ENG3001

WEEK 1 & 2

TOPIC 1 :
FUNCTIONS
 TABLE OF CONTENT
WEEK 1 WEEK 2

1.1 Concept of function and its 1.6 Exponential and

inverse logarithmic functions & their
1.2 Composite, even, odd, and inverses
periodic functions 1.7 Hyperbolic functions and
1.3 Heaviside step and impulse its inverse
functions 1.8 Piecewise defined
1.4 Polynomial and rational functions
functions 1.9 Numerical evaluation of a
1.5 Circular functions and its function
inverse 1.10 Tabulated function and
interpolation
1.11 Function of real variable
 1.1 CONCEPT OF
FUNCTION AND ITS
INVERSE
FUNCTIONS
Why it is important to understand Functions ?
Engineers use many basic mathematical functions to
represent the input/output of systems – linear,
quadratic, exponential, sinusoidal etc and
knowledge of these is needed to determine how
these are used to generate some of the more
unusual input/output.

Periodic functions are used throughout engineering

and science to describe oscillations, waves and
other phenomena that exhibit periodicity.
Understanding functions: odd and even functions,
and inverse functions are helpful.
 Representations of Function
There are four possible ways to represent a function:

1. Verbally
(by a description in 2. Numerically
word) (by a table of values)
3. Visually
(by a graph)

4. Algebraically
(by an explicit formula)
 Concept of function

Concept of function
❑ function involves two sets X and Y, rule that assigns :
❑ element x in the set X (written x ∈ X )
❑ element y ∈ Y

❑function f that maps the set X to the set Y, and represent

as
❑ y = f (x) (x ∈ X); where
❑ y = f (x) (x ∈ X) range of f.
❑ set X = domain of the function
❑Two (2) quantities (variables) whose values are related
1. independent (free variable) (x) – any value in a set of
values of dependent variable
2. dependent (y)
Say, y depends on x,
then y is said to be a function of x and the relationship is
expressed as y = f (x);
where :
x is called the independent variable
y is the dependent variable.

In engineering, corresponding values are obtained as a

result of tests or experiments. For example:

The general equation of a straight line is

where ;
m is the gradient dy/dx
c is the interception at y-axis.
 quadratic
The general equation of a quadratic The general equation of a cubic graph
graph is is
y = 𝒂𝒙𝟑 + 𝒃𝒙𝟐 + 𝒄𝒙 + 𝒅
y = 𝒂𝒙𝟐 + 𝒃𝒙 + 𝒄

and its shape is that of a parabola. The simplest example of a cubic graph
y = 𝒙𝟑
The simplest example
𝟐
of a quadratic
graph is y = 𝒙

cubic
trigonometric
Graphs of Trigonometric functions are written as a function of :

y = 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽

y = 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽 y = 𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝜽
 circle
Generally the function of a circle, with
The simplest equation of a circle is centre (a,b) and radius r, is written as:
x2+y2=r2, with centre at the origin and (x −a)2 +(y −b)2 = r2
radius r, as
Eg: centre (2,3), thus :
(x −2)2 +(y −3)2 = 4
 Exercise 1.1

• The relationship between the temperature T1 measured in degrees Celsius (oC)

and the corresponding temperature T2 measured in degrees Fahrenheit (oF) is
given by :
9
𝑇2 = 𝑇1 + 32
5

• Use the function to convert the following into oF.

i. 60 oC
ii. 0 oC
iii. -50 oC
INVERSE Function

➢In some situation, we may need to use the

functional dependence in the reverse
sense.
➢Say if y is a function of, x the graph of y
against x can be used to find x when any
value of y is given. Two such functions are
called inverse functions.
➢In general, given a function y = f (x), its
inverse may be obtained by interchanging
the roles of x and y and then transposing for
y. The inverse function is denoted by y = f
−1(x).
 A graph of f (x)= 2x+1 and its inverse f −1(x) =
𝑥 1
Example 1.1.1 2
−
2
is shown and f
−1(x) is seen to be a reflection of f (x) in the line where y = x.

• Similarly, if y = x2, the inverse is obtained by

i. transposing for x,
𝑥=± 𝑦
ii. interchanging x and y, thus the inverse y,
𝑦=± 𝑥
• Hence the inverse has two values for every value of x.
• If y = 2x +1, the inverse is obtained by
i. transposing for x,
𝑦−1 𝑦 1
𝑥= = −
2 2 2
ii. interchanging x and y, giving the inverse y as:
𝑥 1
𝑦= −
2 2
• Thus,
if f(x) = 2x + 1 then,
𝑥 1
f −1(x) = − ‘inverse function’
2 2
 Exercise 1.2

Obtain the inverse function of the real function

1
𝑓 𝑥 = 4𝑥 − 3
5
1.2 COMPOSITE, EVEN,
ODD, AND PERIODIC
FUNCTIONS
 COMPOSITE Function

❑ In many practical problems, the mathematical model will involve several

different functions.
❑ Example :
kinetic energy (T) of a moving particle is a function of its velocity (v)
𝑇 = 𝑓(𝑣)
Also the velocity (v) is a function of time (t)
𝑣 = 𝑔(𝑡)
This can be expressed as
𝑇 = 𝑓(𝑔(𝑡))
function of a function or a composite function

❑Afunction of the form of y = f(g(x)) is a composite of the functions f(x) and g(x)
❑Commonly denoted by 𝑓°𝑔. So that..
𝑦 = 𝑓 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑓°𝑔(𝑥)
Example 1.2.1

If 𝑓 𝑥 =𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 and 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑥 − 1, obtain the composite

functions 𝑓 𝑔 𝑥 and 𝑔(𝑓(𝑥)).

𝑦=𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 and y = 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑥 − 1
EVEN Function

❑ Common occurs in engineering functions special properties of oddness,

evenness or periodicity. These properties are best understood from graphs of
the functions.
❑ A function 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) is said to be even if 𝑓 −𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑥) for all values of x.
Graphs of even functions are always symmetrical about the y-axis (i.e. is a
mirror image).
❑ Two examples of even functions are 𝒚 = 𝒙 and 𝒚 = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙.
𝟐
 ODD Function

❑ A function𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) is said to be odd if 𝑓 −𝑥 = −𝑓(𝑥) for all values of x.

❑ Graphs of odd functions are always symmetrical about the origin.
❑ Two examples of odd functions are 𝒚 = 𝒙𝟑 and 𝒚 = 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙

❑ Many functions are neither even nor odd

❑ For example;
HOMEWORK 1

• Sketch the following function and state whether they are even or odd
function:

𝑦=tan𝑥
PERIODIC Function

❑ Function that its image values are repeated at regular intervals in its domain.
❑ The graph of a periodic function can be divided into vertical strips that are replicas of
each other.
❑ The width of each strip is called the period of the function

❑𝑓 𝑥 + 𝑛𝑃 = 𝑓(𝑥)

❑ Function of f (x) is periodic with period P if for all its

domain values x for any integer n.
 PERIODIC Function

❑ to provide a measure of the number of repetitions per unit of x, the

frequency of a periodic function to be the reciprocal of its period;
1 1
– 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑣 = =
𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 𝑃
2𝜋
– 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑣 = where 𝜋 measured in radian
𝑣

❑ A function f is said to be periodic with period

P if (for some nonzero constant P) we have
ƒ (x + nP)= ƒ( x)
for all values of x if there exists a constant P

❑ A function with period P will repeat on

intervals of length P, these intervals are
sometimes referred to as periods
Example 1.2.2

A function f (x) has the graph on [0, 1].

Sketch its graph on [-3, 3] given that

i. f (x) is periodic with period 1
ii. f (x) is periodic with period 2 and is even
iii. f (x) is periodic with period 2 and is odd
1.3 HEAVISIDE STEP AND
IMPULSE FUNCTIONS
HEAVYSIDE Function

❑ In engineering applications, functions are frequently encountered values

that change abruptly at specific time t .
❑ Example :
❑when a voltage is switched on or off in an electrical circuit at a specified value of
time t . The switching process can be described mathematically by the function
called the Unit Step Function –known as the Heaviside unit step function.
 HEAVYSIDE Function

❑ Defined by
0 (𝑡 < 0)
❑𝑓 𝑡 =ቊ
1 (𝑡 ≥ 0)
❑ A function representing a unit step at t = a may be obtained by a horizontal
translation of duration a.
0 (𝑡 < 𝑎)
❑𝑓 𝑡−𝑎 =ቊ
1 (𝑡 ≥ 𝑎)
❑Illustrated as
 HEAVYSIDE Function

❑ Figure shows a Heaviside unit step function that :

❑ zero value for all values of t up to t = c
❑ value of 1 for all values of t ≥ c
❑ Denotes by:
❑ 𝑓 𝑡 = 𝐻(𝑡 − 𝑐) or 𝑢(𝑡 − 𝑐) where c : value of t at which the function
changes from zero to a value of unity
Example 1.2.3

A 12 V source is switched on at time t = 3 s.

Sketch the waveform and write the function in terms of the Heaviside step
function.
Example 1.2.4

Write the function

1 𝑓𝑜𝑟 0 < 𝑡 < 𝑎
𝑉 𝑡 =ቊ
0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 > 𝑎
in terms of the Heaviside step function and sketch the waveform

The voltage has a value from 0 of 1 up until time t = a. then turned off = 0
Example 1.2.5

Sketch the graph of 𝑓(𝑡)=5𝐻(𝑡−2)

V = 0 at t = 0
V = 5 at C = 2
IMPULSE Function

❑ One of interest in many engineering applications is short sharp Impulsive

Force.
❑ Example :
❑ A hammer is used to strike a nail then the hammer will be in contact
with the nail for a very short period of time, indeed almost
instantaneously.
❑ A similar situation arises when a golfer strikes a golf ball. In both cases
the force applied, during this short period of time, builds up rapidly to a
large value and then rapidly decreases to zero.

❑ Mathematically such forcing functions are

represented by the impulse function.
 IMPULSE Function

❑ To develop a mathematical formulation of the impulse function and obtain

some insight into its physical interpretation, consider the pulse function ∅(𝑡)
defined by

1
0 (0 < 𝑡 < 𝑎 − 𝑇)
2
𝐴 1 1
❑∅ 𝑡 = 𝑇
(𝑎 − 𝑇 ≤ 𝑡 < 𝑎 + 𝑇)
2 2
0 1
(𝑡 ≥ 𝑎 + 𝑇)
2

Where:
❑ A/T = height of the pulse is
❑ T = duration (or width)
❑ A = area under the pulse
 1.4 POLYNOMIAL AND
RATIONAL FUNCTIONS
POLYNOMIAL Function

❑ A polynomial function has the general form

𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑛−1 +. . +𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎0 x in R
Where : n is a positive integer
𝑎𝑟 is a real number called the coefficient of 𝑥 𝑟
r = 0, 1,….., n
❑ The index n of the highest power of x occurring is called the degree of
polynomial.
❑ In general, a polynomial function f (x) takes the form :
❑ 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑎0 + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎2 𝑥 2 + 𝑎3 𝑥 3 +. . where 𝑎0 , 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 ,…. Are all constants
called coefficients of the polynomial function.
❑ Highest power used in any polynomial function is called degree.
POLYNOMIAL Function

❑ A polynomial function has the general form

𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑛−1 +. . +𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎0
Where : n is a positive integer
𝑎 𝑠 are real numbers called the coefficient of polynomial

❑ Although this general formula might look quite complicated, particular

examples are much simpler. For example
𝑓 𝑥 = 4𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 +2

❑ In general, a polynomial function f (x) takes the form :

𝑛 𝑛−1
𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 +. . +𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎0
POLYNOMIAL Function

❑ The degree of a polynomial is the highest power of x in its expression

Constant(non-zero) polynomial, linear polynomials, quadratics, cubics and
quartics are polynomial of degree 0,1,2,3 and 4 respectively.
❑ The function f(x)=0 is also a polynomial, but we say that its degree is
undefined.

Polynomial Degree Name

𝑎 0 Constant
𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 1 Linear
𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 2 Quadratics
𝑎𝑥 3 + 𝑏𝑥 2 + 𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑 3 Cubic
𝑎𝑥 4 + 𝑏𝑥 3 + 𝑐𝑥 2 + 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑒 4 Quartics
 LINEAR Function

❑ The simplest function that occurs in practical problems.

❑ 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐 where m and c are constant numbers and x is the unassigned
or independent variable.
❑ If we know the values that function f(x) takes at two values, x0 and x1 of the
independent variable x, we can find the formula for f(x).
❑ Let 𝑓 𝑥0 = 𝑓0 and 𝑓 𝑥1 = 𝑓1 then

𝑥−𝑥1 𝑥−𝑥0
𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑓0 + 𝑓1 [Langrange Formula]
𝑥0 −𝑥1 𝑥1 −𝑥0
❑ Rearrange :
𝑓1 − 𝑓0 𝑥1 𝑓0 − 𝑥0 𝑓1
𝑓 𝑥 =𝑥 +
𝑥1 − 𝑥0 𝑥1 − 𝑥0
Example 1.4.1

Obtain the formula for the linear functions f(x) such that

𝑓(−1)=2; 𝑓(3)=4
HOMEWORK 2

Obtain the formula for the linear functions f(x) such that

𝑓(0)=3; 𝑓(−1)=2
[Ans : 3-2x]

𝑓(1.231)=2.791 ; 𝑓(2.492)=3.112

[Ans : 0.255x + 2.477]

Example 1.4.2

Find the values of A, B and C that ensure that

𝑥 2 + 1 = 𝐴 𝑥 − 1 + 𝐵 𝑥 + 2 + 𝐶(𝑥 2 + 2)

for all value of x.

Example 1.4.3

Factorize the polynomials :

𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 − 4
RATIONAL Function

❑ Rational function always take the form of a quotient of two polynomials; one
polynomial divided by another polynomial.
❑ Example :
numerator
𝑥 2 +3
𝑓 𝑥 =
2𝑥 2 +𝑥+1 denumerator

❑ Two important terms associated with rational functions are :

❑Zero – any value that when substitute into the numerator makes the numerator
equals to zero
❑Pole – any value when substitute into the denumerator makes the denumerator
zero
Example 1.4.4

❑State the poles and zeros of the following rational functions :

x−3
❑y x =
2x−4

𝑡+1
❑f 𝑡 =
(𝑡−1)(𝑡+5)
1.5 CIRCULAR FUNCTIONS
AND ITS INVERSE
 CIRCULAR Function

❑ Circular functions (also called as Trigonometry function) comprising

trigonometry: the cosine: cos 𝑥 , cotangent: cot 𝑥 , secant: sec 𝑥 , sine: sin 𝑥 ,
tangent: tan 𝑥 and cosecant : csc 𝑥.
❑ There are an enormous number of uses of trigonometry and trigonometric
functions. Fields that use trigonometry or trigonometric functions include
astronomy and navigation (especially for locating apparent positions in which
spherical trigonometry is essential).
❑ Circular functions are defined such that their domains are sets of
numbers that correspond to the measures (in radian units) of the angles of
analogous trigonometric functions.
❑ It is called circular functions because radian measures of angles are
determined by the lengths of arcs of circles
❑ Good knowledge of trigonometry is essential in many fields of engineering.
The theorem of Pythagoras

❑With reference to Figure below, the side opposite the right angle (i.e.
side b) is called the hypotenuse. The theorem of Pythagoras∗ states.

❑In any right-angled triangle, the square on the hypotenuse is equal to

the sum of the squares on the other two sides.

𝑏 2 = 𝑎2 + 𝑐 2
 The theorem of Pythagoras

• Trigonometric ratios of acute angles

• With reference to the right-angled triangle shown
The theorem of Pythagoras

❑ notations used, as summarized in the following table

Sine and cosine periodic function
 INVERSE-CIRCULAR Function
❑If the value of a trigonometric ratio is known, the inverse function will give the
angle (simply use calculator)
1
❑Note that 𝑠𝑖𝑛 −1
does not mean ; also may also be written as arcsin 𝑥
sin 𝑥
Example 1.5.1

sine of an angle is 0.5, thus the value of the inverse circular function
(angle) is given by :
−1
𝑠𝑖𝑛 0.5 = 30°

cos 𝜃 = 0.4371 ,
thus 𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 0.4371 = 64.08°
−1
1.6 EXPONENTIAL AND
LOGARITHMIC
FUNCTIONS & THEIR
INVERSES
 EXPONENTIAL & ITS INVERSES Function

❑Exponential functions are used in engineering and occur in various

application
❑There are many quantities that grow exponentially; some examples
are population, compound interest and charge in a capacitor.
❑With exponential growth, the rate of growth increases as time
increases.
❑Functions of the type 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑎 where a is a positive constant and x is
𝑥
an independent variable
 Graphs of exponential functions

❑By a simple scaling of

the x axis, same graphs
can be obtained for all
❑The reason for this is we can write 3𝑥 = 2𝑘𝑥 𝑤here k 
1.585 and 4 = 2 .
𝑥 2𝑥
𝑦 = 2𝑥 , 𝑦 = 3𝑥 and 𝑦 = 4𝑥
❑Thus all exponential functions can be expresses in
terms of one exponential function.
 Graphs of exponential functions

❑The standard exponential function is 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥 where e

being a constant called the exponent and having an
approximate value of 2.7183.

❑e is chosen because of the graph 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥

has the property that the slope of the
tangent at any point on the curve is equal
to the value of the function at that point.
❑The most common method of evaluating
an exponential function is by using a
scientific notation calculator.
 Rules of exponential function

Note that the following properties are satisfied by the exponential function

Rules of exponential function

𝑥1
𝑒 𝑒 =𝑒𝑥2 𝑥1+𝑥2

𝑒 𝑥+𝑐 𝑥 𝑐
= 𝑒 𝑒 = 𝐴𝑒 𝑐 Where 𝐴 = 𝑒 𝑥

𝑒 𝑥1
=𝑒 𝑥1−𝑥2
𝑒 𝑥2
𝑘𝑥 𝑘 𝑥 𝑥
𝑒 = (𝑒 ) = 𝑎 Where 𝑎 = 𝑒 𝑘
Example 1.6.1

Use your calculator to check the following values:

❑ 𝑒 to 7 decimal place
1

❑𝑒 −1.611 to 6 decimal places

❑𝑒 9.32 to 5 significant figures
❑𝑒 −0.431 to 4 decimal places
Example 1.6.2

Evaluate the following correct to 4 decimal places, using a calculator:

0.0256 𝑒 5.21 − 𝑒 2.49

Example 1.6.3

The instantaneous voltage v in a capacitive circuit is related to

time t by the equation:

−𝑡Τ𝐶𝑅
𝑣 = 𝑉𝑒

where V , C and R are constants. Determine v, correct to 4

significant figures, when t = 50 ms, C = 10μF, R = 47 k and V =
300 volts.
 LOGARITHMIC & ITS INVERSES Function

❑From the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥 it is clear that it is a one-to-one function, so that its

inverse function is defined.
❑The inverse is called the natural logarithm function and written as:

𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 𝑥 or 𝑦 = ln 𝑥
❑Using the concept of functions and graph below:

❑If 𝒚 = 𝒆 then 𝒙 = 𝐥𝐧 𝒚
𝒙

Which implies that 𝐥𝐧 𝒆 = 𝒙 , 𝒆

𝒙 𝐥𝐧 𝒚
=𝒚
❑Thus, in general,
𝒚 = 𝒂 gives 𝒙 = 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒂 𝒚
𝒙

❑𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒆 𝒆𝒙 = 𝒙
❑𝒍𝒏 𝒆 = 𝟏
Rules of Logarithmic function

Rules of Log a
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑥1 𝑥2 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑥1 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑥2
𝑥1
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑥1 − 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑥2
𝑥2
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑥 𝑛 = 𝑛 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑥
𝑥 = 𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑥
𝑦 𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑥𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑦
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑏 𝑥
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑥 =
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑏 𝑎
Example 1.6.4

Solve the equation :

4.87
2.68 = ln
𝑥
Example 1.6.5

Solve
𝑒 𝑥−1 = 2𝑒 3𝑥−4
Example 1.6.6

Solve

ln 𝑥 − 2 2 = ln 𝑥 − 2 − ln 𝑥 + 3 + 1.6
 1.7 HYPERBOLIC
FUNCTIONS AND ITS
INVERSE
HYPERBOLIC Function
❑ Combinations of 𝑒 𝑥 and 𝑒 −𝑥 are commonly used in engineering.
❑ Known as hyperbolic sine, sinh, and the hyperbolic cosine, cosh.
❑ Applications of hyperbolic functions can be found in fluid dynamics, optics, heat, mechanical
engineering, and in astronomy.
❑ Functions that are associated with the geometry of the conic section (=hyperbola) are called
hyperbolic functions.
HYPERBOLIC Function

Hyperbolic Function Pronounce as

Sine of x 𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝑥 Shine x
sinh 𝑥 =
2
Cosine of x 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝑥 Kosh x
cosh 𝑥 =
2
Tangent of x sinh 𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝑥
tanh 𝑥 = = 𝑥
cosh 𝑥 𝑒 + 𝑒 −𝑥
Hyperbolic Function Pronounce as
cosecant of x 1 2 coshec x
cosech 𝑥 = = 𝑥
sinh 𝑥 𝑒 − 𝑒 −𝑥
secant of x 1 2 Kosh x
sech 𝑥 = = 𝑥
cosh 𝑥 𝑒 + 𝑒 −𝑥
cotangent of x 1 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝑥 Koth x
coth 𝑥 = = 𝑥
tanh 𝑥 𝑒 − 𝑒 −𝑥
 HYPERBOLIC Function

The hyperbolic functions satisfy identities analogous to those satisfied by

circular function. From the definition:
1 𝑥 −𝑥
cosh 𝑥 = (𝑒 + 𝑒 )
2
1 𝑥 −𝑥
sinh 𝑥 = (𝑒 − 𝑒 )
2
From which deduce :
𝑥
cosh 𝑥 + sinh 𝑥 = 𝑒
−𝑥
cosh 𝑥 − sinh 𝑥 = 𝑒
And
𝑥 −𝑥
(cosh 𝑥 + sinh 𝑥)(cosh 𝑥 − sinh 𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑒
2 2
(cosh 𝑥 + sinh 𝑥) = 1
 HYPERBOLIC Function

• Similarly it can be shown that :

sinh 𝑥 ± 𝑦 = sinh 𝑥 cosh 𝑦 ± cosh 𝑥 sinh 𝑦

cosh 𝑥 ± 𝑦 = cosh 𝑥 cosh 𝑦 ± sinh 𝑥 sinh 𝑦

tanh 𝑥 ± tanh 𝑦
tanh 𝑥 ± 𝑦 =
1 ± tanh 𝑥 tanh 𝑦
Example 1.6.7

A function is given by 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝐴 cosh 2𝑥 + 𝐵 sinh 2𝑥

where A and B are constant and 𝑓 0 = 5 and 𝑓 1 = 0.

Find A and B. Express 𝑓(𝑥) as simply as possible.

 INVERSE HYPERBOLIC Function

❑ The inverse hyperbolic functions are defined completely in natural way.

𝑦 = sinh −1 𝑥 𝑥 𝑖𝑛 R
−1
Also denotes as arsinh x,
𝑦 = cosh 𝑥 𝑥 ≥ 1, 𝑦 ≥ 0 arcosh x and artanh x
−1
𝑦 = tanh 𝑥 −1 < 𝑥 < 1
 INVERSE HYPERBOLIC Function

❑These function can also be expressed in terms of logarithms, for example:

−1 1 𝑦 −𝑦
𝑦 = sinh 𝑥 implies 𝑥 = sinh 𝑦 = 𝑒 −𝑒
2

𝑦 2 𝑦
❑Thus, 𝑒 − 2𝑥 𝑒 − 1 = 0
❑And 𝑒 𝑦 = 𝑥 ± (𝑥 2 +1)
❑Since 𝑒 𝑦 > 0,
𝑦 = sinh−1 𝑥 = ln 𝑥 + (𝑥 2 +1)
❑Similarly
−1
cosh 𝑥 = ln 𝑥 + (𝑥 2 −1) (𝑥 ≥ 1)
❑And
1 1 + 𝑥
tanh−1 𝑥 = ln (−1 < 𝑥 < 1)
2 1−𝑥
Example 1.7.1

Evaluate
−1
❑ cosh 3
−1 −2Τ
❑ tanh ( 5)
1.8 PIECEWISE DEFINED
FUNCTIONS
PIECEWISE Function

❑ Functions used as mathematical models of practical problems, eg :

❑ Friction always opposes the motion of an object, thus F =-R , when velocity (v) is p
Positive.
❑ F =R , when velocity (v) is negative.
❑ This can be presented as:
❑ 𝐹 = −𝑅 sgn(𝑣) [sgn = signum function]
+1 (𝑥 > 0)
❑ Defined by sgn 𝑥 = −1 (𝑥 < 0)
0 (𝑥 = 0)
 1.9 NUMERICAL
EVALUATION OF A
FUNCTION
Numerical evaluation of a Function

❑Functions may be represented numerically.

❑Graph
❑Table of values of the function
❑Analytical approximation
Example 1.7.1

Consider 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑒 −𝑥
1.10 TABULATED
FUNCTION AND
INTERPOLATION
 TABULATED Function

❑Functions presented in tabular points are assumed to behave like a straight line (error
occurs).

❑Error involved depends on how closely a linear function approximates the function
between tabular points and determine using Linear Interpolation
❑To calculate the value of f(x) at a non-tabular point, where
𝑥 = 𝑥𝑖 + 𝜃ℎ and 0<<1,
❑using linear interpolation
𝑥 − 𝑥𝑖
𝑓 𝑥 ≈ 𝑓𝑖 + 𝑓𝑖+1 − 𝑓𝑖
𝑥𝑖+1 − 𝑥𝑖
1.11 FUNCTION OF REAL
VARIABLE
 Limit of function of a real variable

Limit of function of a real variable

❑ A function f(x) is said to approach a limit l as x approached the value a if, given any
small positive quantity , it is possible to find a positive number  such that 𝑓 𝑥 − 𝑙 < 𝜀
for all x satisfying 0 < 𝑥 − 𝑎 < 𝛿
One-Sided Limit
❑ Functions presented in tabular points are assumed to behave like a straight line (error
occurs).
❑ In some application, one-sided limits is used∶ lim+ 𝑥 = 0 as lim− 𝑥 = 0 does not exist
𝑥→0 𝑥→0
since no negative number are in the domain of 𝑥
❑ When lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑙 is written, meaning that lim− 𝑓(𝑥) = lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑙
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
THANK YOU
End of Topic 1