted far back, the
dorsal and anal are short. The air-bladder is very large, and the intestine
extremely long and much convoluted. Vertebrae 26 + 8.

Fam. 14. Saurodontidae.—Margin of the upper jaw formed by the

praemaxillaries and the maxillaries, the latter the more developed and
firmly united to the former; these bones, as well as the mandible, with
teeth implanted in deep sockets; palate toothless. Supraoccipital
separating the small parietals; opercular bones well developed;
symplectic present, exposed. Basis cranii double. Ribs sessile, very low
down on the centra; no parapophyses; neural arches not fused with the
centra. Pectorals inserted very low down; postclavicle apparently absent.
Caudal fin deeply forked, without fused hypurals.

This family, comprising several Cretaceous genera, may be regarded as

ancestral to the Chirocentridae, with or near which it has been placed by
Cope and various later authors. The normal position of the symplectic,
however, entitles its members to rank as a separate family, and the
autogenous neural arch, as well as the distinctness of the bones
supporting the caudal fin, are also indicative of a greater generalisation.
The restoration of Ichthyodectes as given by Loomis, shows a general
form similar to an ordinary Herring, but it does not appear to be reliable.

The members of the Saurodontidae have been referred to two groups:

(a) with praedentary (praesymphysial) bone, Saurocephalus, Saurodon;
(b) without praedentary, Chirocentrites, Portheus, Ichthyodectes,
Spathodactylus, Cladocyclus. These Fishes are from the Chalk of Europe
and North America, and some among them attain a very large size,
perhaps not less than two metres in length.

Fam. 15. Chirocentridae.—Margin of the upper jaw formed by the

praemaxillaries and the maxillaries, the latter the more developed and
firmly united to the former; these bones, as well as the mandible, with
large teeth not implanted in true sockets; minute teeth on the palatines,
pterygoids, and hyoid bones, Supraoccipital in contact with the frontals,
separating the small parietals; opercular bones well developed;
symplectic hidden between the inner surface of the quadrate and a
descending process of the hyomandibular. Basis cranii double. Ribs very
slender, sessile, very low down on the centra; no parapophyses;
epipleurals and epineurals. Pectorals inserted very low down. Post-
temporal forked; postclavicle absent; a thin bony lamina, similar to the
postclavicle, above the pectoral fin, attached to the scapula; scapular
foramen in scapula; coracoids in contact with each other, forming a keel.
Ventrals very small, with 7 rays. Brachiostegal rays 8. Air-bladder large,
not communicating with the ear, incompletely divided into cells. Mucous
membrane of the intestine forming a spiral fold.

The body is very elongate and strongly compressed, covered with thin,
deciduous scales; the vertebrae number 75. The dorsal fin is short and
opposite to the anal, which is long.

Fig. 340.—Side view of skull and pectoral arch of Chirocentrus dorab.

Chirocentrus dorab, the only representative of this family, inhabits the
Indian Ocean and the seas of China and Japan.

Fam. 16. Clupeidae.—Margin of the upper jaw formed by the

praemaxillaries and the maxillaries. Supraoccipital separating the small
parietals; opercular bones well developed. Basis cranii double. Ribs
mostly sessile, inserted behind parapophyses; intermuscular bones
(epineurals, epipleurals, adpleurals) usually numerous. Post-temporal
forked, the upper branch attached to the epiotic, the lower to the
opisthotic; post-clavicle applied to outer side of clavicle. Ventrals with 6 to
11 rays. Air-bladder large, communicating with the ear.

Four sub-families:—

(i.) Thrissopatrinae.—Mouth large; praemaxillaries very small; maxillaries

large, with rather narrow supplemental bone, firmly attached to
praemaxillaries; branchiostegals about 30; abdomen compressed to an
edge, without serration; no lateral line. Thrissopater, from the Gault of
Folkestone.

(ii.) Engraulinae.—Mouth moderate or large; praemaxillaries very small;

maxillaries large, with narrow supplemental bones, more or less firmly
attached to praemaxillaries; branchiostegals 6 to 19; abdomen rounded
or more or less compressed, with or without serration; no lateral line.
Recent genera: Dussumieria, Etrumeus, Engraulis, Cetengraulis,
Heterothrissa, Coilia. Fossil: Spaniodon, Upper Cretaceous.

(iii.) Clupeinae.—Mouth small or moderate; maxillaries freely movable

behind the praemaxillaries, usually with large supplemental bones;
branchiostegals 5 to 10; abdomen usually serrated; lateral line usually
absent. Recent genera: Clupea, Hyperlophus (Diplomystus),
Opisthonema, Brevoortia, Pellonula, Clupeichthys, Odaxothrissa, Pellona,
Chirocentrodon, Pristigaster, Raconda, Chatoessus. Fossil: Pseudoberyx,
Histiothrissa, Scombroclupea, Leptichthys, Upper Cretaceous.
 Fig. 341.—Showing the wide range of variation, within the family, of the
bones (pm, praemaxillary, m, maxillary) forming the upper border of
the mouth. A, Dussumieria; B, Coilia; C, Pellona; D, Chatoessus; E,
Chanos. In these semi-diagrammatic figures the orbit is represented of
the same size in all, as affording the best term of comparison in
judging of the relative development of the bones of the upper jaw.

(iv.) Chaninae.—Mouth small, toothless; maxillaries firmly attached to

praemaxillaries; branchiostegals 4, very broad; abdomen rounded or
flattened; lateral line distinct. Chanos, recent; Chanoides, Upper Eocene;
Prochanos, Cretaceous.

Heralded by the genus Thrissopater,[647] which may be regarded as a

connecting type between the Elopidae and the Clupeidae, this family is
largely represented in Cretaceous times, more abundantly still in the
Eocene and Miocene, where Clupea and Engraulis occur in numerous
species; Hyperlophus, distinguished from Clupea by the presence of a
dorsal serrated ridge similar to the ventral, occurs in the Upper
Cretaceous of Syria, Southern Europe, and South America, in the Eocene
of North America and Europe, and is represented at the present day on
the West Coast of South America and on the coast and in the rivers of
New South Wales. About 200 Clupeids are known to live at the present
day, mostly marine species, but a few are confined to fresh-waters; none
may be termed deep-sea forms; some, like the Allis Shad (Clupea alosa)
and Twait Shad (C. finta), are anadromous, ascending rivers to spawn.
The range of the family is almost cosmopolitan. Several species are
remarkable for the extreme abundance of individuals, as for example the
Herring (Clupea harengus), the Pilchard or Sardine (C. pilchardus), and
the Anchovy (Engraulis encrasicholus). The Herring inhabits the northern
parts of the Atlantic and the seas north of Asia. As Dr. Günther first
showed, the so-called "Whitebait" consists chiefly of the fry of Herrings,
which, like those of the Sprat (C. sprattus), have a predilection for
brackish water. The Anchovy and the Pilchard, on the other hand, seldom
if ever enter estuaries. The eggs of the Herring, contrary to those of most
British marine food-fishes, are heavy and adhesive, sticking firmly to
stones or fixed objects on the sea bottom, whilst those of the Sprat and
Pilchard float on the surface. The larvae are long, slender, and
transparent. The Sardine, which affords so valuable a fishery on the West
Coast of France, is the immature state of the Pilchard, which grows to a
length of 10 to 14 inches. Its movements are not yet well understood,
and its scarcity during certain years in the waters where it usually swarms
has caused periodical crises in an important industry. Ripe Pilchards are
mostly found at a considerable distance from the coasts. The Anchovy is
especially abundant in the Mediterranean, but it is also regularly fished in
Holland, especially in the Zuydersee, where it breeds, as well as in the
Mediterranean; it makes only temporary appearances, and has not been
observed to spawn, in the English Channel, although eggs have recently
been obtained off the coast of North Lancashire.[648]

The imperfectly known Cretaceous Crossognathidae (Crossognathus and

Scyllaemus), referred by some authors to the Percesoces, should probably
be placed with or near the Clupeidae.

Fam. 17. Salmonidae.—Margin of the upper jaw formed by the

praemaxillaries and the maxillaries. Supraoccipital in contact with the
frontals, but frequently overlapped by the parietals, which may meet in a
sagittal suture; opercular bones all well developed. Basis cranii double.
Ribs sessile, parapophyses very short or absent; epineurals, sometimes
also epipleurals, present. Post-temporal forked, the upper branch
attached to the epiotic, the lower to the opisthotic; postclavicle, as usual,
applied to inner side of clavicle. A small adipose dorsal fin. Air-bladder
usually present, large. Oviducts rudimentary or absent, the ova falling
into the cavity of the abdomen before exclusion.

Marine and fresh-water Fishes, mostly from the temperate and Arctic
zones of the northern hemisphere: one genus (Retropinna) on the coasts
and in the rivers of New Zealand; a few deep-sea forms (Argentina,
Microstoma, Nansenia, Bathylagus) occur in the Arctic Ocean, the North
Atlantic Ocean, the Mediterranean, and the Antarctic Ocean, down to
2000 fathoms. Apparently of comparatively recent age, no remains older
than Miocene (Osmerus, Thaumaturus, Prothymallus) being certainly
referable to this family. The recent genera may be grouped as follows:—

A. Air-bladder present.
a. Branchiostegal rays 8 to 20; ventral rays 9 to 13; stomach siphonal; pyloric
appendages more or less numerous (17 to 200). Breed in fresh water.
Salmo, Brachymystax, Stenodus, Coregonus, Phylogephyra, Thymallus.
b. Branchiostegal rays 6; ventral rays 11 to 14; stomach caecal; pyloric
appendages in moderate numbers (12 to 20). Argentina.
c. Branchiostegal rays 6 to 10; ventral rays 6 to 8; stomach caecal; pyloric
appendages few (2 to 11) or rather numerous. Osmerus, Thaleichthys,
Mallotus, Plecoglossus, Hypomesus.
d. Branchiostegal rays 3 or 4; ventral rays 8 to 10; stomach caecal; pyloric
appendages absent. Microstoma, Nansenia, Bathylagus.
B. Air-bladder absent; branchiostegal rays 3 to 6; ventral rays 6 or 7; stomach
siphonal; pyloric appendages absent. Retropinna, Salanx.

Only about 80 species can, at present, be regarded as valid.

Fig. 342.—Distribution of Salmonidae (deep-sea forms not included).

The beauty, gameness, and great economical value of the Salmonids have
caused more attention to be bestowed on them than probably upon any
other group of fishes. As Professor Smitt tells us, a Swedish proverb says
"A dear child has many names," and this applies well to our Salmon and
Trout, the species of which have been unduly multiplied by some writers.
The genus Salmo, characterised by a large mouth and powerful dentition,
is divided into three sections: Oncorhynchus, Quinnat Salmon, of the
North Pacific, ascending rivers in North America and Asia, with 12 to 17
developed rays in the anal; Salmo, Salmon and Trout, with 8 to 12 rays in
the anal, and teeth not only on the head of the vomer but also along its
shaft, at least in the young, represented in the seas and freshwaters of
Europe, Asia, and North America, extending southwards to North-West
Africa, Asia Minor, Northern Persia, the Hindu Kush, the head of the Gulf
of California, and the Rio Grande; Salvelinus, Charr, with 8 to 10 rays in
the anal, and teeth on the raised head of the vomer only, of the lakes of
Northern and Central Europe and the rivers of the northern parts of Asia
and North America as far north as 82° 34´, sometimes descending to the
sea.

Fig. 343.—Trout (Salmo trutta). × ⅓. (After Valenciennes.)

The changes in form and colour which these fishes undergo when passing
from fresh water into the sea or when artificially transported from one
place to another are very great, and this plasticity, together with the
connecting links which render the naming of not a few specimens
impossible, have caused most recent students of the genus Salmo, in
Europe at least, to reduce many of the so-called species to the rank of
local varieties, and even our common Brown Trout or Brook Trout (S.
fario) is now generally regarded as not specifically separable from the
anadromous Sea Trout (S. trutta). The anadromous true Salmon (S. salar)
may be distinguished by its somewhat larger scales, there being only 11
or 12 in a transverse series running from the posterior border of the
adipose fin forwards to the lateral line, Trout having 13 to 16. The Charr
of the lakes of Wales, the North of England, Scotland, and Ireland are
also regarded as mere varieties of the common Northern migratory Charr
(S. alpinus), of which the "Omble Chevalier" of the Swiss lakes and the
"Saeblings" of the Alpine lakes of Germany and Austria are likewise
varieties. An allied species (S. fontinalis) has been introduced into
England from North America, as well as a true Trout (S. irideus). The
large size of the eggs, their lack of adhesiveness, and the fact that the
ova fall into the abdominal cavity, out of which they may easily be
squeezed, renders artificial impregnation particularly easy, and the
species of Salmo have always occupied the first place in the annals of
fish-culture. Fertilised eggs are transported in ice, the development being
simply suspended for several weeks, and several forms of British and
American Salmonidae have thus been introduced into New Zealand and
Tasmania, where some have thoroughly established themselves.

The White-Fish, Coregonus, are more numerous in species than Salmo,

and as a rule more readily defined. They are easily recognised by their
large silvery scales and their smaller mouth without or with minute teeth.
Some, like the Houting (C. oxyrhynchus) of Northern Europe, occur in the
sea, entering rivers to spawn, whilst others, like the Sik, Weiss, Felchen,
or Lavaret (C. lavaretus), are confined to lakes. British species are the
Gwyniad (C. clupeoides), of Loch Lomond, Haweswater, Ullswater, and
Bala, the Vendace (C. vandesius), of Loch Maben, and the Pollan (C.
pollan) of Lough Neagh in Ireland.

Fig. 344.—Capelin (Mallotus villosus.) ½ nat. size. (After Valenciennes.)

The Grayling (Thymallus vulgaris or vexillifer), with its high dorsal fin
formed of about 20 rays, one of the handsomest British fishes, inhabits
the rivers and lakes of Northern and Central Europe, and is represented
by a few allied species in Asia and North America. It derives its name
from having the odour of thyme.

The Smelt (Osmerus eperlanus) breeds in salt water, and although it

often enters rivers, it does not ascend beyond tidal influence. The Capelin
(Mallotus villosus), of the coasts of Arctic America and North-eastern Asia,
deposits its eggs in the sand along the shores in incredible numbers, the
beach becoming a quivering mass of eggs and sand. Plecoglossus, from
Japan and Formosa, is highly remarkable for its lamellar, comb-like, lateral
teeth. The Siel-Smelts (Argentina) are deep-sea Salmonids of which
examples have occasionally been taken off the coasts of Scotland and
Ireland; large numbers have been brought from Norway to English
markets. Bathylagus is still better adapted for life at great depths (down
to 1700 fathoms), the eyes being of enormous size. As Dr. Günther has
observed, "these fishes must be entirely dependent for vision on the
phosphorescent light which is produced by other abyssal creatures. Not
being fish of prey themselves, or only to a slight degree, they would be
attracted by the light issuing from the Pediculates and Stomiatids of the
deep, and thus form an easy prey to these fishes."

Secondary sexual characters are very strongly developed in many

Salmonids. In adult males of Salmon, Trout, and Quinnat the snout
becomes greatly distorted, both jaws being hooked and the base of the
teeth more or less enlarged; in the latter species a fleshy hump is
developed before the dorsal fin, and the scales of the back become
embedded in the flesh. Pearl-like excrescences appear on the scales of
many of the White-Fish during the breeding season, being more
prominent in males than in females, and Mallotus villosus is so called
from the villous bands formed by the scales of mature males, the scales
above the lateral line and along each side of the belly becoming elongate-
lanceolate, densely imbricated and produced into free, projecting points.
[649]

The Pachyrhizodontidae, with the Cretaceous genus Pachyrhizodus, are

placed by some authors with the Salmonidae, but the remains at present
known are too fragmentary to afford a correct idea of their exact
systematic position. There seems to be less justification for placing them
among the Elopidae.

Fam. 18. Alepocephalidae.—Deep-sea Fishes similar in general

structure to the Clupeidae and Salmonidae, but destitute of a postclavicle
and of an adipose dorsal fin,[650] the rayed fin being situated far back on
the body, in the caudal region, and opposed or slightly anterior to the
anal. The skeleton of Alepocephalus[651] is remarkable for its feeble
ossification. Epipleurals and epineurals are present, and the bilateral
division of the neural arch remains perfectly distinct throughout the
praecaudal region, both halves being very loosely apposed. The air-
bladder is absent. Ventrals are absent in Platytroctes, and the snout is
much produced in Aulostomatomorpha.

Eleven genera are distinguished:—A, with scales: Alepocephalus,

Conocara, Bathytroctes, Leptochilichthys, Narcetes, Platytroctes,
Aulostomatomorpha. B, without scales:—Xenodermichthys, Aleposomus,
Leptoderma, Anomalopterus.

Represented by about 35 species in nearly all the seas; as usual with

deep-sea forms, individuals of the same species have been obtained from
stations very remote from one another.

Fig. 345.—Malacosteus indicus. (After Günther.)

Fam. 19. Stomiatidae.—I would unite under this name the Stomiatidae
and Sternoptychidae of Günther, an assemblage of aberrant deep-sea
Fishes which agree in having the maxillary bone more developed than the
praemaxillary, and beset with teeth, a character which differentiates them
at once from all other deep-sea forms of this sub-order, as well as from
the Scopelidae among the Haplomi. The ventral fins are usually inserted
very far back, and the number of their rays varies from 5 to 8. Contrary
to what occurs in other groups of fishes, the pectoral fins have a
tendency to reduction, and actually disappear in some genera, whilst the
ventrals remain well developed; whenever the pectoral fins are fully
developed, as in Maurolicus, Chauliodus, Astronesthes, and Photichthys,
the mesocoracoid arch is present.[652] The form of the body varies
exceedingly, even within the smaller groups into which this family has
been divided; it may be excessively short and compressed, or excessively
elongate, but the mouth and eyes are always large, these fish being
essentially predatory; the dentition is often very powerful, and may
extend to the palate or be confined to the jaws. The body is naked or
scaly; luminous spots (photophores) are more or less developed.[653] The
development and position of the vertical fin is highly variable within this
group, and the several families which have been founded upon this
character have no more taxonomic importance than in the better-
understood groups Characinidae and Siluridae. All authors, besides, have
been compelled to admit that the presence or absence of an adipose
dorsal fin has no high significance in this case, a view which is further
strengthened by Dr. Gilchrist's discovery, off the Cape of Good Hope, of a
deep-sea Fish agreeing in every respect with Astronesthes, but for the
presence of a small adipose fin, absolutely similar to the dorsal, but
situated on the ventral side, immediately in front of the anus. Two species
with similar ventral adipose fins have just been discovered by Dr. Brauer
and referred to Astronesthes. I am therefore unable to adopt the
elaborate arrangement in favour with the modern American school.

Fig. 346.—Sternoptyx diaphana. (After Günther.)

The genera may be arranged in five sub-families:—

I. Anal not exactly opposed to the rayed dorsal, or much longer than the latter; no
hyoid barbel.
A. Rayed dorsal far forward, between pectorals and ventrals; pectorals well
developed (Chauliodontinae). Chauliodus.
B. Rayed dorsal above or behind the ventrals; pectorals well developed.
1. Body more or less elongate; ventrals well developed (Gonostomatinae).
a. A hyoid barbel. Astronesthes.
b. No barbel. Bathylychnus, Gonostoma, Cyclothone, Triplophos,
Photichthys, Bathylaco, Diplophos, Maurolicus, Ichthyococcus.
2. Body short and deep; ventrals rudimentary or absent (Stenoptychinae).
Argyropelecus, Sternoptyx, Polyipnus.
 II. Dorsal and anal opposed to each other and very far back on the caudal region;
pectorals often reduced or absent; hyoid barbel often present. (Stomiatinae).
Stomias, Macrostomias, Echiostoma, Opostomias, Pachystomias, Photonectes,
Malacosteus, Thaumatostomias, Photostomias.

This family, comprising about 55 species, has a world-wide distribution,

but most of the known forms have been obtained from the Atlantic; some
of the species occur both in the Atlantic and the Indo-Pacific. Chauliodus,
Astronesthes, and Stomias are among the fishes with the most formidable
dentition.

Fam. 20. Gonorhynchidae.—Margin of the upper jaw formed by the

praemaxillaries and the maxillaries, the latter articulated above the former
to the ethmoid. Supraoccipital in contact with the frontals, widely
separating the small parietals; opercular bones well developed;
symplectic present. Basis cranii simple. Mouth small and toothless,
inferior, surrounded by thick, fringed lips. Four branchiostegal rays. Head
and body entirely covered with small spiny scales. Praecaudal vertebrae
with strong parapophyses, to the extremity of which slender ribs and
epipleurals are attached. No postclavicle. Pectoral fins inserted low down,
folding like the ventrals; latter with 10 rays.

Fig. 347.—Gonorhynchus greyi. ⅓ nat. size. (After Valenciennes.)

The single existing species, Gonorhynchus greyi, is characterised by an

elongate, cylindrical body, a pointed projecting snout bearing a single
barbel, short dorsal and anal fins, the former opposed to the ventrals,
and the gill-membranes broadly attached to the isthmus. Teeth are
present on the pterygoid and hyoid bones. No suborbital arch. Vertebrae,
45 + 20. Air-bladder absent. Its distribution is a very wide one, the
species being on record from the coasts of the Cape of Good Hope,
Australia, New Zealand, and Japan.
The genus Notogoneus, from the freshwater Eocene beds of France and
North America, has been referred to this family by Cope, and has been
shown by A. S. Woodward to be closely related to Gonorhynchus,
differing only in the absence of teeth on the palate and tongue, and in
the more forward position of the dorsal fin. The genus Charitosomus,
with several species from the Upper Cretaceous of Westphalia and Mount
Lebanon, has also been included in this family, but the precise shape and
character of the scales have not yet been ascertained.

Fam. 21. Cromeriidae.—Margin of the upper jaw formed by the

praemaxillaries and the maxillaries. Supraoccipital large and widely
separating the very small parietals; opercular bones well developed;
symplectic absent. Basis cranii simple. Mouth small and toothless,
inferior; gill-opening narrow. Three branchiostegal rays. Body naked.
Praecaudal vertebrae with parapophyses; ribs and epipleurals slender. No
postclavicle. Pectoral fin inserted low down, folding like the ventrals.

A single genus, Cromeria, recently discovered in the White Nile. In its

elongate, naked body and the posterior position of the dorsal fin, it
resembles the Galaxiidae, to which it was at first referred. But this
allocation has proved to be incorrect, now that the osteological structure
of the minute Fish (only about 30 mm. long) has been worked out by
Swinnerton.[654] The vertebrae number 42 to 45 (28-30 + 14-15). A long,
slender air-bladder is present.

Sub-Order 2. Ostariophysi.

Air-bladder, if well developed, communicating with the digestive tract by a

duct. Pectoral arch suspended from the skull; mesocoracoid arch present.
Fins without spines, or dorsal and pectoral with a single spine formed by
the co-ossification of the segments of an articulated ray. The anterior four
vertebrae strongly modified, often co-ossified and bearing a chain of
small bones (so-called Weberian ossicles) connecting the air-bladder with
the ear.
This is one of the most natural groups of the Class Pisces, although its
members are so diversified in outward appearance as to have been
widely separated in the systems of older authors. It is to Sagemehl[655]
that is due the credit of having first grouped, under the above name, the
Characines, the Carps, the Cat-Fishes, and the Gymnotids, the relations of
which had been realised, to a certain extent, by Cope. But it was not until
the homology throughout the group of the ossicula auditus, first
described by E. H. Weber in 1820, had been demonstrated by Sagemehl
that the justification for the course here followed appeared in its full
strength, as such an agreement in the structure of so complicated and
specialised an apparatus can only be the result of a community of
descent of the families which are possessed of it. It is invariably the
anterior four vertebrae that take part in the support of the Weberian
apparatus. The first vertebra is much reduced; its upper arch is absent
and replaced by the ossicles termed claustrum and scaphium[656] (the
former being perhaps nothing but the modified neural arch), which fill in
the space between the exoccipital and the neural arch of the second
vertebra; the principal piece of the apparatus, the tripus, variable in form,
is related to the third vertebra, of which it is regarded as a modified rib; a
fibrous ligament extends from the anterior extremity of the tripus to the
scaphium, and in this ligament is inserted the fourth piece, the
intercalarium. The various forms of this sub-order also show a complete
agreement in the spinal nerves which pass through these ossicles. The
parietal bones either separate the frontals from the supraoccipital or are
fused with the latter.

This sub-order is divided into six families. The Characinids are the most
generalised, and the others are probably derived from them in the
manner expressed by the following diagram:—
 Synopsis of the Families

I. Parietal bones distinct from the supraoccipital; symplectic present; ribs mostly
sessile, all or the greater number of the praecaudal vertebrae without
parapophyses.
Mouth not protractile, usually toothed; pharyngeal bones normal; body scaly;
an adipose dorsal fin often present .......... 1. Characinidae.
Mouth not protractile, usually toothed; pharyngeal bones normal; body Eel-
shaped, naked or scaly; vent under the head or on the throat ..........
2. Gymnotidae.
Mouth usually more or less protractile, toothless; lower pharyngeal bones large,
falciform; body naked or scaly; no adipose dorsal fin .......... 3. Cyprinidae.
II. Parietal bones usually fused with the supraoccipital; symplectic absent; body
naked or with bony scutes; mouth usually toothed, with barbels; adipose fin
often present.
Ribs attached to strong parapophyses; operculum well developed ..........
4. Siluridae.
Ribs sessile; parapophyses absent; operculum more or less developed; mouth
inferior .......... 5. Loricariidae.
Ribs sessile; strong parapophyses to the vertebrae; operculum absent ..........
6. Aspredinidae.

Fam. 1. Characinidae.—Mouth non-protractile, usually bordered by the

praemaxillaries and the maxillaries, rarely by the praemaxillaries only;
jaws usually toothed. Parietal bones united in a sagittal suture or
separated by a fontanelle; opercular bones well developed; symplectic
present. Pharyngeal bones normal, with small teeth. Ribs mostly sessile;
no parapophyses in the thoracic region; epipleurals and epineurals,
mostly free floating. Pectoral fins inserted very low down, folding like the
ventrals. Body covered with scales. An adipose dorsal fin often present.

This is a very generalised type, although perhaps not directly derived

from the bony Ganoids, as believed by Sagemehl. The species number
about 500, and are confined to the freshwaters of Africa and Central and
South America. The classification of the family is still in an unsatisfactory
state, but the division into the following groups (hardly deserving the
rank of sub-families), although quite provisional, appears preferable to
the highly artificial arrangement hitherto adopted:—

I. No adipose fin.
A. Erythrininae.—Carnivorous; teeth strong; maxillary large; gill-openings wide;
scales cycloid. American: Macrodon, Erythrinus, Lebiasina, Pyrrhulina,
Corynopoma.
II. Adipose fin usually present.
B. Hydrocyoninae.—Entirely or partially carnivorous; teeth strong; maxillary well
developed; scales cycloid; lateral line usually nearer ventral than dorsal
outline (sometimes only on the tail). African: Sarcodaces, Hydrocyon,
Bryconaethiops, Alestes, Micralestes, Petersius. American: Acestrorhynchus,
Boulengerella, Acestrorhamphus, Crenuchus, Chalceus, Brycon, Bryconops,
Bryconodon, Creagrutus, Chalcinus, Brachychalcinus, Pseudocorynopoma,
Stichonodon, Gastropelecus, Tetragonopterus, Scissor, Chirodon, Piabucina,
Iguanodectes, Aphiocharax, Salminus, Oligosarcus, Agoniates,
Paragoniates, Leptagoniates, Anacyrtus.
C. Serrasalmoninae.—Carnivorous; teeth strong; belly serrated; scales cycloid.
American: Serrasalmo, Myletes, Myleus, Metynnis, Catoprion.
D. Ichthyoborinae.—Carnivorous; teeth strong; maxillary very small; upper jaw
movable; scales ciliated. African: Eugnathichthys, Paraphago, Mesoborus,
Phago, Ichthyoborus, Neoborus.
E. Xiphostominae.—Carnivorous; teeth very small; maxillary rather small; scales
ciliated. American: Xiphostoma.
F. Anostominae.—Herbivorous, entirely or partially; teeth well developed in both
jaws; maxillary very small; gill-openings narrow; scales cycloid. American:
Anostomus, Leporinus, Characidium, Chorimycterus, Nanostomus,
Nanognathus.
G. Hemiodontinae.—Partially herbivorous; dentition imperfect; maxillary well
developed; scales cycloid. American: Hemiodus, Caenotropis, Saccodon,