CLASS 10

SUBJECT: BIOLOGY

CHAPTER-1: CELL CYCLE, CELL DIVISION AND STRUCTURE OF CHROMOSOME

Cell cycle is the sequence of events that occurs between the cell formation and its division.

Amoeba which is single-celled organism divides to form two daughter amoebae. Thus life goes on.

Similarly every living cell has the capability to divide and form two daughter cells. Thus cell division
produces new cells from pre-existing ones in order to help in growth, replacement, repair and
reproduction.

There are two types of cell division :

1. MITOSIS: which forms 2 daughter cells.

2. MEIOSIS: which forms 4 daughter cells.

A single cell has a nucleus which controls all the cell activities. The nucleus contains nuclear material
called chromosomes. Gene is a small segment of chromosome that carries one character from parent to
the offspring. Thus when a cell division occurs the daughter cells carry the same characteristics.
Chromosomes contain DNA. For a cell to divide, DNA must double itself so that each daughter receives
the same no. of chromosomes.

A. CELL CYCLE: The sequence of events including duplication of DNA, synthesis of other cell
constituents, growth and division, that a cell undergoes from the time of its formation upto its
division into daughter cells is called cell cycle. Duration between two successive cell divisions is
called generation time.
B. PHASES OF CELL CYCLE :
1. INTERPHASE (non-dividing phase)
2. MITOTIC PHASE (Dividing phase)

1. INTERPHASE:
 It is the non-dividing phase
 Preparatory phase when a cell prepares for the next cell division.
 It has further 3 sub-stages.
(i) G1-PHASE (FIRST GROWTH PHASE/POST-MITOTIC PHASE):
 longest phase.
 synthesis of RNA and protein takes place.
 volume of cytoplasm increases.
 cell grows in size.
 No change in DNA content.
(ii) S-PHASE (SYNTHESIS PHASE):
 Synthesis of DNA takes place.
 Chromosomes get duplicated.
(iii) G2-PHASE (SECOND GROWTH PHASE/PRE-MITOTIC):
 Synthesis of DNA stops.
 Synthesis of RNA and proteins continues.
 It prepares the cell to undergo mitotic phase and thus the cell cycle goes on.

2. MITOTIC PHASE:
 Dividing phase.
 During this phase the nucleus as well as the cytoplasm into two daughter cells.
 There are four stages: PROPHASE; METAPHASE; ANAPHASE; TELOPHASE.

C. TYPES OF CELL DIVISION:1.MITOSIS 2. MEIOSIS

1. MITOSIS: It is a type of cell division during which a cell divides into two daughter cells, each
having same no. of chromosomes similar to that of the parent cell.
(i) KARYOKINESIS: Division of nucleus.
a. PROPHASE:
 Shortening and thickening of chromosome occurs.
 Each chromosome splits longitudinally to form two CHROMATIDS.
 Chromatids join at a point called CENTROMERE/KINETOCHORE.
 Centrosome divides to form two centrioles.
 Centrioles develop fine eyelash like threads called ASTRAL RAYS.
 Centrioles and astral rays together are called ASTERS.
 The two asters move towards the opposite poles.
 Fine proteinaceous thread like structures called spindle fibres are formed.
 Asters along with spindle fibres is called spindle/mitotic apparatus.
 In plants, spindle is without asters and is called ANASTRAL spindle.
 Nuclear membrane and nucleolus disappears by the end of prophase.
B. METAPHASE:
 The chromosomes arrange on the equatorial plate.
 Rich spindle fibres are formed.

C. ANAPHASE:
 Each centromere splits into two daughter centromeres called sister chromatids or
daughter chromosomes.
 Each sister chromatid moves towards the opposite pole.
 D. TELOPHASE:
 The chromatids starts uncoiling , thinning and elongating and form network like
structure called CHROMATIN NETWORK.
 Nuclear membrane and nucleolus reappears.
 Spindle fibres disappears.

 cell divides by constriction of cell membrane into two daughter cells ( in animal cells).

(ii) CYTOKINESIS: Division of cytoplasm

a. In plant cells, division of cytoplasm takes place by the formation of cell plate which
moves towards the cell wall.
b. In animal cells, division occur by cell membrane constriction which moves towards
the centre to divide the cytoplasm into two .

2. MEIOSIS: A type of cell division in which a cell undergoes two successive divisions forming 4
daughter cells, each having half the no. of chromosomes.

Meiosis are of two types:

(i) MEIOSIS-I (REDUCTIONAL DIVISION)
(ii) MEIOSIS-II( EQUATIONAL DIVISION)

D. SIGNIFICANCE OF MITOSIS:
(i) Maintains the no. of chromosomes
(ii) Cell size remains the same
 (iii) Growth: Every multicellular organism is made from single cell called zygote by mitotic
divisions.
(iv) Replacement: New cells take the place of old or dead cells.
(v) Repair: New cells take the place of dead or worn out cells.
(vi) Asexual reproduction
(vii) Regeneration
(viii) Embryonic development

E. SIGNIFICANCE OF MEIOSIS:
(i) Reproduction: meiosis occur during the formation of gamete (sperms and ova) to form
half the no. of chromosomes.
(ii) Maintenance of chromosome number constant: the gametes are the result of meiosis
because on fertilization they fuse to form zygote to have the same chromosome no.
(iii) Variations: This helps in forming slight changes which is called variation.
(iv) Evolution: Formation of new species from the already existing ones.
(v) Crossing over: It occurs between homologous chromosomes to gain new set of genes.

F. STRUCTURE OF CHROMOSOME:
(i) Chromosomes are condensed chromatin fibres formed at the prophase stage.
(ii) During metaphase, two chromatids are formed joined by centromere.
(iii) Parts of chromatids on the two sides of centromere are called arms.
(iv) Each chromatid contains DNA and proteins called chromonema.
(v) Chromonema bears darkly stained granules called chromomeres.
(vi) Chromonema is surrounded by matrix which is covered by pellicle.
(vii) Some chromosomes have knob like structure called satellite/SAT chromosomes.
(viii) Chromosome consists of DNA and HISTONE protein.
(ix) DNA and HISTONE forms nucleosome . There are one million nucleosome in a single
human chromosome.
(x) Chromosomes possess two types of nucleic acid- DNA and RNA.
(xi) Model of DNA was proposed by Watson and Crick.
(xii) DNA –Deoxyribo nucleic acid.
(xiii) DNA has double strands like that of a staircase.
(xiv) DNA is made up of 4 nitrogeneous bases-1.ADENINE; 2. GUANINIE; 3.CYTOSINE; 4.
THYMINE.
(xv) In RNA, URACIL is present in place of THYMINE.
 G. FUNCTIONS OF CHROMOSOMES:
(i) Chromosomes form the only link between the two generations.
(ii) They control the synthesis of structural proteins which help in cell divisions, cell repair and
cell growth.
(iii) ALLOSOMES: Also called Sex chromosomes (XX and XY) determine the sex of individuals.
(iv) Human female has XX (HOMOGAMETIC OR ISOGAMETIC) and male has XY
(HETEROGAMETIC)chromosome. This shows that human chromosome has only one pair of
sex chromosomes.
(v) AUTOSOMES: All chromosomes other than sex chromosomes are called autosomes. For eg
in human cell 22pairs of chromosomes are autosomes. They determine characters other
than sex.
(vi) Through the process of crossing over, chromosomes induce variations.
(vii) Chromosomes undergo mutations (sudden changes) and contribute towards evolution of
life.
(viii) They control cell metabolism.

H. GENES:
(i) Genes are specific parts of a chromosome composed of DNA.
(ii) They determine the hereditary characters.
(iii) They are responsible for the transmission of characters from one generation to another.
(iv) Genes have fixed positions on the chromosomes.
(v) Genes are found in linear fashion on the chromosomes.

I. ACTIVITIES:Draw all the diagrams and learn the chapter.

J. QUESTIONS-ANSWERS:

Q1. Name the following:

(i) The structure which initiates cell division.

(ii) The stage during which nuclear membrane and nucleolus reappear.
(iii) The point at which the duplicated chromosomes are joined.
(iv) The point where crossing over occurs.
 (v) The shortest phase of mitosis.

A1.

(i) Centrosome
(ii) Telophase
(iii) Centromere
(iv) Chiasmata
(v) Anaphase

Q2. How is variation produced in a species?

A2. During meiosis, exchange of genetic material between non-sister chromatids occurs resulting in new
combinations. These combinations give rise to variation resulting in the evolution of species.

Q3.What is SAT chromosome?

A3. Sometimes a few chromosomes have a secondary constriction. The part of the chromosome beyond
the secondary constriction is called satellite. Such chromosomes are called SAT chromosomes.

Q4. Briefly explain the types of chromosomes according to the positions of centromere.

A4.

(i) Telemetric: It has terminal centromere / centromere at the tip of the chromosome.
( chromosome looks ’I’ shaped).
(ii) Acrocentric: The centromere is present near one end of the chromatid so that one arm is
longer than the other. (chromosome appear ‘J’ shaped).
(iii) Metacentric: The centromere is present in the centre and the two arms of the chromatids
are equal.(chromosome appear ‘V’ shaped).
(iv) Submetacentric: Centromere is slightly away from the centre so that one arm is slightly large
r than the other. (chromosome appear ‘L’ shaped).
Q5. Differentiate between the following:

(i) Mitosis and meiosis

(ii) Cytokinesis and karyokinesis
(iii) Centrosome and centromere
(iv) Asexual reproduction and sexual reproduction

A5.

(i) Mitosis –two daughter cells are formed whereas

meiosis- four daughter cells are formed.

Mitosis-chromosome number is 23 pairs/diploid number (2n) whereas

Meiosis-chromosome number is 23/haploid number(n).

(ii) Cytokinesis- it is the division of cytoplasm

Karyokinesis- it is the division of nucleus.

Cytokinesis- it is followed by karyokinesis.

Karyokinesis- it is the first division.

Centrosome-It is an animal cell organelle.

Centromere-It is the part of chromosome to which two chromatids join.

(iii) Asexual reproduction-It is a type of reproduction without gamete formation.

sexual reproduction-gametes are produced.

Asexual reproduction-variations are not produced.

sexual reproduction-variations are produced.

Q6. The diagram represents a stage during cell division. Study the same and then answer the questions
that follow:
 (i) Name the parts labelled 1, 2 and 3.
(ii) Identify the above stage and give a reason to support your answer.
(iii) Mention where in the body this type of cell division occurs.
(iv) Name the stage prior to this stage and draw a diagram to represent the same.

A6.

(i) 1. aster rays, 2.spindlefibres, 3. Chromatids.

(ii) Anaphase-The sister chromatids are seen at the poles.
(iii) In the body cells .
(iv) Metaphase.

Q7.There is a diagram of a double helical structure of DNA.

(i) Name the four nitrogenous bases that form a DNA molecule.
(ii) Give the full form of DNA.
(iii) Name the unit of heredity.
(iv) Mention two points of difference between Mitosis and Meiosis.

A7.

(i) Adenine, Guanine, Thymine and Cytosine.

(ii) Deoxyribonucleic acid.
(iii) Genes
(iv) Mitosis –two daughter cells are formed .

Meiosis- four daughter cells are formed.

Mitosis-chromosome number is 23 pairs/diploid number (2n) .

Meiosis-chromosome number is 23/haploid number (n).

Q8. The diagram represents a stage in cell division.

Study the same and answer the questions that follow:

(i) Identify the stage of cell division.

(ii) Name the parts labelled A, B, C and D.
(iii) What is the unique feature observed in this stage?
(iv) Where does this type of cell division usually occur?
(v) How many daughter cells are formed from this type of cell division?
(vi) Is the dividing cell shown a plant or an animal cell? Give reason.

A8.

(i) Anaphase
(ii) A.Spindlefibre; B. Cell wall; C. Chromatid ; D. Centromere.
(iii) The chromosomes are seen on the poles.
(iv) In the body cells except in gonads(reproductive organs).
(v) Two
(vi) -A plant cell.

-Presence of cell wall.

Q9. Draw a diagram of the nucleus of a cell, having chromosome number 6, as it would appear in the
metaphase stage of mitosis and label the following parts:

(a)Aster(b) Achromatic spindle (c) chromatid (d) centromere.

.

Q10.

(i) Draw a neat labelled diagram to show the metaphase stage of mitosis in an animal cell
having 4 chromosomes.
(ii) How many daughter cells are formed at the end of mitosis and at the end of meiosis.
(iii) With reference to cell division explain the terms-
(a) chromatid
(b) centrosome
(c) haploid.
(iv) Name the type of cell division that occurs during
(a)Growth of shoot; (b) Formation of pollen grains; (c) Repair of worn out tissues.

A10.

(i)

(ii) At the end of mitosis-2 daughter cells; At the end of meiosis-4 daughter cells .
(iii) (a)chromatid-Duplicated chromosome consists of two identical strands , each of these is a
chromatid.
(b)Centromere-It is the point at which the two chromatids join.

(c)Haploid-It is the condition in which a cell or a nucleus bears or has a single or unpaired set
of chromosomes.

(a)Mitosis

(b) Meiosis
(c) Mitosis.