Shri Mangal Chand Didwaniya Vidya Mandir

A
Physics Investigatory
Project
On

“STUDY OF ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS”

Submitted To: Submitted By:

……………….. …………………
 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that ………………………………………………….. , student

of class XII has successfully completed the research on the topic “Study of

Electronic Components” under the guidance of …………………………………

(Faculty of Physics) during the session 2023-24 in partial fulfillment of Physics

practical examination of Central Board of Secondary Education (CBSE).

………………………… …………………………

(Principal) (Faculty of Physics)

 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I warmly acknowledge the continuous encouragement and timely suggestions

offered by our respected Principal …………………………………………….. .

I extend my hearty thanks for giving me the opportunity to make use of the

facilities available in the campus to carry out the project successfully.

I am highly indebted to subject faculty ……………………………………. for

the constant supervision, providing necessary information and supporting in

completing the project. I would like to express my gratitude towards them for

their kind cooperation of this project work.

I am making this project not only for marks but to also increase my knowledge.
 INDEX

 AIM OF PROJECT

 INTRODUCTION

 THEORY

 RESISTOR

 CAPACITOR

 INDUCTOR

 TRANSISTOR

 DIODE

 ZENER DIODE

 LED

 BIBLOGRAPHY
 Resistor

What Is a Resistor?
A resistor is a device that obstructs the flow of current. It is a passive two-terminal device which
is used to regulate the flow of electric current. Glass, Mica, Wood, Rubber, etc. are examples of
resistive materials. The unit of resistance is Ohm (Ω) where 1Ω = 1V/1A. In electronic circuits,
resistors are used to adjust signal levels, reduce current flow, bias active elements, terminate
transmission lines, divide voltages, etc.

Types of Resistors
There are numerous types of resistors that are available and can be used in electronic circuits.
These different types of resistors have different properties depending upon their manufacture and
construction. There are different types of resistors available for various applications. The
resistors are available in different shapes, size, and materials. Normally resistors can be
classified into two types namely linear resistor and non-linear resistor.

Linear Resistors

The resistors whose value changes with the applied temperature and voltage, are
called linear resistors. Most types of resistors are linear devices that produce a
voltage drop across themselves when a current flows through them There are two
basic types of resistors with linear properties namely fixed resistors and variable
resistors.

Fixed resistors

Fixed resistors are resistors with a specific value. Fixed resistors one of the most
widely used types of resistor. Fixed resistors are used in electronics circuits to set
the correct conditions in a circuit.

Types of Fixed Resistors

1. Wire Wound Resistors

2. Thin Film Resistors

3. Carbon Composition Resistors

Variable Resistors

Variable Resistors consist of a slider which taps onto the main resistor element and
a fixed resistor element. Simply we can say that a variable resistor is a
potentiometer with only 2 connecting wires instead of 3.

Types of Variable Resistors

1. Potentiometer
2. Rheostat
3. Trimmer Resistor
Non-Linear Resistor

Non-linear resistors are those types of resistors where the electric current flowing through it
changes with the exchange in applied voltage or temperature and does not change according
to Ohm’s law. There are several types of non-linear resistors, but the most commonly used are
mentioned below.

Thermistors

Thermistors are a type of variable resistor that notices the change in temperature. In other words,
it is a 2 terminal device that is very sensitive to temperature. The resistance of a thermistor is
inversely proportional to the temperature.

Varistor Resistors

A varistor is a non-linear resistor made of semiconductor and current through which depends
non-linearly on the applied voltage across it. MOV or metal oxide varistor is the most commonly
used form of varistor resistors.

Photo Resistor or LDR (Light Dependent Resistors)

Photo Resistor or LDR (Light Dependent Resistors) or Photo Conductive Cell is a light-
controlled variable resistor. The photo resistor resistance decreases with increase in incident light
intensity.

Surface Mount Resistors

Surface Mount Resistors also called SMD resistor are rectangular in shape. An SMD is an
electronic component that is made to use with SMT or Surface Mount Technology.

Colour Coding of Resistor

Resistors are usually very tiny, and it is challenging to print resistance values on them. So, colour
bands are printed on them to represent the electrical resistance. These colour bands are known as
resistor colour codes. The resistor color code was invented in the 1920s by the Radio
Manufacturers Association (RMA).
All leaded resistors with a power rating up to one watt are marked with colour bands. They are
given by several bands and together they specify the resistance value, the tolerance rate and
sometimes the reliability or failure rates. The number of bands present in a resistor varies from
three to six. The first two bands indicate the resistance value and the third band serves as a
multiplier. In this piece of article, let us discuss how to read resistor colour codes, look at an
example and learn a mnemonic to remember the number sequence.

First Digit Second Digit Multiplier

Black 0 0
Brown 1 1
Red 2 2
Orange 3 3
Yellow 4 4
Gray 5 5
Blue 6 6
Violet 7 7
Grey 8 8
White 9 9
Tolerance: Gold :
Silver :
No Colour :
 Capacitor
As we know capacitor is one of the basic components used in an electrical circuit like resistors,
inductors, and many more. The capacitor is a passive device that is available in a wide variety.
They are classified based on various aspects. Let us know the detailed classification of capacitors
along with capacitor types.

What Is a Capacitor?

 A capacitor is defined as a passive component which is used for storing electrical energy.
A capacitor is made of two conductors that are separated by the dielectric material. These
dielectric materials are in the form of plates which can accumulate charges.
 One plate is for a positive charge while the other is for a negative charge.
 Capacitance is the effect of the capacitor. Capacitance is defined as the ratio of electric
charge Q to the voltage V and it is expressed as
C = Q/V

 Where,
 Q is the electric charge measured in coulombs
 C is the capacitance measured in farad
 V is the voltage across the plates measured in volts

How Are Capacitors Classified?

According to structure, capacitors are classified as:

 Fixed Capacitors
 Variable Capacitors
 Trimmer Capacitors
The capacitors are classified into two types according to polarization:

 Polarized
 Unpolarized
 A polarized capacitor is an important electronic circuit component and is often
termed an electrolytic capacitor. These capacitors are used to achieve high
capacitive density.
 Unpolarized capacitors are preferred over polarized capacitors because it doesn’t
get destroyed by reverse voltage and can be used in pure AC circuits. They also
find applications in DC circuits as they don’t have positive and negative ends. The
 frequency of the unpolarized capacitor is high, and the leakage current is low.
After understanding the classification of capacitors, let us learn about capacitor
types.

Types of Capacitors
Let us now know various types of capacitors. Capacitors are categorized into 2 mechanical
groups. Fixed Capacitors consist of fixed capacitance value and variable capacitance with
variable capacitance value. Beneath are a brief description of various capacitor types and their
properties.

 Ceramic Capacitors
 Film Capacitors
 Power Film Capacitors
 Electrolytic Capacitors
 Ceramic capacitors
 Film capacitors
 Paper Capacitors
 Electrolytic capacitors

Ceramic Capacitors
A ceramic capacitor is considered to be one of the most commonly used capacitors. The material
used in this capacitor type is dielectric. Also, ceramic capacitors are non-polar devices which
means that they can be used in any direction in the circuit.

Depending on the availability of the capacitor, ceramic capacitors are classified into three
groups:

 Leaded disc ceramic capacitors

 Surface mount multi-layered ceramic capacitors
 Microwave bare lead-less disc ceramic capacitors
Depending on the temperature range, temperature drift, and tolerance, ceramic capacitors are
classified into the following classes:
  Class 1 ceramic capacitors: These capacitors are considered to be the most stable
capacitors with linear characteristics.
 Class 2 ceramic capacitors: These capacitors perform better for volumetric efficiency
but their accuracy and stability are at stake. They find applications in coupling and
decoupling.
 Class 3 ceramic capacitors: These capacitors have high volumetric efficiency with low
accuracy and low dissipation factor. They are used in decoupling.

Applications of Ceramic Capacitors

 Ceramic capacitors are used in printed circuit boards that are used in high-density
applications.
 Their non-polarity makes them suitable for general usage.
 They find applications in DC motors as they are used for reducing the RF noise.
 Ceramic capacitors are used in transmitter stations where resonant circuits are used.

Film Capacitors
Film capacitors are also known as a polymer film, plastic film, or film dielectric. The advantage
of film capacitors is that they are inexpensive and come with limitless shelf life. The film
capacitor uses a thin dielectric material with the other side of the capacitor metalized. Depending
on the application, the film capacitor is rolled into thin films. The general voltage range of these
capacitors is from 50 V to 2 kV.
Types of Film Capacitors
Depending on the dielectric material used and applications, the following is the classification of
the film capacitor:

 Heavy-duty snubber capacitors

 SMD style capacitors
 Axial style capacitors
 Radial style capacitors

Applications of Film Capacitors

 These capacitors are used as safety capacitors and in electromagnetic interference.

 Power film capacitors find applications in power electronics.
 These capacitors are used for safeguarding the devices from sudden voltage spikes.
 Film capacitors are used for improving the power factor of the device.

Electrolytic Capacitors
In an electrolytic capacitor metallic anode coated with an oxidized layer used as a dielectric.
These capacitors are polarized. Electrolytic capacitors are categorized based on their dielectric.

 Aluminum electrolytic capacitors – aluminum oxide (dielectric).

 Tantalum electrolytic capacitors – tantalum pentoxide (dielectric).
 Niobium electrolytic capacitors – niobium pentoxide (dielectric).

Applications of Electrolytic Capacitors

 Electrolytic capacitors are used when there is a requirement for large capacitance.
 They are used as filtering devices that lower the ripple voltage.
 They are used in audio amplifiers to reduce the electrical noise that is induced by the
main supply.
 Electrolytic capacitors are used in smoothing the input and output signals in a DC signal
that has a weak AC component.
Paper Capacitor
Paper capacitor is also known as a fixed capacitor in which paper is used as the dielectric
material. The amount of electric charge stored by the paper capacitor is fixed. It consists of two
metallic plates, and paper, which is used as a dielectric material, is placed between these plates.

Applications of Paper Capacitor

 These capacitors are used in noise filtering, coupling, and decoupling systems.
 They are also used for blocking the DC signals so that AC signals are passed through.
 Sensors such as humidity sensors, fuel level sensors, etc used paper capacitors.
 Paper capacitors are used in audio systems of cars as they provide extra power to the
amplifiers.
 Inductor
Inductors, much like conductors and resistors, are simple components that are used in electronic
devices to carry out specific functions. Normally, inductors are coil-like structures that are found
in electronic circuits. The coil is an insulated wire that is looped around the central core.

Inductors are mostly used to decrease or control the electric spikes by storing energy temporarily
in an electromagnetic field, and then releasing it back into the circuit.

What Is an Inductor?
An inductor is a passive component that is used in most power electronic circuits to store energy
in the form of magnetic energy when electricity is applied to it. One of the key properties of an
inductor is that it impedes or opposes any change in the amount of current flowing through it.
Whenever the current across the inductor changes, it either acquires charge or loses the charge in
order to equalise the current passing through it. The inductor is also called a choke, a reactor or
just a coil.

An inductor is described by its distinctive nature of inductance, which is defined as the ratio of
the voltage to the rate of change of current. Inductance is a result of the induced magnetic field
on the coil. It is also determined by several factors, such as

 The shape of the coil.

 The number of turns and layers of the wire.
 The space that is given between the turns.
 Permeability of the core material.
 The size of the core.
The SI unit of inductance is henry (H), and when we measure magnetic circuits, it is equivalent
to weber/ampere. It is denoted by the symbol L.

Moreover, an inductor is totally different from a capacitor. In the case of a capacitor, it stores
energy as electrical energy, but as mentioned above, an inductor stores energy in the form of
magnetic energy. One key feature of the inductor is that it also changes its polarity while
discharging. In this way, polarity during discharging can be made opposite to the polarity during
charging. The polarity of the induced voltage is well explained by Lenz’s law.
Construction of an Inductor
If we look at the construction of an inductor, it usually consists of a coil of conducting material
(widely used ones include insulated copper wire) that is wrapped around a core that is made up
of plastic material or ferromagnetic material. One advantage of using a ferromagnetic core is that
it has high permeability, which helps in increasing the magnetic field and, at the same time,
confining it closely to the inductor. Ultimately this results in higher inductance.

On the other hand, inductors with low frequency are usually constructed like transformers. They
have cores made up of electrical steel that is laminated to help prevent eddy currents. ‘Soft’
ferrites are also widely used for cores above audio frequencies.

Inductors come in many shapes and types. In some inductors, you will find an adjustable core
that allows changing the inductance. Inductors that are used in blocking very high frequencies
are mostly made by stringing a ferrite bead on a wire.

Planar inductors are made using a planar core, while small-value inductors are built on integrated
circuits using the processes of making interconnects. Typically, an aluminium interconnect is
used and fixed in a spiral coil pattern. However, small dimensions have some limitations. They
restrict the inductance.

There are also shielded inductors which are commonly used in power regulation systems,
lighting, and other systems requiring low-noise operating conditions. These inductors are often
partially or fully shielded.
Different Types of Inductors
Depending on the type of material used, inductors can be classified as follows:

1. Iron Core Inductor

2. Air Core Inductor
3. Iron Powder Inductor
4. Ferrite Core Inductor, which is divided into:

 Soft Ferrite
 Hard Ferrite

Iron Core Inductor

As the name suggests, the core of this type of inductor is made of iron. These inductors are low-
space inductors that have high power and high inductance value. However, they are limited in
high-frequency capacity. These inductors are used in audio equipment.

Air Core Inductor

These inductors are used when the amount of inductance required is low. Since there is no core,
it does not have a core loss. But the number of turns the inductor must have is more for this type
when compared to the inductors with the core. This results in a high-quality factor. Usually,
ceramic inductors are often referred to as air-core inductors.

Iron Powder Inductor

In this type of inductor, the core is iron oxide. They are formed by very fine and insulating
particles of pure iron powder. High magnetic flux can be stored in it due to the air gap. The
permeability of the core of this type of inductor is very less and is usually below 100. They are
mainly used in switching power supplies.

Ferrite Core Inductor

In this type of inductor, ferrite materials are used as the core. The general composition of ferrites
is XFe2O4, where X represents transition material. Ferrites can be classified into two types: soft
ferrites and hard ferrites.

 Soft Ferrite: These are materials that have the ability to reverse their polarity without any
external energy.
  Hard Ferrite: These are permanent magnets, that is, their polarity will not change even
when the magnetic field is removed.

Choke
A choke is a type of inductor that is used mainly for blocking high-frequency alternating current
(AC) in an electrical circuit. On the other hand, it will allow DC or low-frequency signals to
pass. As the function of this inductor is to restrict the changes in current, it is called a choke. This
inductor consists of a coil of insulated wire wound on a magnetic core. The main difference
between chokes and other inductors is that they do not require high Q factor construction
techniques, which aim to reduce the resistance in inductors found in tuned circuits.

Functions of an Inductor
Inductors can be used for two primary functions:

1. To control signals.
2. To store energy.

Controlling Signals
Coils in an inductor can be used to store energy. The function of the inductor depends upon the
frequency of the current passing through it. That is, higher frequency signals will be passed less
easily and vice versa. This function tells that it blocks AC Current and passes DC Current.
Hence, it can be used to block AC signals.

Inductors can be used along with capacitors to form LC filters.

Storing Energy
Inductor stores energy in the form of magnetic energy. Coils can store electrical energy in the
form of magnetic energy, using the property that an electric current flowing through a coil
produces a magnetic field, which in turn, produces an electric current. In other words, coils offer
a means of storing energy on the basis of inductivity.
 Transistor
Introduction

Transistor is a semiconductor device which is used to either amplify the signals or to act as an
electrically controlled switch. A Transistor is a three terminal device and a small current /
voltage at one terminal (or lead) will control a large flow of current between the other two
terminals (leads).

Since a long time, the vacuum tubes are replaced with transistors because the transistors have
more benefits over vacuum tubes. Transistors are small in size and it requires low energy for
operation and also it has low power dissipation. The Transistor is one of the important active
components (a device which can produce an output signal higher power than that in the input
signal).

Transistor is an essential component is almost every electronic circuit like: Amplifiers,

Switching, Oscillators, Voltage Regulators, Power Supplies and most importantly, the Digital
Logic ICs.

From the time of invention of the first transistor to the present day, transistors are classified into
different types depending either on their construction or their operation. The following tree
diagram explains a Basic Classification of different Transistor types.
The classification of transistors can be easily understood by observing the above tree diagram.
Transistors are basically classified into two types. They are: Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJT)
and Field Effect Transistors (FET). The BJTs are again classified into NPN and PNP transistors.
The FET transistors are classified into JFET and MOSFET.

Junction FET transistors are further classified into N–Channel JFET and P–Channel JFET
depending on their construction. MOSFETs are classified into Depletion Mode and Enhancement
Mode. Again, depletion and enhancement mode transistors are further classified into respective
N–Channel and P–Channel.

Types of Transistors
As mentioned earlier, on a broader scale, the major families of Transistors are BJTs and FETs.
Irrespective of the family they belong to, all Transistors have proper / specific arrangement of
different semiconductor materials. Commonly used semiconductor materials for manufacturing
transistor are Silicon, Germanium and Gallium-Arsenide. Basically, the transistors are classified
depending on their structure. Each type of transistors has their own characteristics, advantages
and disadvantages.

Physically and structurally speaking, the difference between BJT and FET is that in BJT both
majority and minority charge carriers are required to operate, whereas in case FETs, only
majority charge carriers are required. Based on their properties and characteristics, some
transistors are primarily used for switching purpose (MOSFETs) and on the other hand, some are
transistors are used for amplification purpose (BJTs). Some transistors are designed for both
amplification and switching purposes.

Junction Transistors
Junction Transistors are generally called as Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT). The term
‘Bipolar’ means both electrons and holes are required for conducting current and the term
‘Junction’ means it contain PN Junction (two junctions, in fact). The BJTs have three terminals
named Emitter (E), Base (B) and Collector (C). The BJT transistors are classified in to NPN and
PNP transistors depending on the construction. BJTs are essentially current-controlled devices. If
small amount of current flows through the base of a BJT transistor, then it causes a flow of large
current from emitter to collector. The Bipolar Junction Transistors have low input impedance and
it causes to flow large current through the transistor.

The Bipolar Junction Transistors are only turned ON by the input current, which is given to the
base terminal. BJTs can operate in three regions. They are:
  Cut-off Region: Here the transistor is in ‘OFF’ state i.e., the current flowing through the
transistor is zero. It is basically an open switch.
 Active Region: Here the transistor acts as an amplifier.
 Saturation Region: Here the transistor is in fully ‘ON’ state and also works as a closed
switch.

NPN Transistor
NPN is one of the two types of Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJT). The NPN transistor consists
of two n-type semiconductor materials and they are separated by a thin layer of p-type
semiconductor. Here, the majority charge carriers are electrons while holes are the minority
charge carriers. The flow of electrons from emitter to collector is controlled by the current flow
in the base terminal.

A small amount of current at base terminal causes a large amount current to flow from emitter to
collector. Nowadays, the more commonly used bipolar transistor is NPN transistor, because the
mobility of electrons is greater than mobility of holes. The standard equation for the currents
flowing in the transistor is

IE = IB + IC

The symbols and structure for NPN transistors are given below.

PNP Transistor
The PNP is another type of Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJT). The PNP transistors contain two
p-type semiconductor materials and are separated by a thin layer of n-type semiconductor. The
majority charge carriers in the PNP transistors are holes while electrons are minority charge
carriers. The arrow in the emitter terminal of transistor indicates the flow of conventional
current. In PNP transistor, the current flows from Emitter to Collector.
The PNP transistor is ON when the base terminal is pulled LOW with respect to emitter. The
symbol and structure for PNP transistor is shown below.

FET (Field Effect Transistor)

The Field-Effect-Transistor (FET) is another major type of transistor. Basically,
the FET also have three terminals (like BJTs). The three terminals are: Gate (G),
Drain (D) and Source (S). Field Effect Transistor are classified into Junction Field
Effect transistors (JFET) and Insulated Gate Field Effect Transistors (IG-FET) or
Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistors (MOSFET).

For the connections in the circuit, we also consider a fourth terminal called Base
or Substrate. The FETs have control on the size and shape of a channel between
Source and Drain, which is created by voltage applied at Gate.

The Field Effect Transistors are uni-polar devices, as they require only the
majority charge carriers to operate (unlike BJT, which are bipolar transistors).

JFET (Junction-Field Effect Transistor)

The Junction-Field-Effect transistor (JFET) is an earliest and simple type of Field Effect
Transistor. The JFETs are used as switches, amplifiers and resistors. This transistor is a voltage-
controlled device. It doesn’t need any biasing current. The voltage applied between gate and
source controls the flow of electric current between source and drain of the transistor. The JFET
transistors are available in both N–Channel and P–Channel types.

N–Channel JFET

In N–Channel JFET, the current flow is due to the electrons. When voltage is applied between
gate and source, a channel is formed between source and drain for current flow. This channel is
called N–Channel. Nowadays, N–Channel JFETs are preferable type than P–Channel JFET. The
symbols for N-channel JFET transistor are given below.

P–Channel JFET

In this type of JFET, the current flow is because of holes. The channel between source and drain
is called P–Channel. The symbols for P–Channel JFETs are given below. Here, the arrow marks
indicate the direction of current flow.

MOSFET
Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor (MOSFET) is most commonly used and
most popular type of among all transistors. The name ‘Metal Oxide’ indicates that the Gate
region and the channel are separated by a thin layer of metal oxide (usually, SiO 2). Hence,
MOSFET is also known as Insulated Gate FET as the Gate region is completely insulated from
the Source – Drain region. There is an extra terminal known as Substrate or Body, which is the
main Semiconductor (Silicon) in which the FET is fabricated. So, the MOSFET has four
terminals drain, source, gate and body or substrate. MOSFET has many advantages over BJT and
JFET, mainly it offers high input impedance and low output impedance. It is used in switching
and power circuits and it is a main component on Integrated Circuit designing technologies. The
MOSFET transistors are available in depletion and enhancement types. Further, the depletion
and enhancement types are classified into N–Channel and P–Channel types.

N-Channel MOSFET

The MOSFET having N-channel region between source and drain is called N-channel MOSFET.
Here, the source and gate terminals are heavily doped with n-type materials situated in a heavily
doped p-type semiconductor material (substrate). The current flow between source and drain is
because of electrons. The gate voltage controls the current flow in the circuit. N–Channel
MOSFET is most commonly used than P–Channel MOSFET because the mobility of electrons is
high than mobility of holes. The symbols and structures for N–Channel MOSFET transistors are
given below (both Enhancement and Depletion mode).

P–Channel MOSFET

The MOSFET having P–Channel region between source and drain is called as P–Channel
MOSFET. Here, the source and drain terminals are heavily doped with P-type material and the
substrate is doped with N-type material. The current flow between source and drain is because of
holes concentration. The applied voltage at gate will controls the flow of current through channel
region. The symbols and structures for P–Channel MOSFET transistors are given below (both
Enhancement and Depletion mode).

Transistors Based on Function

Transistors are also classified depending on the functions (operations or applications) they
perform. Different types of transistors based on their function are explained below.

Small Signal Transistors

The basic function of small signal transistors is to amplify small signals but sometimes these
transistors are also used for switching purpose. Small signal transistors are available in market in
the form of NPN and PNP transistors. We can usually see some value printed on the body of
small signal transistor, which indicates the hFE of transistor. Depending on this hFE value, we
can understand the capacity of transistor to amplify the signal. The commonly available hFE
values are the range of 10 to 500. The collector current value of these transistors is 80 to 600
mA. This type of transistors operates with the frequency range of 1 to 300 MHz. The name of the
transistor itself indicates that these transistors amplify small signals, which use small voltages
and currents, such as few milli volts and milli amperes of current.

Small signal transistors are used in almost all types of electronic equipment and also these
transistors are used in several applications, some of them are ON or OFF switches for general
use, LED diode driver, Relay driver, Audio mute function, Timer circuits, Infrared diode
amplifier, Bias supply circuits etc.

Small Switching Transistors

Small switching transistors are those transistors which are primarily used for switching but also
sometimes for amplification. Like small signal transistors, small switching transistors are also
available in the form of NPN and PNP and these types of transistors also have hFE values. The
hFE value range for these transistors is from 10 to 200. At hFE value 200, the transistors are not
good amplifiers but they act as better switches. The collector current values range from 10 to
1000 mA. These transistors are used mostly in switching applications.

Power Transistors

The transistors which are used in the high-power amplifiers and power supplies are called as
Power Transistors. The collector terminal of this transistor is connected to the base of a metal
device and this structure acts as heat sink which dissipates excess power for the applications.
These types of transistors are available in the form of NPN, PNP and Darlington transistors.
Here, the collector current values range from 1 to 100 A. The operating frequency range from 1
to 100 MHz. The power values of these transistors are range from 10 to 300 W. The name of the
transistor itself indicates that the power transistors are used in the applications where high power,
high voltage and high current are required.

High Frequency Transistors

High frequency transistors are used for small signals which operate at high frequencies and these
are used in high-speed switching applications. High frequency transistors are also called as RF
Transistors. These transistors have maximum frequency values of about 2000 MHz. The
collector current (IC) value ranges from 10 to 600 mA. These types of transistors are also
available in the form of NPN and PNP. These are mainly used in the applications of high
frequency signals and also these transistors must be ON or OFF at high speeds only. These
transistors are used in HF, VHF, UHF, CATV and MATV oscillator and amplifier circuits.

Photo Transistor
Photo transistors are the transistors which operate depending on the light i.e., these transistors are
light sensitive. A simple photo transistor is nothing but a bipolar transistor which contains light
sensitive area instead of the base terminal. The photo transistors have only 2 terminals instead of
3 terminals (in BJTs). When the light sensitive area is dark, then no current flows in transistor
i.e., transistor is in OFF state.

When light sensitive area is exposed to light, then a small amount of current generates at base
terminal and it causes a large current to flow from collector to emitter. The photo transistors are
available in both BJT and FET transistor types. These are named as photo-BJTs and photo-FETs.
Unlike photo-BJTs, the photo-FETs are generating gate voltage by using light, which controls
the current flow between drain and source terminals. Photo-FETs are more sensitive to light than
photo-BJTs. The symbols for photo-BJT and photo-FETs are shown above.
Uni-Junction Transistors (UJT)

Uni-Junction Transistors (UJT) are used only as electrically controlled switches. These
transistors do not contain any amplification characteristics because of their design. These are
generally three lead transistors, in which, two are called as Base Terminals and the third is called
the Emitter. Now, let us see the operation of uni-junction transistor. If there is no potential
difference between emitter and any one of the base terminals (B1 or B2), then a small amount of
current flows between B1 and B2.

If sufficient amount of voltage is applied to the emitter terminal, then a high current is generated
at emitter terminal and it adds to small current between B1 and B2, which then causes a flow of
large current in the transistor. Here, the emitter current is the primary current source for
controlling the total current in the transistor. The current between the terminals B1 and B2 is
very small and due to this reason, these transistors are not suitable for amplification purpose.
 Diode

P-N Juction Diode:

A P-N junction is an interface or a boundary between two semiconductor material types, namely
the p-type and the n-type, inside a semiconductor. In a semiconductor, the P-N junction is
created by the method of doping. The p-side or the positive side of the semiconductor has an
excess of holes, and the n-side or the negative side has an excess of electrons.

Formation of P-N Junction

As we know, if we use different semiconductor materials to make a P-N junction, there will be a
grain boundary that would inhibit the movement of electrons from one side to the other by
scattering the electrons and holes and thus, we use the process of doping. We will understand the
process of doping with the help of this example. Let us consider a thin p-type silicon
semiconductor sheet. If we add a small amount of pentavalent impurity to this, a part of the p-
type Si will get converted to n-type silicon. This sheet will now contain both the p-type region
and the n-type region and a junction between these two regions. The processes that follow after
forming a P-N junction are of two types – diffusion and drift. There is a difference in the
concentration of holes and electrons at the two sides of a junction. The holes from the p-side
diffuse to the n-side, and the electrons from the n-side diffuse to the p-side. These give rise to a
diffusion current across the junction.

Also, when an electron diffuses from the n-side to the p-side, an ionised donor is left behind on
the n-side, which is immobile. As the process goes on, a layer of positive charge is developed on
the n-side of the junction. Similarly, when a hole goes from the p-side to the n-side, an ionized
acceptor is left behind on the p-side, resulting in the formation of a layer of negative charges in
the p-side of the junction. This region of positive charge and negative charge on either side of the
junction is termed as the depletion region. Due to this positive space charge region on either side
of the junction, an electric field with the direction from a positive charge towards the negative
charge is developed. Due to this electric field, an electron on the p-side of the junction moves to
the n-side of the junction. This motion is termed the drift. Here, we see that the direction of the
drift current is opposite to that of the diffusion current.

Biasing Conditions for the P-N Junction Diode

There are two operating regions in the P-N junction diode:

 P-type
 N-type
There are three biasing conditions for the P-N junction diode, and this is based on the voltage
applied:

 Zero bias: No external voltage is applied to the P-N junction diode.

 Forward bias: The positive terminal of the voltage potential is connected to the p-type
while the negative terminal is connected to the n-type.
 Reverse bias: The negative terminal of the voltage potential is connected to the p-type
and the positive is connected to the n-type.
Applications of P-N Junction Diode

 P-N junction diode can be used as a photodiode as the diode is sensitive to the light when
the configuration of the diode is reverse-biased.
 It can be used as a solar cell.
 When the diode is forward-biased, it can be used in LED lighting applications.
 It is used as rectifier in many electric circuits and as a voltage-controlled oscillator in
varactors.

Zener Diode:
A Zener Diode, also referred to as a breakdown diode, is a specially doped semiconductor device
engineered to function in the reverse direction. When the voltage across a Zener diode’s
terminals is reversed and reaches the Zener Voltage (also known as the knee voltage), the
junction experiences a breakdown, allowing current to flow in the opposite direction. This
phenomenon, known as the Zener Effect, is a key characteristic of Zener diodes.

A Zener diode is a highly doped semiconductor device specifically designed to function in the
reverse direction. It is engineered with a wide range of Zener voltages (Vz), and certain types are
even adjustable to achieve variable voltage regulation.

How does a Zener Diode work in reverse bias?

A Zener diode functions similarly to a regular diode when forward-biased. However, in reverse-
biased mode, a small leakage current flows through the diode. As the reverse voltage increases
and reaches the predetermined breakdown voltage (Vz), current begins to flow through the
diode. This current reaches a maximum level determined by the series resistor, after which it
stabilizes and remains constant across a wide range of applied voltages.

There are two types of breakdowns in a Zener Diode: Avalanche Breakdown and Zener
Breakdown.

Avalanche Breakdown in Zener Diode

Avalanche breakdown occurs in both normal diodes and Zener diodes when subjected to high
reverse voltage. When a significant reverse voltage is applied to the PN junction, the free
electrons gain enough energy to accelerate at high velocities. These high-velocity electrons
collide with other atoms, causing the ejection of additional electrons. This continuous collision
process generates a large number of free electrons, resulting in a rapid increase in electric current
through the diode. In the case of a normal diode, this sudden surge in current could permanently
damage it. However, a Zener diode is specifically designed to withstand avalanche breakdown
and can handle the sudden current spike. Avalanche breakdown typically occurs in Zener diodes
with a Zener voltage (Vz) greater than 6V.

Zener Breakdown in Zener Diode

When the reverse bias voltage applied to a Zener diode approaches its Zener voltage, the electric
field within the depletion region becomes strong enough to attract and remove electrons from
their valence band. These valence electrons, energized by the intense electric field, break free
from their parent atoms. This phenomenon takes place in the Zener breakdown region, where
even a slight increase in voltage leads to a rapid surge in electric current.

Avalanche Breakdown vs. Zener Breakdown

The Zener effect is predominant in voltages up to 5.6 volts, while the avalanche effect becomes
more prominent beyond that threshold. Although both effects are similar, the distinction lies in
the fact that the Zener effect is a quantum phenomenon, whereas the avalanche effect involves
the movement of electrons in the valence band, similar to an electric current. The avalanche
effect allows a larger current through the diode compared to what a Zener breakdown would
permit.

Circuit Symbol of Zener Diode

Zener diodes come in various packaging options, depending on their power dissipation
requirements. Some are designed for high-power applications, while others are available in
surface mount formats. The most commonly used Zener diode is packaged in a small glass
enclosure, with a distinctive band indicating the cathode side of the diode.

The symbol used to represent a Zener diode in circuit diagrams is similar to that of a regular
diode, but with a unique addition. It consists of a triangle or arrowhead pointing towards the
cathode side (the side with the band) of the diode. This triangle is accompanied by two
perpendicular lines at the cathode end, one extending upwards and the other extending
downwards. These lines indicate the specific behaviour of the Zener diode and help distinguish it
from other types of diodes in circuit diagrams. The symbol provides a visual representation that
allows engineers and technicians to easily identify and understand the presence of a Zener diode
in a circuit.

Zener Diode Specifications

Some commonly used specifications for Zener diodes are as follows:

 Zener/Breakdown Voltage – The Zener or the reverse breakdown voltage ranges from
2.4 V to 200 V, sometimes it can go up to 1 kV while the maximum for the surface-
mounted device is 47 V.
 Current Iz (max) – It is the maximum current at the rated Zener Voltage (Vz – 200μA to
200 A)
 Current Iz (min) – It is the minimum value of current required for the diode to break
down.
 Power Rating – It denotes the maximum power the Zener diode can dissipate. It is given
by the product of the voltage of the diode and the current flowing through it.
 Temperature Stability – Diodes around 5 V have the best stability
 Voltage Tolerance – It is typically ±5%
 Zener Resistance (Rz) – It is the resistance to the Zener diode exhibits.

Application of Zener Diode

Following are the applications of Zener diode:
Zener diode as a voltage regulator:

The zener diode is used as a Shunt voltage regulator for regulating voltage across small loads.
The Zener diode is connected parallel to the load to make it reverse bias, and once the Zener
diode exceeds knee voltage, the voltage across the load will become constant. The breakdown
voltage of Zener diodes will be constant for a wide range of currents.

Zener diode in over-voltage protection:

When the input voltage is higher than the Zener breakage voltage, the voltage across the resistor
drops resulting in a short circuit, this can be avoided by using the Zener diode.

Zener diode in clipping circuits:

Zener diode is used for modifying AC waveform clipping circuits by limiting the parts of either
one or both the half cycles of an AC waveform.

Light Emitting Diode (LED):

A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor device that emits light when an electric current

flows through it. When current passes through an LED, the electrons recombine with holes

emitting light in the process. LEDs allow the current to flow in the forward direction and blocks

the current in the reverse direction. Light-emitting diodes are heavily doped p-n junctions. Based

on the semiconductor material used and the amount of doping, an LED will emit coloured light

at a particular spectral wavelength when forward biased. As shown in the figure, an LED is
encapsulated with a transparent cover so that emitted light can come out.

LED Symbol
The LED symbol is the standard symbol for a diode, with the addition of two small arrows
denoting the emission of light.
How does an LED work?
When the diode is forward biased, the minority electrons are sent from p → n while the
minority holes are sent from n → p. At the junction boundary, the concentration of
minority carriers increases. The excess minority carriers at the junction recombine with
the majority charges carriers.

The energy is released in the form of photons on recombination. In standard diodes, the energy is
released in the form of heat. But in light-emitting diodes, the energy is released in the form of
photons. We call this phenomenon electroluminescence. Electroluminescence is an optical
phenomenon, and electrical phenomenon where a material emits light in response to an electric
current passed through it. As the forward voltage increases, the intensity of the light increases
and reaches a maximum.

What determines the colour of an LED?

The colour of an LED is determined by the material used in the semiconducting element. The
two primary materials used in LEDs are aluminium gallium indium phosphide alloys and indium
gallium nitride alloys. Aluminium alloys are used to obtain red, orange and yellow light, and
indium alloys are used to get green, blue and white light. Slight changes in the composition of
these alloys change the colour of the emitted light.
Uses of LED
LEDs find applications in various fields, including optical communication, alarm and security
systems, remote-controlled operations, robotics, etc. It finds usage in many areas because of its
long-lasting capability, low power requirements, swift response time, and fast switching
capabilities. Below are a few standards LED uses:

 Used for TV back-lighting

 Used in displays
 Used in Automotives
 LEDs used in the dimming of lights

Types of LED
Below is the list of different types of LED that are designed using semiconductors:

 Miniature LEDs
 High-Power LEDs
 Flash LED
 Bi and Tri-Colour
 Red Green Blue LEDs
 Alphanumeric LED
 Lighting LED

Advantages of LEDs over Incandescent Power Lamps

Some advantages of LEDs over Incandescent Power Lamps are:

 LEDs consume less power, and they require low operational voltage.
 No warm-up time is needed for LEDs.
 The emitted light is monochromatic.
 They exhibit long life and ruggedness.
 BIBLOGRAPHY

 Physics NCERT book for class XII

 Wikipeddia.com

 Google Search Engine

 technlab.logspot.com

 ElectronicsComp.com