UNIT – IV

Boolean Algebra.
Laws and Identities of Boolean algebra, DeMorgan‟s Theorem , use of
Boolean Algebra for simplification of logic expression, K-Map for 2,3,4
variables, simplification of SOP and POS logic expression using K-Map.

Laws and Identities of Boolean algebra

Boolean Algebra is used to analyze and simplify the digital (logic)
circuits. It uses only the binary numbers i.e. 0 and 1. It is also called
as Binary Algebra or logical Algebra. Boolean algebra was invented
by George Boole in 1854.

 Rules in Boolean Algebra

Following are the important rules used in Boolean algebra.
1. Variable used can have only two values. Binary 1 for HIGH and
Binary 0 for LOW.
2. Complement of a variable is represented by an overbar (-). Thus,
complement of variable B is represented as . Thus if B = 0
then = 1 and B = 1 then = 0.
3. ORing of the variables is represented by a plus (+) sign between
them. For example ORing of A, B, C is represented as A + B + C.
4. Logical ANDing of the two or more variable is represented by
writing a dot between them such as A.B.C. Sometime the dot may
be omitted like ABC.

 Boolean Laws
There are six types of Boolean Laws.

1.Commutative law
Any binary operation which satisfies the following expression is
referred to as commutative operation.

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Commutative law states that changing the sequence of the variables
does not have any effect on the output of a logic circuit.

2.Associative law
This law states that the order in which the logic operations are
performed is irrelevant as their effect is the same.

3.Distributive law
Distributive law states the following condition.

4.AND law
These laws use the AND operation. Therefore they are called
as AND laws.

5.OR law
These laws use the OR operation. Therefore they are called as OR laws.

6.INVERSION law
This law uses the NOT operation. The inversion law states that double
inversion of a variable results in the original variable itself.

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 DeMorgan’s Theorem
DeMorgan’s Theorem is mainly used to solve the various Boolean
algebra expressions. The Demorgan‟s theorem defines the uniformity
between the gate with the same inverted input and output. It is used for
implementing the basic gate operation likes NAND gate and NOR gate.

The Demorgan‟s theorem mostly used in digital programming and for

making digital circuit diagrams.De Morgan has suggested two theorems
which are extremely useful in Boolean Algebra. The two theorems are
discussed below.

Theorem 1

 The left hand side (LHS) of this theorem represents a NAND gate
with inputs A and B, whereas the right hand side (RHS) of the
theorem represents an OR gate with inverted inputs.
 This OR gate is called as Bubbled OR.

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Table showing verification of the De Morgan's first theorem −

Theorem 2

 The LHS of this theorem represents a NOR gate with inputs A and
B, whereas the RHS represents an AND gate with inverted inputs.
 This AND gate is called as Bubbled AND.

Table showing verification of the De Morgan's second theorem −

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 Use of Boolean Algebra for simplification of logic expression
Boolean algebra, a logic algebra, allows the rules used in the algebra of
numbers to be applied to logic. It formalizes the rules of logic. Boolean
algebra is used to simplify Boolean expressions which
represent combinational logic circuits. It reduces the original expression
to an equivalent expression that has fewer terms which means that less
logic gates are needed to implement the combinational logic circuit.

Laws of Boolean Algebra

Boolean Algebra Laws are used to simplify boolean expressions.

Basic Boolean Laws

1. Idempotent Law
o A* A= A
o A+ A= A
2. Associative Law
o (A * B) * C = A * (B * C)
o (A + B) + C = A + (B + C)
3. Commutative Law
o A*B = B*A
o A+ B =B+ A
4. Distributive Law
o A * (B + C) = A * B + A * C
o A + (B * C) = (A + B) * (A + C)
5. Identity Law
o A*0 =0 A*1=A
o A+ 1 =1 A+0=A
6. Complement Law

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 oA * ~A = 0
o A + ~A = 1
7. Involution Law
o ~(~A) = A
8. DeMorgan's Law
o ~(A * B) = ~A + ~B
o ~(A + B) = ~A * ~B

 Boolean Expression Simplification

The following shows an example of using algebraic techniques to
simplify a boolean expression

~(A * B) * (~A + B) * (~B + B)

~(A * B) * (~A + B) * 1 6 - Complement law

~(A * B) * (~A + B) 5 - Identity law

(~A + ~B) * (~A + B) 8 - DeMorgan's law

~A + ~B * B 4 - Distributive law

~A + 0 6 - Complement law

~A 5 - Identity law

Each line gives the new expression and the rule or rules used to derive it
from the previous one. Usually there are several ways to reach the result.

 Application of Boolean Algebra

Combinational Logic Circuit Design comprises the following steps

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 1. From the design specification, obtain the truth table
2. From the truth table, derive the Sum of Products Boolean
Expression.
3. Use Boolean Algebra to simplify the boolean expression. The
simpler the boolean expression, the less logic gates will be used.
4. Use logic gates to implement the simplified Boolean Expression.

K-Map for 2,3,4 variables

Karnaugh introduced a method for simplification of Boolean functions
in an easy way. This method is known as Karnaugh map method or K-
map method. It is a graphical method, which consists of 2n cells for „n‟
variables. The adjacent cells are differed only in single bit position.

K-Maps for 2 to 4 Variables

K-Map method is most suitable for minimizing Boolean functions of 2

variables to 5 variables. Now, let us discuss about the K-Maps for 2 to 5
variables one by one.

2 Variable K-Map
The number of cells in 2 variable K-map is four, since the number of
variables is two. The following figure shows 2 variable K-Map.

 There is only one possibility of grouping 4 adjacent min terms.

 The possible combinations of grouping 2 adjacent min terms are
{(m0, m1), (m2, m3), (m0, m2) and (m1, m3)}.

3 Variable K-Map

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The number of cells in 3 variable K-map is eight, since the number of
variables is three. The following figure shows 3 variable K-Map.

 There is only one possibility of grouping 8 adjacent min terms.

 The possible combinations of grouping 4 adjacent min terms are
{(m0, m1, m3, m2), (m4, m5, m7, m6), (m0, m1, m4, m5), (m1, m3, m5,
m7), (m3, m2, m7, m6) and (m2, m0, m6, m4)}.
 The possible combinations of grouping 2 adjacent min terms are
{(m0, m1), (m1, m3), (m3, m2), (m2, m0), (m4, m5), (m5, m7), (m7,
m6), (m6, m4), (m0, m4), (m1, m5), (m3, m7) and (m2, m6)}.
 If x=0, then 3 variable K-map becomes 2 variable K-map.

4 Variable K-Map
The number of cells in 4 variable K-map is sixteen, since the number of
variables is four. The following figure shows 4 variable K-Map.

 There is only one possibility of grouping 16 adjacent min terms.

 Let R1, R2, R3 and R4 represents the min terms of first row, second
row, third row and fourth row respectively. Similarly, C 1, C2,
C3 and C4 represents the min terms of first column, second
column, third column and fourth column respectively. The
possible combinations of grouping 8 adjacent min terms are {(R 1,
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 R2), (R2, R3), (R3, R4), (R4, R1), (C1, C2), (C2, C3), (C3, C4), (C4,
C1)}.
 If w=0, then 4 variable K-map becomes 3 variable K-map

Sum-of-Products (SOP) Form

Product-of-sums (POS) form
A Boolean function is an algebraic form of Boolean expression. A
Boolean function of n-variables is represented by f(x1, x2, x3….xn). By
using Boolean laws and theorems, we can simplify the Boolean
functions of digital circuits. A brief note of different ways of
representing a Boolean function is shown below.

 Sum-of-Products (SOP) Form

 Product-of-sums (POS) form
 Canonical forms

There are two types of canonical forms:

 Sum-of-min terms or Canonical SOP

 Product-of- max terms or Canonical POS

Boolean functions can be represented by using NAND gates and also by

using K-map (Karnaugh map) method. We can standardize the Boolean
expressions by using by two standard forms.

SOP form – Sum Of Products form

POS form – Product Of Sums form

Standardization of Boolean equations will make the implementation,

evolution and simplification easier and more systematic.

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 1. Sum of Product (SOP) Form
The sum-of-products (SOP) form is a method (or form) of simplifying
the Boolean expressions of logic gates. In this SOP form of Boolean
function representation, the variables are operated by AND (product) to
form a product term and all these product terms are ORed (summed or
added) together to get the final function.

A sum-of-products form can be formed by adding (or summing) two or

more product terms using a Boolean addition operation. Here the
product terms are defined by using the AND operation and the sum term
is defined by using OR operation.

The sum-of-products form is also called as Disjunctive Normal Form as

the product terms are ORed together and Disjunction operation is logical
OR. Sum-of-products form is also called as Standard SOP.

SOP form representation is most suitable to use them in FPGA (Field

Programmable Gate Arrays).

Examples

AB + ABC + CDE

( B) + B + D

SOP form can be obtained by

 Writing an AND term for each input combination, which produces

HIGH output.
 Writing the input variables if the value is 1, and write the
complement of the variable if its value is 0.
 OR the AND terms to obtain the output function.

x: Boolean expression for majority function F = ‟B + B‟ + B

„+ B

Truth table:
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Now write the input variables combination with high output. F = AB +
BC + AC.

2. Product of Sums (POS) Form

The product of sums form is a method (or form) of simplifying the
Boolean expressions of logic gates. In this POS form, all the variables
are ORed, i.e. written as sums to form sum terms.

All these sum terms are ANDed (multiplied) together to get the product-
of-sum form. This form is exactly opposite to the SOP form. So this can
also be said as “Dual of SOP form”.

Here the sum terms are defined by using the OR operation and the
product term is defined by using AND operation. When two or more
sum terms are multiplied by a Boolean OR operation, the resultant
output expression will be in the form of product-of-sums form or POS
form.

The product-of-sums form is also called as Conjunctive Normal Form as

the sum terms are ANDed together and Conjunction operation is logical
AND. Product-of-sums form is also called as Standard POS.

Examples

(A+B) * (A + B + C) * (C +D)

( +B) * ( + D + )
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POS form can be obtained by

 Writing an OR term for each input combination, which produces

LOW output.
 Writing the input variables if the value is 0, and write the
complement of the variable if its value is 1.
 AND the OR terms to obtain the output function.

Ex: Boolean expression for majority function F = (A + B + C) (A + B +

„) ( + B‟ + ) ( ‟ + B + )

Now write the input variables combination with high output. F = AB +

BC + AC.

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