ZOO 101

INTRODUCTION TO MAMMALIAN AND PHYSIOLOGY ANATOMY

What are Anatomy and Physiology?

Anatomy: the word anatomy is derived from a Greek word “Anatome” meaning to cut up. It is the study
of structures that make up the body and how those structures relate with each other. The study of anatomy
includes many sub specialties. These are Gross anatomy, Microscopic anatomy, Developmental anatomy
and Embryology. Gross anatomy studies body structure with out microscope. Systemic anatomy studies
functional relationships of organs within a system whereas Regional anatomy studies body part regionally.
Both systemic and regional approaches may be used to study gross anatomy Microscopic anatomy
(Histology) requires the use of microscope to study tissues that form the various organs of the body.
Physiology: the word physiology derived from a Greek word for study of nature. It is the study of how the
body and its part work or function. That is, Physiology deals with the various functions of living organisms.

Hence, Anatomy and physiology are studied together to give students a full appreciation and understanding
of human body.

Homeostasis

When structure and function are coordinated, the body achieves a relative stability of its internal
environment called homeostasis / staying the same. Although the external environmental changes
constantly, the internal environment of a healthy body remains the same with in normal limits. Under
normal conditions, homeostasis is maintained by adaptive mechanisms ranging from control center in the
brain to chemical substances called hormones that are secreted by various organs directly into the blood
streams. Some of the functions controlled by homeostasis mechanisms are blood pressure, body
temperature, breathing and heart rate.

Level of structural organization of the body

The human body has different structural levels of organization, starting with atoms molecules and
compounds and increasing in size and complexity to cells, tissues, organs and the systems that make up the
complete organism.
 Figure 1: Levels of structural organization of the body

Atoms molecules and compounds: At its simplest level, the body is composed of atoms. The most
common elements in living organism are carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen phosphorus and sulfur. Atoms
→ Molecule → Compounds.

Cell: The smallest independent units of life. All life depends on the many chemical activities of cells. Some
of the basic functions of cell are: growth, metabolism, irritability and reproduction.

Tissue: tissue is made up of many similar cells that perform a specific function. The various tissues of the
body are divided in to four groups. These are epithelial, connective, nervous and muscle tissue.

Epithelial tissue: - Found in the outer layer of skin, lining of organs, blood and lymph vessels and body
cavities.

Connective tissue: - Connects and supports most part of the body. They constitute most part of skin, bone
and tendons.
Muscle tissue: - Produces movement through its ability to contract. This constitutes skeletal, smooth and
cardiac muscles.

Nerve tissue: - Found in the brain, spinal cord and nerves. It responds to various types of stimuli and
transmits nerve impulses.

Organ: it is an integrated collection of two or more kinds of tissue that works together to perform specific
function. For example: Stomach is made of all type of tissues

System: it is a group of organs that work together to perform major function. For example: Respiratory
system contains several organs. Organism level: - The various organs of the body form the entire organism.

Relative Directional terms

Standardized terms of reference are used when anatomists describe the location of the body part. Relative
means the location of one part of the body is always described in relation to another part of the body.

Table 1: Directional terms

Body parts Regions

The body can generally be described to have areas of:

Axial body part: It is the part of the body near the axis of the body. This includes head, neck, thorax
(chest), abdomen, and pelvis.

Appendicular body part: It is the part of the body out of the axis line. This includes the upper and lower
extremities.

Body planes and sections

Body planes are imaginary surfaces or planes lines that divide the body in to sections. This helps for further
identification of specific areas.

Sagittal plane: divides the body into right and left half. - Mid sagittal plane: - divides body into equal left
and right halves.

Para sagittal plane:

divides body into unequal left and right

Frontal plane: divides the body into asymmetrical antererior and posterior sections.

Transverse plane: divides the body into upper and lower body section. Oblique plane: - divides the body
obliquely into upper and lower section.

Figure 2: Body planes

Body Cavities

The cavities of the body house the internal organs, which commonly referred to as the viscera. The two
main body cavities are the larger ventral (anterior) and the smaller, dorsal (posterior) body cavity.

The ventral body cavity constitutes the thoracic cavity and the abdomino-pelvic body cavity.

The Thoracic cavity houses lung and heart. It is protected by the rib cage & associated musculature and the
sternum anteriorly. It consists of the right and left pleural cavities and mediastinum (the portion of tissues
and organs that separates the left and right lung).

Abdomino-pelvic Cavity extends from the diaphragm inferior to the floor of the pelvis. It is divided into
superior abdominal and inferior pelvic cavity by imaginary line passing at upper pelvis. Abdominal cavity
contains the stomach, intestine, liver, spleen and gallbladder. The pelvic cavity contains urinary bladder,
rectum, and portions of the reproductive organs.

The dorsal body cavity: it constitutes the cephalic cavity containing brain and the vertebral canal
containing the spinal cord.

Figure 3: Body cavities