SOLAR ENERGY

The most precise definition of solar energy is “Energy from the sun”.
Basically, Solar energy refers to the radiant energy emitted by the sun in the form
of electromagnetic waves (or radiation), primarily in the form of visible light and
heat. This energy can be harnessed and converted into usable forms of power,
such as electricity or heat, using various technologies and methods.
There are two main forms or types by which we can use solar energy is:
1. Thermal Energy: a solar collector is used to transform the solar radiation
into heat energy. This thermal energy can be used directly to warm water, or for
room heating or for generation of electricity by turbines.
2. Electric Energy: the solar radiation energy is directly transformed into
electricity through solar cells.
SUN the source of ‘Solar energy’ is a huge, glowing sphere of hot gas with 1.4
Million-kilometre diameter. Most of this gas is hydrogen (about 70%) and
helium (about 28%).
Due to Nuclear fusion reaction of Hydrogen with Helium internal temperatures
reach over 20 million Kelvin.
The resulting loss of mass due to fusion is converted into about 3.8 × 1020 MW
of electromagnetic energy (power) that radiates outward from the surface into
space.

Solar Radiation and its Principles

The sun radiates in all directions and a small part of the radiation reaches the
earth. When designing and sizing a solar energy system, reliable solar data is
required. The most relevant data is the average daily radiation (i.e. the total solar
energy received per day per square meter) on a horizontal surface. Global
radiation consists of the direct sun radiation and diffuse radiation of the sky. The
strength of the radiation of the sun depends highly on the location of the earth
and is directly dependent on the hour of the day. The global radiation or the total
radiation is the sum of three components, namely direct radiation, diffuse
radiation and reflected radiation:

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Each type of radiation is characterized by its direction and behaviour upon
reaching the surface:
A. Direct Radiation (Direct Solar Radiation):
Direct radiation refers to sunlight that travels in a straight line from the sun to a
specific point on Earth's surface without being scattered or absorbed by the
atmosphere. It is also known as beam radiation or direct solar radiation.
Direct radiation is highly concentrated and provides the most significant portion
of solar energy at the surface. It is responsible for casting distinct and sharp
shadows.
Direct radiation can be measured using devices like pyranometers, which
capture the intensity of solar radiation received directly from the sun.
B. Diffuse Radiation (Diffuse Solar Radiation):
Diffuse radiation is sunlight that has been scattered in all directions by molecules
and particles in Earth's atmosphere before reaching the surface. It is the result
of multiple scattering events.
Diffuse radiation is less concentrated and appears to come from various
directions in the sky rather than directly from the sun. It creates even
illumination on overcast days and reduces the contrast of shadows.

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Diffuse radiation can be measured using pyranometers equipped with a shaded
or secondary sensor that shields direct radiation, allowing only diffuse radiation
to be recorded.
C. Reflected Radiation (Reflected Solar Radiation):
Reflected radiation is sunlight that strikes a surface and is reflected off that
surface, redirecting solar energy in a different direction. It can occur when
sunlight interacts with various objects, such as buildings, water bodies, or the
Earth's surface itself.
Reflected radiation depends on the albedo, or reflectivity, of the surface it
encounters. Surfaces with higher albedo values, like snow and ice, reflect more
radiation, while darker surfaces, like forests or asphalt, absorb more radiation.
Examples of reflected radiation include the glare from a shiny car surface, the
reflection of sunlight off a lake, or sunlight bouncing off a mirror.

Characteristics Of Solar Radiation

Solar radiation is the radiant energy emitted by the sun comprising of ultra-
violet, visible and infra-red radiation. The amount of solar radiation that reaches
any given location is dependent on several factors including the geographic
location, time of day, season, landscape, and local weather. Because the earth is
round, the sun strikes the surface at different angles ranging from 0° (just above
the horizon) to 90° (directly overhead) When the sun's rays are vertical, the
earth's surface gets maximum energy possible. The more slanted the sun's rays
are, the longer they travel through the atmosphere, becoming more scattered
and diffuse.
Some basic terms used for measurement and characterization of solar radiation
includes.
1. Solar Constant:
Solar constant is the rate at which solar energy, at all wavelengths, is received
per unit area at the top level of Earth's atmosphere.
The solar constant is approximately 1368 watts per square meter (W/m²),
although it may vary slightly depending on solar activity and other factors.
The solar constant is a fundamental constant used in solar energy calculations
and atmospheric science. It serves as a reference point for measuring the energy

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output of the sun and helps in understanding the amount of solar energy that
Earth receives at a specific location.
2. Solar Insolation (Solar Irradiance):
Solar insolation, often referred to as solar irradiance, is the amount of solar
electromagnetic radiation received on the surface of the Earth or any other
surface per unit area over a specified time period. It includes all forms of solar
radiation, such as direct, diffuse, and reflected radiation.
Solar insolation is typically measured in units of watts per square meter (W/m²)
and is used to quantify the amount of solar energy available at a given location
and time.
Solar insolation varies throughout the day and year due to factors like the sun's
position in the sky, cloud cover, and geographic location. It is highest when the
sun is directly overhead (solar noon) and lowest during nighttime.
Solar insolation is a crucial parameter in solar energy systems and applications,
as it determines the amount of energy that can be harvested from solar panels
or collected by solar thermal systems. Accurate knowledge of solar insolation
helps in system design, energy production estimation, and optimizing the use of
solar resources.
In summary, the solar constant represents the constant intensity of solar
radiation at the outer atmosphere of Earth, while solar insolation quantifies the
actual amount of solar radiation received on the Earth's surface, considering
various factors affecting the radiation's intensity and availability.

Types of Solar Energy

Solar energy can be used through two different routes, namely, Solar Thermal
Energy and Solar Electric (Solar Photovoltaic) Energy. Solar thermal systems use
the sun's heat and convert it into heat energy while solar photovoltaic systems
use sun's heat to produce electricity.
A. Solar Thermal Energy
Solar collectors, often referred to as solar panels, are the primary components
of solar energy systems that capture sunlight and convert it into thermal energy.
These collectors come in various designs, including flat-plate collectors and
concentrating collectors. Concentrating collectors use mirrors or lenses to focus

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sunlight onto a smaller area, thus increasing the temperature of the collected
heat.

A heat transfer fluid, such as water, oil, or a specialized heat transfer fluid, is
circulated through the solar collectors. It absorbs the heat from the sunlight and
carries it to a heat exchanger or storage system.
In many solar thermal systems, a heat exchanger is used to transfer the collected
thermal energy from the heat transfer fluid to a working fluid. This working fluid
can be water or another fluid with a lower boiling point. The heat exchange
process converts the thermal energy into mechanical energy.
In some solar thermal systems, the high-temperature working fluid is used to
produce mechanical energy through a heat engine, such as a steam turbine or a
Stirling engine. This mechanical energy can then drive an electricity generator to
produce electricity.
Solar thermal systems can be configured for either electricity generation or heat
production. It has a wide range of applications, and its versatility makes it a
valuable renewable energy source for various sectors.
Applications of Solar Thermal Energy
1. Concentrated Solar Power (CSP): In Concentrated Solar Power (CSP) systems,
the mechanical energy is used to drive a generator, producing electricity. CSP
technologies include parabolic trough, solar tower, and dish-Stirling systems.

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(a) Parabolic Trough Systems: Parabolic trough collectors focus sunlight onto a
central receiver tube containing a heat transfer fluid. The heated fluid is
then used to produce steam, which drives a turbine to generate electricity.
(b) Solar Tower Systems: Solar towers use an array of mirrors (heliostats) to
concentrate sunlight onto a central receiver at the top of a tower. The heat
collected at the receiver is used to generate steam and drive a turbine for
electricity production.
(c) Dish-Stirling Systems: Concentrating dish systems focus sunlight onto a
small Stirling engine, which converts the thermal energy into mechanical
power to generate electricity.

2. Solar Water Heating System: A solar water heating system is a renewable

energy technology designed to harness sunlight to heat water for domestic,
commercial, or industrial use. These systems use solar thermal collectors to
capture solar energy and transfer it to a heat transfer fluid, typically water or
a special heat transfer fluid, which is then used to heat a water storage tank.
Solar water heating systems are a cost-effective and environmentally friendly
way to provide hot water for various applications, including bathing, space
heating, and industrial processes. Here's how a typical solar water heating
system works:
Components of a Solar Water Heating System:

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1. Solar Collectors: These are the key components of the system and come in
two main types:

• Flat-Plate Collectors: These are the most common type and consist of an
insulated box with a glass or plastic cover, a dark absorber plate (usually made
of metal), and a series of tubes or channels through which the heat transfer
fluid flows.

• Evacuated Tube Collectors: These collectors consist of multiple glass tubes,

each containing an absorber tube where the heat transfer fluid flows. They
are more efficient in colder climates and can maintain higher temperatures.

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2. Heat Transfer Fluid: The heat transfer fluid circulates through the collector
and absorbs heat from the sun. Common fluids include water or a glycol-water
mixture (antifreeze) in colder climates to prevent freezing.
3. Heat Exchanger: The heat transfer fluid passes through a heat exchanger,
where it releases its heat to a separate loop of water that is used for the intended
application, such as domestic hot water or space heating.
4. Solar Controller: A controller regulates the operation of the system by
monitoring the temperature of the collector and the temperature of the water
in the storage tank. When the collector temperature is higher than the tank
temperature, the controller activates the circulation pump to transfer heat from
the collector to the storage tank.
5. Storage Tank: A well-insulated storage tank stores the heated water until it is
needed. The tank can be a standalone unit or integrated with an existing water
heating system (e.g., a conventional electric or gas water heater).
B. Solar Electric (Solar Photovoltaic) Energy
Direct conversion of solar energy to electricity takes place through photoelectric
effect. The photoelectric or photovoltaic effect is the process in which the two
dissimilar materials in close contact produce an electrical voltage when struck by
light or radiant energy. Discrete packets of light energy known as photons, strike
the Photovoltaic (PV) cell, knocking the electrons in the silicon material out of
their normal energy state, putting them in a position to be conducted as
electricity.
There are broadly two ways of generating electrical energy from solar power, the
thermal route and direct conversion route through photovoltaic.
Further, there are two basic types of solar thermal power stations: power tower
and parabolic trough collector.
Power Towers
Power Towers, also known as solar power towers or solar tower systems, are a
type of concentrating solar power (CSP) technology used to generate electricity
by harnessing sunlight. Power towers use a large array of sun-tracking mirrors,
called heliostats, to focus sunlight onto a central receiver located at the top of a
tall tower. The intense concentration of sunlight at the receiver generates high
temperatures, which are then used to produce steam and drive a power cycle to
generate electricity.
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 Power Tower System

1. Heliostat Field: A field of thousands of heliostats, typically flat mirrors

mounted on motorized tracking systems, surrounds the power tower. These
heliostats track the sun throughout the day, adjusting their angles to direct
sunlight towards the tower's receiver.
2. Receiver: The receiver is a specialized component located at the top of the
tower. It is designed to withstand extremely high temperatures. The receiver
absorbs the concentrated sunlight reflected by the heliostats and converts it into
heat.
3. Heat Transfer Fluid: A heat transfer fluid, such as molten salt or air, flows
through the receiver. The intense heat from the concentrated sunlight heats the
fluid to extremely high temperatures, often exceeding 1,000 degrees Celsius
(1,800 degrees Fahrenheit).
4. Thermal Storage System: Many power tower systems incorporate thermal
energy storage to store excess heat generated during sunny periods. The stored
thermal energy can be used to continue electricity generation during cloudy days
or at night, ensuring continuous power production.
5. Steam Generation: In some power tower systems, the high-temperature heat
transfer fluid is used to generate steam. The steam can be used directly to drive
a steam turbine or be used in a heat exchanger to generate high-pressure steam
for electricity production.

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6. Power Cycle: The steam generated by the system is used to drive a power
cycle, such as a steam turbine or a Brayton cycle engine. As the steam expands
and flows through the turbine or engine, it generates mechanical energy, which
is then converted into electricity by a generator.
Power towers are well-suited for regions with high direct sunlight and can
contribute to a sustainable and environmentally responsible energy future. They
are one of several CSP technologies used to harness the sun's energy for
electricity generation.
Parabolic Trough Collector
A parabolic trough collector is a type of solar thermal collector used to
concentrate sunlight and capture it as heat. It is one of the most common and
mature technologies in the field of concentrating solar power (CSP) and is widely
used in large-scale solar thermal power plants. Parabolic trough collectors are
known for their distinctive parabolic shape, which allows them to concentrate
sunlight onto a linear receiver tube running along the trough's focal line.

Parabolic Trough Collector

1. Parabolic Reflector: The main component of a parabolic trough collector is
the parabolic-shaped reflector. This reflector consists of a long, curved, and
reflective surface that concentrates sunlight along its focal line. The shape of the
reflector is designed to ensure that incoming sunlight is focused precisely onto
the receiver tube.
2. Receiver Tube: A receiver tube is positioned along the focal line of the
parabolic trough. This tube contains a heat transfer fluid, typically synthetic oil

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or molten salt, which flows through it. The concentrated sunlight is directed onto
the receiver tube, heating the fluid within.
3. Support Structure: The reflector and receiver tube are mounted on a support
structure that allows the parabolic trough to track the sun's movement
throughout the day. This ensures that the sunlight remains focused on the
receiver at all times, maximizing energy capture.
Parabolic trough collectors are known for their high efficiency in concentrating
sunlight and are widely used in large-scale CSP power plants. They have been a
key technology in the development of solar thermal energy for electricity
generation and industrial applications.
Components of a Solar Photovoltaic System:
A solar photovoltaic (PV) system consists of various components that work
together to generate electricity from sunlight. Here are the key components of a
typical solar PV system:
1. Solar PV Modules: Solar PV modules, also known as solar panels, are the
primary components of a solar PV system. Each module contains multiple solar
cells made of semiconductor materials, usually crystalline silicon or thin-film
materials. These cells are where the photovoltaic effect occurs.
2. Inverter: The electricity generated by solar panels is in direct current (DC)
form. However, most of our electrical appliances and the grid itself operate on
alternating current (AC). The inverter is a crucial component that converts the
DC electricity produced by the solar panels into AC electricity, making it
compatible with household and grid systems.
3. Mounting Structure: Solar panels need to be securely mounted in a way that
optimizes their exposure to sunlight. Mounting structures can be fixed, tilted, or
tracking systems that adjust the angle of the panels to follow the sun's path
throughout the day.
4. Solar Charge Controller (for Battery-Based Systems): In off-grid or hybrid solar
PV systems with battery storage, a solar charge controller is used to regulate the
charging and discharging of batteries. It ensures that batteries are charged safely
and efficiently.
5. Batteries (for Off-Grid and Hybrid Systems): In off-grid or hybrid solar PV
systems, batteries are used to store excess electricity generated during the day
for use during periods of low or no sunlight, such as at night or during cloudy
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How Solar Photovoltaic Technology Works??

1. Solar panels are positioned to capture sunlight. When sunlight strikes the solar
cells within the panels, it transfers its energy to electrons in the semiconductor
material.
2. The energy from the photons in sunlight excites electrons in the
semiconductor material, causing them to move within the cells.
3. The movement of these excited electrons creates an electric current,
generating direct current (DC) electricity within the solar panels.
4. The DC electricity generated by the solar panels is sent to the inverter, where
it is converted into alternating current (AC) electricity. This AC electricity can be
used to power electrical appliances and devices in homes, businesses, or fed into
the electrical grid.

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