CH. No.

04- Fundamentals of Computer Aided Manufacturing: (12 Marks)

4.1 Cam concept, NC (Numerical Control), CNC (Computerized Numerical Control) and
DNC (Direct Numerical Control)- Concept, Features and Differences.
4.2 CNC machines: Types, Classifications, Working and constructional features,
Advantages, Limitations and selection criteria.
4.3 Elements of CNC machine- Types, sketch, Working and Importance of: Slide ways;
Recirculating ball screw; feedback devices(transducers, encoders); Automatic tool
changer(ATC), Automatic tool changer; Automatic Pallet Changer (APC).
4.4 CNC Tooling: Tool presetting- Concept and importance; Qualified tools:- Definition,
Need and Advantages; Tool holders- Types and Applications.
4.5 CNC Turning Centers: Types, Features; Axes Nomenclature; Specification; Work
holding devices- Types Working and Applications.
4.6 CNC Machining Centers: Types, Features; Axes Nomenclature; Specification; Work
holding devices- Types Working and Applications.
Introduction to Computer Aided Manufacturing (CAM):

• It can be simply stated as any manufacturing process that uses computer software to
facilitate, assist automate parts of the manufacturing process.
• Cam can be defined as the use of computer software applications to create
instructions that drive machine tools for manufacturing of parts.
• Its primary purpose is to create a faster production process and components and
tooling with more precise dimensions and material consistency thus minimizing
waste.
Introduction to Numerical Control:
• Numerical control is popularly known as the NC machine which is very
commonly used in the machine tools. Numerical control is defined as the form
of programmable automation, in which the process is controlled by the
numbers, letters and symbols. In case of the machine tools this programmable
automation is used for performing various operations.
• It can also be defined as the machined that is controlled by set of instructions
called as the program. A program contains numbers that indicates the speed,
feed, coordinates movement, tool location etc. for different types of jobs. Each job
has a particular program which is punched on a card to be executed. When the
type of job changes, the program instructions of the job also change. It is easier to
use the punched card or magnetic tape to give instruction to machine which makes
the machine automatic.
• The NC technology can be applied to wide variety of operations like drafting
assembly, inspection, sheet metal working etc. But it is more prominently used for
various metal machining process like turning, drilling, milling, shaping etc.
Advantages And Disadvantages of NC Machine:
Advantages:
• Reduced non-productive time
• Reduced fixturing
• Reduced manufacturing lead time
• Improved quality control
• Reduce inventory
• Reduced floor space requirements
Disadvantages:
• Higher investment cost
• Higher maintenance cost
• Skilled operator required
Problems with Conventional NC:

• Part Programming mistakes.

• Non-optimal speeds and feeds.
• Punched tape.
• Tape reader.
• Controller
• Management Information.
 Introduction to CNC Machine:
• CNC stands for Computer Numerically Controlled. CNC machines can perform various
functions, which can be performed on conventional machines.
• It is machine that is usually programmed and controlled by a computer so as to offer very
set-up times and also the flexibility to run batches.
• CNC machines are programmed using set of commands known as G-codes and M-codes.
• The movements of tool and workpiece are accurately controlled.
• CNC machines are generally programmed by using a series of standards commands as G-
codes to represent specific CNC tasks in alpha-numeric form.
• There are many different sizes of a CNC machines based on the purpose and materials
that need to be cut.
• With CNC machine, we can improve the speed of cut compared to manual operation.
• With the help of CNC machine better surface finish can be obtained.
Features of CNC Machine:

i) Storage of more than one part program

ii) Various forms of program input
iii) Program editing at the machine tool
iv) Fixed cycles and programming subroutines
v) Cutter length and size compensation
vi) Acceleration and deceleration calculations
vii) Communications interface
viii) Diagnostics
Advantages of CNC Machine:

• Greater accuracy of job is achieved

• Higher repeatability and improved product quality
• Less operator skill is required to run CNC machine
• Higher production rate
• Lower tooling cost, per piece in mass production.
• Jigs and fixtures cost can be reduced
• Reduced cycle time
• Better tool life and machinability
• Less scrap due to consistent accuracy, less errors
Advantages of CNC Machine:

• Excellent readability as dimensions are based on programmes

• Reduced In-process inventory of parts in process
• Design changes are possible.
• Productivity can be improved to great extent
• Tool set up time can be reduced
• Most suitable for continuous and better production
• Program can be stored and use again when required
• Optimum speed and feed for best surface finish can be used
Disadvantages of CNC Machine:

• It is more expensive than manually operated machines

• CNC machines are more complex machines

• Cost of control systems used is high

• Maintenance is high

• The CNC machine operator needs basic training and skills.

Applications of CNC Machine:

• Industries for removing material

• Industries for fabrication Metals
• Electrical Discharge Machining
• Other industries where CNC machines are used.
Main components of CNC machine:

1. Program of instruction.
2. Machine control unit.
3. Machine tool.
Main components of CNC machine:

1. Program of instruction.
• The part program is called as program of instruction.
• It is prepared by part programmer.
• It is the detail step by step set of instructions given to machine tool for performing
the operations.
• The part program is a combination of numbers and letters and is fed to the
controller.
• It is generally input through keyboard manually.
Main components of CNC machine:

2. Machine control unit (MCU):

• It is hardware that distinguishes CNC from conventional NC.
• The MCU consists of the following components.
i) Central Processing Unit (CPU)
ii) Memory
iii) Input/output interface.
 Main components of CNC machine:
2. Machine control unit (MCU):
i) Central Processing Unit (CPU):
• It is the brain of the MCU.
• It manages the other components in the MCU based on software contained in main memory.
• The CPU can be divided into three sections:
a) Control section: The control section retrieves commands and data from memory and
generates signals to activate other components in the MCU. In short, it sequences, co-
ordinates and regulates all the activities of the MCU.
b) Arithmetic-logic unit (ALU): It consist of circuit to perform various calculations
(addition, subtraction and multiplication), counting and logical functions required by
software in memory.
c) Immediate access memory: It provides temporary storage of data being processed by the
CPU. It is connected to main memory of the system data bus.
 Main components of CNC machine:
2. Machine control unit (MCU):
ii) Memory:
• The immediate access memory in the CPU is not intended for storing CNC software.
• A much greater storage capacity is required for the various programs and data needed to
operate the CNC system.
• CNC memory can be divided in to two categories.
a) Primary memory: It consists of ROM (read only memory) and RAM (random access
memory) devices. Operating system software and machine interface programs are
generally stored in ROM. These programs are installed by the manufacturer of the
MCU. Numerical control part programs are stored in RAM devices. Current programs
in RAM can be erased and replaced by new programs as jobs are changed.
b) Secondary Memory: High-capacity secondary memory devices are used to store large
programs and data files, which are transferred to main memory as needed
Main components of CNC machine:
2. Machine control unit (MCU):
iii) Input/output interface:
• The I/O interface provides communication software between the various components
of the CNC system, other computer systems and the machine operator.
• As its name suggests, the I/O interface transmits and receives the data and signals to
and from external devices.
• The I/O interface also includes a display (CRT and LED) for communication of data
and information from the MCU to the machine operator.
• The display is used to indicate current status of the program as it is being executed.
Main components of CNC machine:

3. Machine Tool:
• The third basic element of an CNC system is the equipment that processes the
work piece. Such a component that performs useful work is called machine tool.
• The machine tool receives the signal from MCU. The signals are understood by
machine spindle, table and other parts like motors and controls.
• The program of instruction directs the MCU which in turns makes the processing
element work.
 CNC and Conventional Machine:

Sr. No. Parameters CNC machine Conventional machine

1 Tools used The carbide tip tools are used HSS tools are used
for faster cutting speeds.

2 Control system Computer is used for Table movements are manual

controlling the table
movements.
3 Constructional It contains stepper motor for It is rigid in construction.
features table movement.

4 Accuracy of Job Higher accuracy with closed Comparatively less accuracy is

tolerance can be obtained obtained.
Direct Numerical Control:

• It can be defined as a manufacturing system in which no. of machines are

controlled by a computer through direct connection and in real time.
• The tape reader is omitted in DNC, thus relieving the system of its least reliable
component. Instead of using the tape reader, the part program is transmitted to
the machine tool directly from the computer memory.
• In principle, one large computer can be used to control more than 100 machines.
The DNC computer is designed to provide instructions to each machine tool on
demand. When the machine needs control commands, they are communicated to it
immediately.
• DNC also involves data collection and processing from the machine tool back to
the computer.
Functions of DNC:

• NC without punch tape.

• NC part program storage.
• Data collection, processing and reporting.
• Communication.
Advantages of DNC:
• Elimination of punched tapes and tape readers. In some DNC systems, the hard
wired control unit is also eliminated.
• Greater computational capability and flexibility. The large DNC computer
provides the opportunity to perform the computational and data processing
functions more effectively than traditional NC.
• Convenient storage of NC part programs in computer files.
• Storage of part programs in DNC is generally in the form of cutter path data rather
than postprocessed programs for specific machine tools.
• One of the important features in DNC involves the collection, processing and
reporting of production performance data from the NC machine.
• DNC concept represents a first step in the development of production plants which
will be managed by computer systems.
Types of CNC Machines:

1. CNC Milling Machine.

2. CNC Lathe Machine.
3. CNC Router Machine.
4. CNC Plasms Cutting Machine.
5. CNC Laser cutting Machine.
Classification of CNC Machine Tools:
• The classification of CNC machine tool can be done in four ways.
1. Based on control system characteristics:
a) Point-to-point position system.
b) Straight line system.
c) Contouring (continuous path).
2. Based on positioning co-ordinates:
a) Incremental system.
b) Absolute system.
3. Based on feedback or type of control system:
a) Open loop system.
b) Closed loop system
4. According to the structure of control circuits:
a) Analogue system.
b) Digital system
 Classification of CNC Machine Tools:

1. Based on control system characteristics:

a) Point-to-Point System.
• In this method, the cutting tool (or the table) moves
From one point to another point.
• Machining is done only at desired points. No machining
is done when the spindle moves from one point to
another point.
• This system is suitable for drilling, reaming, counter
boring, tapping, spot welding.
• As shown in figure the tool will drill hole at point 1, then it will have idle movement till point 2.
At point 2 it will again drill hole and move idle to point 3 and so on.
 Classification of CNC Machine Tools:
1. Based on control system characteristics:
b) Straight Line System:
• In this system cutting tool moves in a straight line
during machining operation as shown in figure.
• This system is used in milling of slots or grooves.
• Straight line cuts parallel to the horizontal axes can
only be programmed.
• Angular cuts are not possible with such system
because the tool motion along both the axes needs
to be controlled simultaneously.
• The system which can perform straight line cuts can
also perform point-to-point movement.
 Classification of CNC Machine Tools:
1. Based on control system characteristics:
c) Contouring System:
• In this system, the motion of the tool and W/P are
controlled along many axes, simultaneously and
this facilitates machining of different types of
curved surfaces, profiles, taper or angular cuts.
• The feed of the tool is very closed controlled so as
to move the tool simultaneously in required
direction by synchroning movement in both
direction.
• The cutter path for the three systems is shown in
figure.
 Classification of CNC Machine Tools:
2. Based on positioning system :
a) Absolute System:
• In absolute system the coordinates of the point.
• The fixed point is generally the south west corner
of the table for milling and the workpiece centre
point on the other end of the chuck for lathe
machines.
• It has an advantage to write the program easily.
Point Co-ordinates
• It is also easy to check and edit a program.
P1 1,4
• Consider fig. The coordinates of the points P2 2,1
P1, P2, P3 and P4 in absolute system is taken as P3 7,6
P4 3,2
 Classification of CNC Machine Tools:

2. Based on positioning system :

b) Incremental System:
• In incremental system the coordinates of any
points are calculated with reference to the
previous position of the tool.
• It becomes difficult to edit the program written in
incremental mode.
• Its special use is in writing subroutine program.
• Consider a fig. The coordinates of the points Point Incremental System
P1 1, 4
P1, P2, P3 and P4 in incremental system is taken
P2 1, -3
as.
P3 5, 5
P4 -4, -4
 Difference between Absolute and Incremental System:
Sr. No. Absolute System Incremental System

1 In absolute system the tool locations are always In incremental system the tool locations are defined
defined in relation to the workpiece zero. with reference to the previous tool location.

2 It is easy to check and edit the program. It is difficult to check and edit the program.

3 The main advantage of the absolute system as In incremental system, any time the work is
compared with the incremental system, is in the interrupted, before switching on again, the operator
cases of interruption that forces the operator to must bring the tool manually to the exact place of the
stop the machine. last operation in which the interruption occurred.

4 Almost all point-to-point positioning systems Incremental systems are not often used for
use absolute system. controlling point-to-point machine tools.
5 Absolute system is used for general program. Incremental system is used for canned cycle, Do
loop and sub program.
Classification of CNC Machine Tools:
3. Based on feedback system :
a) Open Loop Control System:
 Classification of CNC Machine Tools:
3. Based on feedback system :
a) Open loop control system:
1. As shown in the Fig. it consists of an input device which loads the program in the machine. The program
is decoded in the machine understandable format and the required signals are send to the control unit
(MCU). The MCU sends the series of electrical pulses to the drive unit (stepper motor). This results in the
motion of the slides through a desired distance.

2.The stepper motor is used to drive the worktable of the machine. The output shaft of a stepper motor
rotates through a fixed angle in response to an input pulse. Thus the stepper motor converts the digital
electrical signal into proportional movement of the slide. However there is no provision to ensure that the
slide has actually moved through the desired distance only and that it has actually acquired the desired
portion as a result of this movement.
 Classification of CNC Machine Tools:
3. Based on feedback system :
a) Open loop control system:
3. The actual movement of the slide may vary with change in external conditions, wear of the
drive components, backlash error in lead screw etc.
4. As the name suggests, open loop control system has no loop (or the loop is open), since
there is no feedback device. It Is simple to design, less expensive and less accurate as
compared to closed loop control system.
5. The stepping motor is driven by a series of electrical pulses generated by the MCU.
6. Each pulse causes the motor to rotate a fraction of one revolution.
 Classification of CNC Machine Tools:
3. Based on feedback system :
b) Closed loop control system:
 Classification of CNC Machine Tools:
3. Based on feedback system :
b) Closed loop control system:

• The name indicates that the closed loop control system has a loop that is closed as shown in
Fig. A feedback device is used for this purpose. This makes the design of closed loop a little
complicated and expensive. But a very high degree of accuracy is achieved in the movement
of slide.
• This system is similar to open loop control system. But it consists of two additional devices
in the form of feedback transducer and a comparator.
• The transducer feedbacks the actual slide displacement to the comparator. The comparator
compares the actually achieved slide movement with the command signal. If there is any
error then it is feedback to the MCU.
• The MCU then sends the corrective commands to the drive unit and the cycle repeats until
there is no error signal from the comparator .
Difference between Open Loop and Closed Loop System:
Parameter Open loop control system Closed loop control system

1 It is simple in design It is complex in design

2 There is no feedback element A feedback element present in this system

3 The input is directly given to MCU The input and feedback signal is given to
the comparator which sends the required
signal to the MCU.
4 Time required for processing is less. Time required for processing is more.

5 The output may not be as desired. The output given is exactly as desired.

6 The output cannot be controlled It provides a controlled output.

7 It is cheaper as compared It is expensive as compared.

 Classification of CNC Machine Tools:
4. According to the structure of control circuits:
Analogue system and Digital system:

• Control system may be divided into analogue and digital system. In an analogue control
system the quantities may be varied continuously. In digital system, they are varied as per
presence or absence of a quantity.
• In digital system of machine tool, each cycle of information provides a voltage pulse where
each pulse represents a basic length unit which determines the system resolution. Therefore,
the digital system is of fine accuracy while the analogue information can accept any value.
• The accuracy achieved in an analogue system depends on the accuracy of various
components used to construct the electronic circuit and on the precision of sensor which is
used practically in a digital system it is easier to obtain high accuracies.
 Classification of CNC Machine Tools:

4. According to the structure of control circuits:

Analogue system and Digital system:

• Both analogue and digital system are used in CNC machine tools. The Input of the
numerical control system is always digital, as the dimensions that are from the drawing
are given in numbers which are in digital form.
• The output of numerical control system is always analogue as the slides of the machine
tools are moving in a continuous and straight path. Therefore, each one of system type
contain analogue and digital Information unit.
• The type of control, digital or analogue is called by type of information appearing at the
control loop input.
• Whenever a control loop sequence of pulses is applied, the control is digital and if the
input Is continuously variable, the control is analogue.
Selection Criteria:

• Whenever the requirement is of precision in manufacturing engineering, the

machine tool choice ahead of any other is the CNC machine. Equipped with
varying degrees of software and automation, CNC machines help to significantly
improve the efficiency of the machining processes and ultimately the quality of the
produced parts.
• But it comes in a variety of different shapes, sizes, speeds, other dimensions and
applications.
• The challenge, however, comes in selecting the right CNC machine tool for the
manufacturing unit. Within such a wide range of factors to consider, the following
parameters can narrow down to the most critical factors.
 Selection Criteria:
1. Current Machine Tool Set-Up:
• Decide on whether the existing machines in the factory are still appropriate for their manufacturing
purposes.
• Find for the limitations of the existing machines, its remaining life and the cost effectiveness of
replacing an existing machine with a newer higher performing one.
2. Part Difficulty and Complexity:
• CNC machining is used .the complexity. surface finish and precision of the parts to be produced are high.
• Parts for automotive, defense, aerospace or medical industry may have such complexity or may require
precision or multiple operations that include frequent tool changes.
3. Materials to be Machined:
• CNC machine tools are capable of working on virtually most materials, including aluminum, copper,
hardened steel, titanium and Inconel.
• The type and properties of material to be machined will influence machine tool factors as the maximum
spindle speed and max spindle motor torque needed.
• In turn this will influence the machine design and the spindle to be selected, and also the Levels of
performance, durability, Load bearing and precision that can be realized.
 Selection Criteria:
4. Linear Motion Guide Ways or Box Guide Ways:
• CNC machines that are built with Linear Motion (LM) guide ways tend to be faster but more suitable for
lighter-duty applications.
• On the other hand, machine with box guide ways are more rigid, have less vibration, and are capable of taking
on heavier cuts on large parts. However, these are normally slower than those with LM guide ways.
• This depends on the factors like speed, rigidity, load carrying capacity and tool life.
• It can be answered depending upon the material to be cut, vibrations desired rates and expected tool life.
5. Types Of CNC Control System:
• This depends upon the type of operations that will be performed on the CNC machine.
6. Cost per part:
• Cost per part can be determined by considering fixed costs and variable costs.
• Choosing a correct machine will guarantee better production effectiveness or factory profitability In the long
run.
7. Available Space At Factory:
• The space availability in the shop floor to accommodate the new machine tool has to be considered.
• This may affect the factors like movement of workers and material from machine to machine, chip disposal,
safety conditions for workers, space for future etc.
Elements of CNC Machines:

• The various elements of CNC machines includes the drive elements (stepper
motor or servo motor), feedback devices (transducers or encoders), tool magazine,
ATC, APC, indexing mechanism, slideways and recirculating ball screw, Auxiliary
systems (coolant/lubricant supply systems, tool alignment systems, automatic
clamps and brakes) Power Generation Systems (actuators and motors).
 Elements of CNC Machines:
• Slideways:
1. A slide is a moving element providing a straight line movement to a workpiece or tool holder at
a prescribed feed rate.
2. Slideways are provided on the machine tools to withstand heavy loads encountered during
cutting action. Their purpose is also to maintain the alignment of the guided parts at all
respective positions.
3. The slideways may be integral with structure and thus made by casting or joined separately at
the top face of the structure.
4. It is usual to provide the slide ways either in a vertical or inclined plane so that falling chips do
not rest over it. It contains some form of adjustment to eliminate lay between the two members
on which wear takes place.
5. Usually semi-steel with nickel and chromium is a suitable slideway material capable of resisting
wear and bending stress.
Elements of CNC Machines:

• Types of Slideways:
1. Hydrostatic Type Slide Ways.
2. Anti-friction Type Slide Ways:
 Elements of CNC Machines:
• Types of Slideways:
1. Hydrostatic Type Slide Ways.
• The slide-ways of CNC machines are subjected to different
loads and forces. It will lead to increase friction and wear
along with loss of accuracy.
• Hence a constant film of some fluid prevents metallic contact
between the sliding members and thus reduces wear to a
minimum. This film in the form of oil or air.
• Accordingly it can be called as oil lubricated or air
lubricated slideways.
• In case of oil lubricated slideways, an unbroken film of oil is
maintained by forcing oil under pressure between the mating
surfaces and pressure is automatically varied. Such type of
slideways are mostly used in CNC machine.
• In case of air lubricated slideways, compressed air is used
instead of oil
 Elements of CNC Machines:
• Types of Slideways:
2. Antifriction Type Slide Ways.
• Conventional slides, having sliding friction have
a highest value of friction at lowest velocity. This
leads to a bumpy action due to sticking of oil
lubricated sliding surfaces.
• To avoid this situation a point or line contact is
made instead of surface between the sliding parts,
there by converting sliding friction into rolling friction.
• The recirculating linear balls bearings uses balls to
roll between groove. A return groove is provided to
allow the balls to circulate with the help of deflector
plate.
Recirculating Ball Screw:
 Recirculating Ball Screw:
• Ball screw is also called as ball bearing screw or recirculating ball-screw. It consists of a
screw spindle, a nut, balls and integrated ball return mechanism
• A nut is attached to the moving part of CNC machine tool. As the screw rotates, the nut
translates the moving part along the guide ways.
• However, since the groove in the ball screw is helical, its steel balls roll along the helical
groove, and then, they may go out of the ball nut unless they are arrested at a certain spot.
Thus, it is necessary to change their path after they have reached a certain spot by guiding
them, one after another, back to their "starting point" (formation of a recirculation path).
• The recirculation parts play that role. When the screw shaft is rotating, a steel ball at point
(1) travels 3 turns of the screw groove, rolling along the grooves of the screw shaft and the
ball nut, and eventually reaches point (2). Then, the ball is forced to change its pathway at the
tip of the tube, passing back through the tube, until it finally returns to point (1). Whenever
the nut strokes on the screw shaft, the balls repeat the same recirculation inside the return
tube.
Feedback Devices:

1.Transducers:
a) Synchro Resolver
b) Inductosyn
2. Encoders:
a) Incremental Encoder
b) Absolute Encoder
 Feedback Devices: 1.Transducers:
a) Synchro Resolver
• A synchro resolver (resolver) has the windings at exactly 90° each
other and resolves the voltage into two components at a phase
difference of 90°. The peak values of these components vary
sinusoidally: they, therefore, vary as sine and cosine values
corresponding to the angular position of the rotor shaft.
• The angular position of the rotor for null depends upon the ratio
of the voltages on the two stator windings-one winding is supplied
with a voltage proportional to sine and the other winding is supplied
with a voltage corresponding to cosƟ where, Ɵ is the angular
position of the rotor shaft.
• The resolver show in Fig. has two stator windings mounted at right
angles to each other. The resolver belongs to a group of machines
called synchronous. It is suitably geared so that a displacement
of say 50 mm produces one revolution of the rotor. A similar cycle
of values is obtained for next 50 mm or 360°. A special electronics
hardware which converts this cyclic signal into digital form
is known as convertor.
 Feedback Devices: 1. Transducer:
b) Inductosyn:
• The inductosyn is a precision feedback device for the
accurate measurement and control of angles or linear
distances with inductive coupling between conductors
separated by a small air gap. Accuracy of better than
one second of arc and linear accuracy of better than 0.5
microns is achieved.
• There are two forms in inductosyns. Rotary form is used
in precision servo systems on machine tools and other
equipment as a primary signal generator for shaft digitizers.
The linear form provides means for accurate control of
elements moving in translation and widely used in automatic
machine tool controls. Fig. 4.14 shows rotary and linear
and inductosyn.
 Feedback Devices:
2. Encoders:
• Encoders are devices that are used to convert rotary or linear
motion into electrical signals that are then converted into position
and/or speed information. It is a position feedback device that
measures rotary or linear motion of the motor.
• They are classified as magnetic, contact, resistive, and optical
encoders. Optical encoders are most commonly used due to their
availability and accuracy. Optical encoders are available in either
incremental or absolute configuration for both rotary and linear
motion.
• The optical encoder has an LED light source, a light detector,
a "code" disc/wheel mounted on the shaft, and output signal
processor as shown in Fig. 4.15. The disc has alternating opaque
and transparent segments and is placed between the LED and detector
so it intermittently interrupts the LED's beam as it rotates. The detector
responds to the series of light pulses it receives and sends that
information to the processor, which actually extracts the motion
information (both amount of rotation and direction).
 Feedback Devices: 2. Encoders:

a) Incremental Encoder:
• Incremental encoders generate an output signal each time the
shaft rotates a certain amount.
• Each time the encoder is powered on it begins counting from zero,
regardless of where the shaft is. Initial homing to a reference point
is therefore inevitable in all positioning tasks, both upon start-up of
the control system and whenever power to the encoder has been
interrupted.
• The principle of the incremental measuring system is the scanning of
a line pattern on the disc shown in Fig. 4.16. The states of the line
pattern transparent or not transparent are converted into electronic
pulses by an opto-electronic unit (for example, transparent = 5V, not
transparent = OV). The analysis of the signals is performed in an
evaluation unit by counting up or down with each pulse. The current
count is stored in digital form and is instantly available for evaluation.
 Feedback Devices:2. Encoders:
a) Incremental Encoder:
• However, this method has some serious disadvantages. It is possible that the result is
continuously invalid due to signal glitches, unmeasured impulses or similar problems.
• Furthermore, after a loss of the supply voltage it is often necessary to return to a
reference point which can cure complications.
• For these reasons applications with a high emphasis on precision or applications where it
is complicated or not possible to return to the reference point often use the absolute
measuring
system.
• An incremental encoder provides excellent speed and distance feedback and, since there
are few sensors involved, the systems are both simple
and inexpensive.
• An incremental encoder is limited by only providing change information, so the encoder
requires a reference device to calculate motion.
Feedback Devices:- 2. Encoders:
b) Absolute Encoder:
• Absolute encoders do not lose their position when electrical
power is lost. They are capable of providing unique position
values from the moment they are switched on. This is accomplished
by scanning the position of a coded element as all the positions in
these systems correspond to a unique code. Even movements that
occur while the system is without power are translated into
accurate position values once the encoder is powered up again.
• Absolute encoders typically consist of a circular disk with
several sets of concentric rings. Each ring has several positions,
each identified by a definite code on a glass or plastic disc. This
code is represented on the disc in the form of light and dark
regions within different tracks. This combination relates to an
absolute numerical value.
 Feedback Devices:- 2. Encoders:
b) Absolute Encoder:
• Thus, the position value is always directly available, counters are not necessary to count value In this manner,
the position of the encoder is known without having to go through a homing routine required for incremental
encoders.
• A closer examination of the disk reveals that there are nine tracks of lines on nine concentric circles within
the disk. The outermost circle contains 128 lines, the next circle in contains 64, then 32, then 16, then 8, then
4, then 2, and then the two innermost circles contain one line each.
• This absolute encoder would have nine optical sensors all in a row extending out on a radius from the center
of the disk. Each of the nine sensors would sense the presence or absence of a black line in the circle of lines
it is positioned qver. If a line is present, the sensor output would be high or in a logic "1" state. If the line is
absent, the sensor output would be in a low or logic "0" state.
• Using the outer nine circles of lines, this absolute encoder would be able to sense 512 unique positions in one
360-degree revolution of the disk. The 512 positions would have Gray code binary outputs of 000000000,
000000001, 000000010, 000000110, 000000111, and so on. Each of the 512 positions around the disk could
be identified by a unique 9-bit binary code that the encoder would present at its outputs.
• Absolute encoders generally cost much more than an incremental encoder of the same resolution.
• These are used in applications where it is critical that the current position of something be known
immediately upon power up or after the loss of power like in weather station to record wind direction.
 Automatic Tool Changer:
• In a machining center, several different cutting tools are used to produce a part.
• To improve the utilization of the machining center, it is necessary to minimize the idle
motion of the tool.
• The tool must be replaced quickly for the next machining operation.
• In such cases ATC plays a very important role. ATC are used on machines where a number
of tools are used for machining operations.
• They allow tool changing without the intervention of the operator.
• The tool is automatically selected and changed by the T-word and use of miscellaneous
function (M06).
• Typically, an ATC grips the tool in the spindle, pulls it out and replaces it with another tool.
An ATC is provided to pick-up the programmed tool from the tool magazine and mount it on
the spindle. The removed tool is put back in the magazine and the ATC picks-up the next
tool.
 Automatic Tool Changer:
• The ATC is thus ready with the tool for the next operation and awaits the current operation
to be over to replace the tool.
• Several machining centers can perform tool change operation in less than 4 seconds.
• An ATC consists of a tool magazine for storing the tools and a tool change unit for
transferring the tool from tool magazine to machine spindle. An ATC arm is shown in Fig.
4.18. along with a tool magazine.
Tool Magazine:

• The tool magazine is used to store the tools required during the machining
operation.
• Storage capacity of tool magazines starts with about 12 tools and can go as high as
200 more, while 30 to 60 being the most common capacity.
• The tools in the tool magazine are identified by the tool number using the same
number the part program.
 Types of Tool Magazine:
• The magazine used to store the tool varies in size and shape depending on the capacity machine on which it is
used. The common types of tool magazine are:
1. Drum type: In drum type the tools are arranged around a drum which is generally circular in shape. The
drum rotates for the purpose of tool change to bring the required tool to the tool change arm. The number of
tools which the drum can hold depends on its diameter. This type is used for storing a lower number of tools. A
typical drum type magazine is shown in figure.
2. Chain type: The chain type magazine is used for storing a large number of tools with required flexibility.
The tools are held in a pocket. The pockets are attached to a chain which moves on the sprockets. The chain can
be arranged to follow any path as shown in figure, thereby increasing the capacity of the magazine.
Tool Changing Cycle

• The tool magazine should be kept close to the spindle to minimize the tool
changing time.
• The tool changing cycle consists of two parts:

1. Tool selection cycle:

In this cycle the tool which is programmed in the part program comes to the tool
change position.

2. Tool transfer cycle:

In this part of the cycle the selected tool is transferred to the spindle and the spindle
tool transferred to the magazine.
Tool Changing Cycle
• To stop the spindle.
• Move the tool changing arm to the spindle.
• Pick the tool from the spindle.
• Index the tool changing arm and reach to the tool magazine.
• Index the tool magazine into the position where the tool from the spindle is to be
placed.
• Place the tool in the tool magazine.
• Again index the tool magazine to bring the required tool to the tool changing position.
• Pick the tool by the tool changing arm from the tool magazine.
• Index the tool changing arm and reach to the spindle.
• Place the new tool in the spindle.
• Move back the tool changing arm to its home position.
This total tool changing procedure takes between 2 to 10 seconds only.
 Importance of ATC and tool magazine
• CNC machine is used to reduce the production cycle time. This is achieved by using higher
cutting speed tools
• But the time is also required in idle motion of the tool and to change the cutting tool.
• Moreover the tool changing is done by the operator which consumes time
• The tool must be replaced quickly for the next machining operation.
• In such case ATC plays a very important role.
• ATC is used on machines where number of tools are used for machining operations.
• They allow tool changing without the intervention of the operator.
• The tool is automatically selected and changed as mentioned in the part program.
• The ATC cannot function properly if the tools are not located near the ATC arm.
• Therefore a tool magazine is used to store the tools on the machine.
• The tools in the tool magazine are Identified by the tool number.
• An ATC grips the tool in the spindle, pulls it out and replaces it with another tool in less than
10 seconds.
 Automatic Pallet Changer
• A number of operations are performed on a component machined in a machining centre. So
the setting time and operating time of the components machined in machining centre are
usually high. When a component and toolings are set-up on a machining centre the machine
and operator are idle, resulting in heavy loss.
• A solution to avoid this is to have a second table on which the next workpiece can be set-up
while one component on table is being machined. The worktables are called pallets.
• The automatic pallet changer system on the machine reduces such unproductive time during
machining. The palletizing system consists of two or more pallets.
• The pallet when transferred from the pallet changer to the machine gets located and
clamped either hydraulically or mechanically. The function of pallet changer is to
interchange the pallet on the machine which carries the finished component and the other
pallet with the newly loaded component.
 The pallet exchange process is performed in three phases:

• First, the shifting slide should be connected to the rotation slide on the X-axis by
pins, which should be inserted into the lock. This shifting motion is provided by a
rack and pinion.
• Second, the pallet itself is moved by a chain, where the pallet is pulled by the pin
up to the and clamping position.
• Third the fixing and clamping is carried out by means of precise centering pins
and clamping position hydraulics.
• Afterward, the shifting slide will be disconnected and the pallet is ready in its
machining position.
The whole cycle of the pallet exchange takes approx. 100 sec.
 Types of Pallet Changers
There are three main types of pallet changers in most CNC machine tools - manual,
automated and robotic
1. Manual pallet systems:
• The operator has to physically load and unload the pallet, with the raw / finished part, to
from a machining station located and mounted on top of the machine table. Of the three
options, this is the most labourious and least automated version.
2. Automated pallet systems:
• These are normally built-into the machine and operated automatically by the machine
itself.
• The human intervention comes from the loading and unloading of parts at the pallet station.
3. Robotic pallet systems:
• These usually utilize a robot to load and unload pallets. The robot is often able to serve one
to multiple machines. However, these are fairly costly and are often found in locations with
high labour costs or insufficient skilled manpower. Difficulties for such systems may arise
whenever customized and very specific manufacturing needs are required
 Types of Automatic Pallet Changer Systems
• There are primarily two different types of automated pallet changers which are
Integrated Into CNC manufacturing systems or machines.
1. Shuttle type pallet changers
• A pallet with parts after completion that would leave the inside of a machine on
rails. A second pallet is then pushed into the machine.
• This system is considered more traditional and may take a longer time for pallet
exchange to be made.
2. Swing type pallet changers
• The pallet with the finished part is lifted up together with the pallet with the
(unfinished) part. It is then rotated 180 degrees and placed onto the CNC index or
rotary table. At the same time, the first pallet is placed on the loading and unloading
stations. Such a simultaneous process of hooking and unhooking pallets reduces the
time needed and improves efficiency. It also provides a smoother change-over.
Benefits of Automatic Pallet Changers

Automatic pallet changers offers the following benefits for CNC machining:
• Improved machine usage through continuous machining processes and reduced
non-productive time.
• Simplify pallet changing to a mere push of a button or command on the CNC
console.
• Increase flexibility for a single machine to be deployed for multiple functions.
• Allow for the unmanned operation of the machine over a longer period of time.
 Tool Presetting
• Most of the CNC machines have no built-in tool measurement mechanism, so to
measure CNC machine tools external tool measuring devices are used.
• These tool measuring devices are called Tool Presetters or Tool Presetting Devices.
• A CNC tool presetter is a highly accurate device which is used to measure the CNC
machine tools.
• As the machining is carried by the tool tip, it is important to know the exact dimensions
of the tool when it is placed in the spindle.
• It therefore becomes necessary to know precisely the deviation of the tool tip from the
gauge point on the spindle. Hence the tool setting equipment is generally used.
Tool Presetting
• In this system, the base is provided with the exact
taper as used in the actual machine tool. The assembled
tool is therefore placed in the spindle taper. The measurement
is done with the help of a micrometer head, which is attached
to a U-clamp. The U-clamp can be moved manually on a post,
which has precise location slots that are separated by an exact
distance (for example, 25 mm). The length of the tool can
therefore be measured by the measurement of the micrometer
plus the slots along the post.
 Qualified Tool
• Tool which fits into a location on the machine, where its cutting edge is accurately positioned within
close limits relative to a specified datum on the tool holder or slide, is known as qualified tool.
• In qualified tool the cutting tool or edge is maintained at a fixed distance within a tolerance of = 0.05
with respect to the reference surface of the holder.
• Qualified tools are the tools on which the position of the cutting edge is guaranteed within dose
limits accuracy from a specified datum on the tool holder.
• The qualified dimensions are applied to the tool tip from the three datum. Usually the datum are
formed by the tool holder. Since the dimensions of tool holder are fixed and known, precise
position of tool tip is known and accurate positioning on the machine tool is possible.
Advantages of Qualified Tool

• No presetting device is used so the investment is less.

• The tools need not be measured individually.
• Set-up time is reduced as detailed planning as in tool presetting is not needed.
• There is no need of trial cuts before taking rough cuts.
• Programming is easy with respect to qualified tool.
 Types of Tool Holder
• A tool holder is a machining component that holds the cutting tool in place. Its purpose is
to hold the tool in place as precisely and firmly as possible, so that any cutting force or
vibration will not runout or break the cutting tool. It is essential that the insert be
supported in a strong rigid manner to minimize deflection and possible vibration.

1. Turning Tool Holder

2. Collets
 1.Turning Tool Holder
• There is a range of choices for turning tool body. It depends
upon the type of operation done by the insert. A specific
tool holder is shown in Fig. 4.26
• The specific tool holder shape corresponds to the type of
Insert that Is to be fitted in it.
• The ANSI numbering system for turning tool holders has
assigned letters to specific geometries in terms of lead
angle and end cutting edge angle.
• The primary lathe machining operations of turning, facing,
grooving, threading and cut-off are covered by one of the
seven basic tools styles outlined by the ANSI system.
 2. Collets
• Milling cutters, drill on lathe and other straight-shank cutting tools are usually held
in place by a collet.
• The two principal types of collets are spring collets and solid collets. Spring collets
are keyed Into the spindle to give the driving force, but they depend on friction to
hold the cutting tool in place. Solid collets are connected to and driven by the spindle
through drive keys, but the cutting tools are held In place by set screws that push
against a flat on the shank of the cutting tool.
• The length of the toolholder can be extended with adapters placed on the nose of the
toolholder
• Straight-shank tools are usually mounted in the collet, which has jaws that clamp the
sides of the tool to align it and hold it in place. Adjustable collets are also available
with internal jaws that are tightened on the tool shank using a key that acts as a gear
to turn a locking mechanism within the collet.
2. Collets
Fig. shows an adjustable collet, which uses a
special geared key to loosen and tighten the drill
in the collet. Adjustable collets are used to quickly
change drills of various sizes, but aren't used for
precision work because they don't have the accuracy
or concentricity of a fixed collet.
 Machining Center
• Each machine tool, regardless of how well it is automated, is designed to perform basically one type of
operation. But in manufacturing operations most parts require a number of different cutting operations
on their various surfaces.
• For example, consider a diesel engine block. All surfaces on this engine block require different types of
machining operations, such as facing, milling, drilling, boring, threading etc. The traditional way to
perform these operations is by moving the part from one machine tool to another until all machining
operations are completed. Thus It consume a considerable time in moving parts from one machine-to-
machine, clamping them and then removing them from machine table.
• The capability of CNC machines has also been enhanced by addition of automatic tool changer and tool
magazine, thus making them versatile. The CNC milling machine with such capabilities is called as
machining center.
• A machining center is a computer-controlled machine tool with automatic tool changing capability. The
machining center is designed to perform a variety of cutting operations on different surfaces of the work
piece. Any machining center is capable of carrying out milling, drilling, reaming, tapping, boring,
facing and other operations without operator intervention for change of tools.
 Machining Center
• In a machining center after a particular operation, say face milling has been completed, the
workplace does not have to be moved to another machine for additional operations, say
pocketing, drilling or boring. But the same set-up will enable different operations to be
performed. In other words, the tool and the machine are brought to the workplace.
• One of the greatest benefits of machining centre was the elimination of multiple set-ups for
different operations. This also reduced the lead time of the product. Another important feature of
machining centre is multiple pallets (also called as work table). While the work piece on one
pallet is being machined, the operator set-up the next work piece on the free pallet. When the
work piece is machined, the automatic pallet changer (APC) moves the pallet with the finished
work piece away from the working area and moves the other pallet with the new work piece to
the working area. The operator can then load the finished work plece from the first pallet and
set-up a new work piece on it while the operation on second pallet is being carried out.
• Machining centers with several pallets are also available where machine can be programmed to
accept new pallet when the work on the previous pallet is completed.
• Thus, on machining center, the non-productive time is reduced to a great extent.
Need of Machining Center

• To reduce the non-productive time and thereby reduce the lead time.

• To increase the productivity.

• To reduce the work in process.

• To reduce the floor space area.

• To reduce the number of skilled operators and the problem associated with them.
 Characteristic of Machining Center

• These are versatile machines capable of changeover of from one type of product to another.

• The time required for loading and unloading the workpiece is reduced due to use of APC.

• The time required for loading and unloading the cutting tool is reduced due to use of APC.

• They are capable of handling efficiently, the parts of various shapes and sizes.

• They can repetitively produce a high dimensional accuracy.

• A machining center operator can handle two or more machines at the same time.

• Faster cutting speeds and heavier cutting depths and feeds can be obtained.
Advantages of Machining Center

• It increases productivity.

• It can machine to a much closed tolerance.

• Less floor time between operations reduces the inventory.

• Less chances of error as it eliminates the use of number of machines.

Types of Machining Center
1. Horizontal Machining Center (HMC).
2. Vertical Machining Center (VMC).
3. Universal Machining Center (UMC).
1. Horizontal Machining Center (HMC).
• These machines generally have a single spindle aligned horizontally.
• This is the redesign of CNC milling machine with ability to perform variety of
operations.
• They are suitable for large workpiece requiring machining on all the surfaces. This
requires numbers of tools making the tool magazine heavier.
• Some of the HMC also have a rotary table. This features enables the machining of all
faces of the work piece.
Types of Machining Center
2. Vertical Machining Center (VMC):
• As the name suggests these machines have a vertical spindle mounted in the vertical
machine head.
• The vertical head can also be swiveled either in one or two axes (about X or Y axis.)
• They are suitable for machining vertical surfaces of long work pieces with deep
cavities such as in mould and die making.
3. Universal Machining Center (UMC):
• They are similar in construction to horizontal machining centers with an additional
capability of tilting the table. This provides a fourth axis to the machine.
• Even the spindle can be swiveled from horizontal plane to vertical plane by the use of
G-codes. They have a variety of features and are capable of machining all surfaces of a
work piece.
Principal Parts of Horizontal Machining Center
Components of Horizontal Machining Center:
i) Bed
ii) Saddle
iii) Column
iv) Table
v) Tool Changer
vi) Spindle
vii) Servo Systems
 Principal Parts of Horizontal Machining Center
1. Bed:- It is a heavy cast iron structure which supports the complete the machine. It carries
hardened guide ways over its top surface.
2. Saddle:- It is mounted over the guideways on the bed and carries the column over it. The saddle
generally provides the X – axis movement in he machining center. Special recirculating bearings
are provided for the movement of saddle.
3. Column:- It is mounted over the saddle and provides a Y – axis linear movement to the spindle.
4. Table:- It is made of cast iron and mounted over the guide ways machined on the saddle. It has
T – shaped slot milled on it for mounting the work holding devices. The table provides Z – axis
movement on the machining center.
5. Tool changer:- It is an automatic devices used to change the tool from the machine spindle. It is
placed closed to the spindle to enable tool change rapidly.
6. Spindle:- It is mounted on the headstock and it also provides Z – axis
7. Servo System:- This system consists of servo motors and feedback system. It enables accurate
and rapid movement along X, Y and Z axes.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Horizontal Machining Center:
Advantages of Horizontal Machining Center:
• Table indexing capability enables multiple sides of work piece to be machined in one
setting and clamping.
• Chips drop out of the way during machining preventing re-cutting of chips.
• Operators station is to one side of the column, providing good line of sight control.
• Pallet shuttle/exchange mechanisms are open, accessible and easy to service.
• Ideally suited for large, boxy heavy parts
• Overall more flexible.
Disadvantages of Horizontal Machining Center:
• Difficult to load and unload large, flat plate type work pieces.
• Heavy tools can deflect
• Generally more costly.
Principal Parts of Vertical Machining Center:
Components of Vertical Machining Center:
i) Bed
ii) Saddle
iii) Column
iv) Table
v) Tool Changer
vi) Spindle
vii) Servo Systems
Advantages and Disadvantages of Vertical Machining Center:
Advantages of Vertical Machining Center:
• Thrust is absorbed directly into the machine table during deep tool thrust operations such
as drilling or pocketing
• Ideal for large, flat plate work and single surface, three axis contouring.
• Heavy tools can be used without concern about deflection.
• Generally less costly.
Disadvantages:
• As workpiece size increases it becomes more difficult to conventionally look down into
the cut.
• Extensive chip build-up obstructs view of the cut and re-cuts chips
• On large verticals, head weights and distance from the column can cause head drop and
loss of accuracy.
• Not suitable for large, boxy and heavy parts.
Differentiate between Vertical and Horizontal Machining Center:
Sr. No. Vertical Machining Center Horizontal Machining Center

1 The spindle axis is vertical Spindle axis is horizontal

2 It is comparatively more versatile and It is comparatively more rigid in

hence it can generate more complex construction and hence it is used for heavy
shapes workpiece.
3 It has a comparatively low metal It provides heavy metal removal rate so big
removal capacity. cutting tools are used
4 Tool magazine can accommodate less Tool magazine have higher capacity to
number of cutting tools. accommodates the tools.
5 Comparatively less expensive Heavier construction increases the cost
 Thumb Rule for Axis Identification
• The axes can be identified by using right hand and is known
as right hand thumb rule for axis identification.
• The Z axis is fixed as the main spindle axis. It is inclined by
the Middle finger of the right hand.
• The X axis is horizontal and parallel to the W/P surface.
• Y axis is indicated by the index finger of the right hand and
is perpendicular to the X and Z axes.
• The positive direction of all three axes is along the outward
direction of the fingers (away from the palm).
• The negative direction of all three axes is along the fingers
pointing towards the palm.
Turning Center:
• A turning center is a lathe machine with a computer numerical control.
• Turning centers looks similar to lathe but are more advanced.
• Sophisticated turning centers can also perform a variety of drilling, threading,
knurling etc many more applications.
• CNC turning centers can produce more parts per day than conventional CNC
lathe. Turning
centers are more efficient in terms of design.
• Turning centers are widely used in making components with axisymmetric
geometry. These are generally machined with 2-axis control. (Z-axis parallel to the
spindle and X-axis perpendicular to spindle axis).
• Turning centres are classified as: (1) Horizontal machines and (ID) Vertical
Machines
Horizontal Turning Center:

• The horizontal machines are further classified as:

1) Chucking Machines.
2) Universal Machines.
 1. Chucking Machines.
• Chucking machines are fitted with additional sub-spindle to carry out both first and second operation
in the same set-up. These spindles will have synchronized drives to enable transfer of work from one
spindle to another.
• In some machines the sub-spindle is fixed and work transfer is achieved with the aid of two turrets.
• Chucking machines are often fitted with bar feeding mechanisms. Twin spindle chuckers ensure high
productivity. These are used for workpieces, which are to be finished in two end operations
• The first operation is performed on the first spindle and the second operation on the second
spindle. These will have an automatic work transfer system, which transfers the workpiece from
one spindle to another.
• The advantage of these machines is that they ensure a continuous supply of parts for assembly
operations.
• A typical example of a workpiece suited for such machines is the Impeller of a centrifugal pump
 2. Universal Lathes
• Universal lathes are suitable for both chucking and for bar work. They are often fitted with steady
rest and follower rest to accurately machine slender components.
• 4-axis machines have two turrets; each mounted on an independent slide and facilitates simultaneous
machining with two tools.

• Some lathes have rotating tools in the turrets to facilitate off-axis machining such as drilling, milling,
reaming, tapping, boring etc. These machines have in addition to the conventional X and Z-axes,
CNC control of the spindle rotation i.e. C-axis.

• Turning centres eliminate the need for separate settings for milling, drilling and allied
operations. Turning centres enable the components to be finished in one set up thereby reducing lead
time and improving the accuracy of machined parts.

• CNC turning centres have rotating tools on the turret. With these tools operations like off-centre
drilling, milling (keyway or slot milling), tapping etc. can be done on workpieces after turning

A servomotor is provided on the tool turret to drive the live tools. This requires an additional axis
called C-axis (spindle orientation control). Some machines will have special main drive, which will
also serve the function of C-axis drive.
 Vertical Turning Center:
• Vertical CNC Lathes (Turn Mill Centres):

• Vertical CNC lathes are widely used for machining heavy components, some of these
machines can also be used for milling operations,

• Such machines are sometimes known as turn mill centres. This type of machines is very
popular in aerospace industries where components of large diameters need to be
turned, drilled and milled.
 Turnmill Center:
• In order to perform operations like drilling, milling, facing or cutting keyways on turnmill centres,
two separate drives are provided.
• The machine is designed to perform turning as well as milling operations. In order to do so, the
main spindle is not used. Instead the tool will rotate in the tool turret.
• A separate drive is provided in the turret so that the tools of the class of drill can rotate in the
drive. This form a separate axis called the C axis.
• Thus the combinations of two linear and one rotary axis makes the machine tool versatile
machine a wide range of surfaces.
• This type of machine reduces the number of set-ups and therefore reduces cycle times.
• Accuracy is improved as there are fewer set-ups. Very often designers break down complex
components Into a number of parts to facilitate machining. Turnmill eliminate this need thereby
increasing the integrity of the part.
• Another advantage of Turnmill centers is the reduction in cost because of reduction in set-ups,
eliminating the need for several fixtures.