Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT)

LVDT is an Electromechanical type Inductive Transducer that converts rectilinear

displacement into the AC Electrical Signal. Since LVDT is a secondary transducer, physical
quantities such as Force, Weight, Tension, Pressure, etc are first converted into displacement by a
primary transducer and then LVDT is used to measure it in terms of the corresponding Electrical
signal.
The working principle of LVDT is the same as that of a Transformer (i.e. Mutual Induction
Principle). The output across its secondary coil is in the form of differential voltage; hence it is
named as Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT).

LVDT Construction

LVDT consists of one primary winding P and two secondary windings S1 & S2 mounted on a
cylindrical former. Both the secondary windings (S1 & S2) has an equal number of turns and is
placed identically on either side of the primary winding in such a way that the net output will be the
difference of the voltage of both secondary windings. There is a movable soft iron core placed inside
the former.

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 The movable core also is laminated in order to reduce the eddy current losses. The
displacement to be measured is attached to this movable soft iron core. LVDT is placed inside the
stainless steel housing because it will provide electrostatic and electromagnetic shielding.

LVDT working principle

The working principle of LVDT is based on the mutual induction principle. When AC
excitation of 5-15 V at a frequency of 50-400Hz is applied to the primary winding, then a magnetic
field is produced. This magnetic field induces a mutual current in secondary windings. Due to this,
the induced voltages in secondary windings (S1 & S2) are E1 & E2 respectively. Since both the
secondary windings are connected in series opposition, So the net output voltage will be the
difference of both induced voltages (E1 & E2) in secondary windings. Hence Differential Output of
LVDT will be EOUT = E1 – E2.

The working of the LVDT circuit diagram can be divided into three cases based on the
position of the iron core.

Case 1: When the core is at Null position:

When the core is at the null position then the flux linkage
with both the secondary windings will be the same. So
the induced emf (E1 & E2) in both the windings will be
the same. Hence the Net differential output voltage EOUT =
E1 – E2 will be zero. It shows that no displacement of the
core.

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Case 2: When the core moves towards S1:

When the core of LVDT moves toward Secondary winding

S1, the flux linkage with S1 will be more as compared to
S2. This means the emf induced in S1 will be more than
the induced emf in S2. Hence E1>E2 and Net differential
output voltage EOUT = E1 – E2 will be positive. This means
the output voltage EOUT will be in phase with the primary
voltage.

Case 3: When the core moves towards S2:

When the core of LVDT moves toward Secondary winding

S2. Then, in this case, the flux linkage with S2 will be
more as compared to S1. This means the emf induced in
S2 will be more than the induced emf in S1. Hence E2>E1
and Net differential output voltage EOUT = E1 – E2 will be
negative. This means the output voltage EOUT will be in
phase opposition (180 degrees out of phase) with the
primary voltage.

From the three cases, we have the following conclusions:

 The direction of the movement of an object can be identified with the help of the differential
output voltage of LVDT. If the output voltage EOUT is positive, the object is moving towards the
Left from the Null position.

 If the output voltage EOUT is negative, the object is moving towards the Right of the Null
position.

 The amount or magnitude of displacement is proportional to the differential output of LVDT.

The more the output voltage, the more will be the displacement of the object.

 If the core is removed, the net differential of the output of LVDT will be zero.

 The output voltage will increase linearly up to a certain displacement from the Null position
and afterwards output will be non-linear. The Graph of variation of output with respect to its
position is shown in the following figure.

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Advantages of LVDT

 Smooth and Wide Range of Operation: LVDT has a very wide range of measurement of
displacement.

 High Sensitivity: LVDT gives high output value so that there is no need for any amplifier
circuit for the amplification process. Typically the sensitivity of LVDT is recorded as 40V/mm.

 Low Hysteresis Losses: LVDT gives low hysteresis losses hence repeatability is excellent
under all the conditions.

 Low Friction Losses: As the core moves in a hollow Former, there is no friction loss. Hence it
gives an accurate output value.

 Rugged Operation: It can tolerate a high degree of shock and variation.

 Low Power consumption: LVDT consumes very low power of approx 1W during its operation.

 Direct conversion to Electrical Signal: LVDT converts linear displacement directly to the
corresponding electrical voltage signal.

 Fast dynamic Response: Due to the absence of Friction, Its dynamic response is very fast.

Disadvantages of LVDT

 Since LVDT is Inductive Transducer, it is sensitive to Stray Magnetic Field. Hence an extra setup
is required to protect it from Stray Magnetic Field.

 It gets affected by the temperature variation and vibrations after a certain limit.

 The receiving instrument should be chosen to work on AC signals.

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Applications of LVDT

 LVDT is used to measure the physical quantities such as Force, Tension, Pressure, Weight, etc.
These quantities are first converted into displacement by the use of primary transducers and
then converted to the corresponding Electrical voltage signal by LVDT.

 It is mostly used in industries as well as a servomechanism.

 It is also used in Industrial Automation, Aircraft, Turbine, Satellite, hydraulics, etc.

LVDT Specifications

 Range of Measurement

 Operating Temperature

 Frequency Range

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 Capacitive Transducers

The capacitive transducer works on the principle of variable capacitances. The capacitance
of the capacitive transducer changes due to change in overlap of plates, distance between the plates
and dielectric constant. The capacitive transducer is used for measuring the displacement, pressure
and other physical quantities. It is a passive transducer that means it requires external power for
operation.

Principle of Operation

A capacitor contains two conducting parallel metal plates separated by a dielectric medium.

The capacitance between the plates of a capacitor,

A – overlapping area of plates in m2

d – the distance between two plates in meter
ε – permittivity of the medium in F/m
εr – relative permittivity
ε0 – the permittivity of free space

The capacitive transducer uses the electrical quantity of capacitance for converting the
mechanical movement into an electrical signal. The input quantity causes the change of the
capacitance which is directly measured by the capacitive transducer.

The capacitance of the transducer is measured using the bridge circuit. The output
reactance of the transducer is given by

where, C is the capacitance and f is the frequency of excitation in Hz.

Construction and Theory

The capacitance between two plates can be varied by any of the following methods.
1. By changing the distance between two plates (d)
2. By changing the area of overlapping of plates (A)
3. By changing the permittivity of the dielectric medium (ϵ)

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Changing the distance between two plates (d)

The capacitance can be varied by changing the distance between two plates. From the
equation for C, we can observe that C and d are inversely proportional to each other. That is, the
capacitance value will decrease with increasing distance and vice-versa. This principle can be used
in a transducer by making the upper plate fixed and the lower plate movable by the displacement
that is to be measured as shown in the figure.

These types of transducers are used to measure extremely small displacements.

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Changing the area of overlapping of plates (A)

The capacitance can be changed by varying the area of overlapping of plates. From the
equation for C, we can observe that C and A are directly proportional to each other. That is, the
capacitance value will decrease with decreasing area of overlap and vice-versa. This principle can
be used in a transducer by making the upper plate fixed and the lower plate movable by the
displacement that is to be measured as shown in the figure.

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Changing the permittivity of the dielectric medium (ϵ)

The capacitance can be changed by varying the permittivity of the dielectric material (ϵ).
From the equation for C, we can observe that C and ϵ are directly proportional to each other. That
is, the capacitance value will decrease with decreasing permittivity and vice-versa. This principle
can be used in a transducer by making both the plates fixed and the dielectric medium 1 movable by
the displacement that is to be measured as shown in the figure. The dielectric medium 2 shown in
the figure is air.

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Angular capacitive transducer - Changing the area of overlapping of plates (A)

The capacitive transducer is used for measuring the angular displacement. The capacitance
is changed by varying the area of overlapping of plates. Two movable plates are arranged as shown
in the figure. One of the plates of the transducer is fixed, and the other is movable.

The angular movement changes the capacitance of the transducers. The capacitance is
maximum when the plates fully overlap each other. The maximum value of capacitance is expressed
as

The capacitance at angle θ (angular displacement in radians) is given expressed as

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Advantages of Capacitive Transducer

1. These transducers offer high input impedance. So the loading effects value will be too low.
2. These transducers have good frequency response.
3. These transducers are highly sensitive.
4. These transducers are low power consuming devices.
5. High resolution can be achieved by using these transducers.
6. The capacitive transducers can be used for applications where stray magnetic fields render
the inductive transducers useless.

Disadvantages of Capacitive Transducer

1. It has high output impedance on account of their small capacitance value.

2. These transducers exhibit non-linear behaviours due to edge effects.
3. These are temperature-dependent.
4. The metallic parts of the transducers require insulation.

Applications of Capacitive Transducer

1. The capacitive transducer is used for the measurement of both the linear and angular
displacement. It is extremely sensitive and used for the measurement of very small distance.
2. It is used for the measurement of the force and pressure. The force or pressure, which is to
be measured, is first converted into a displacement, and then the displacement changes the
capacitance of the transducer.
3. It is used as a pressure transducer in some cases, where the dielectric constant of the
transducer changes with the pressure.
4. The humidity in gases is measured through the capacitive transducer.
5. The transducer uses mechanical modifier for measuring the volume, density, weight etc.

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Capacitor Microphone (or Condenser Microphone)

A capacitor microphone that is commonly used and its internal details are shown below.

Principles of operation
Capacitor microphone works on the principle as that of the capacitance transducer. A
capacitor microphone uses a capacitance that varies in line with the incoming signal to generate the
varying output voltage.

Construction

Capacitor microphone contains a movable diaphragm and a fixed plate (back plate). The
diaphragm is made of very light material. When sound waves hit the microphone, the diaphragm
moves backwards and forwards changing the distance between the two plates. This changes the
capacitance (which may be in the region of 10 to 50pF) and as a result voltage changes are seen
across the high load resistor connected.

A voltage is required across the capacitor for the microphone to work. This voltage is
supplied either by a battery or by external power source.

The cross-section of a typical capacitor microphone is shown below.

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Advantages

1. Impedance of the transducer is very high.

2. Typical output impedance is around 200 ohm or less.
3. Frequency ranges from 20Hz to 20kHz and more. The very low mass an inertia of the
diaphragm results in the microphone having a flat and extended frequency response.
4. High quality sound recording.
5. Much higher sensitivity and lower noise than dynamic microphones.

Disadvantages

1. High sensitivity may result in overload due to loud noise.

2. Durability: Internal construction is delicate. They can be damaged more easily that dynamic
microphones.
3. Sensitive to humid environment. High levels of humidity have been known to cause internal
flashover between the diaphragm and the back plate of the microphone element.
4. They are damaged more easily than dynamic microphones

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 Thermocouple

Thermocouples are temperature transducers which are extensively used for the
measurement of the temperature variations. They sense the temperature and it is converted to
electrical energy. Since the do not require any external power source to operate, they are active
transducers.

Principle of operation
The thermocouple working principle is based on the Seebeck Effect. This effect states that
when a closed circuit is formed by jointing two dissimilar metals at the two junctions and the
junctions are maintained at different temperatures, then an electromotive force (emf) is induced in
this closed circuit. The amount of induced emf is different for different metal combinations and is
proportional to the temperature difference of the junctions.

Working of Thermocouple

A typical circuit diagram of a thermocouple is shown in Figure. Two dissimilar metals ‘A’
and ‘B’ are joined at the two junctions ‘P’ and ‘Q’. Here, the ‘P’ junction is measuring junction or hot
junction whereas the junction ‘Q’ is the reference junction or cold junction. A PMMC (Permanent
Magnet Moving Coil) instrument is connected as shown. The measuring junction is kept at the
temperature to be measured.

An emf will be generated in this circuit proportional to the temperature difference of the
junctions. This emf is in the order of millivolts and can be measured with the help of a PMMC
instrument based on the deflection produced.

The EMF induces in the thermocouple circuit is given by the equation,

where Δθ is the temperature difference between the thermocouple junctions, a and b are constants.

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Construction of Thermocouple

Types of Thermocouple
Type Metals Maximum Temperature (0C)
T Copper, Constantan 350
E Chromel, Constantan 850
J Iron, Constantan 1000
K Chromel, Alumel 1200
S Rohodium, Platinum 1400

Advantages

 The thermocouple is cheaper than the other temperature measuring devices.

 The thermocouple has the fast response time.
 It has a wide temperature range.

Disadvantages

 The thermocouple has low accuracy.

 The recalibration of the thermocouple is difficult.

Applications

 To monitor temperatures of liquids and gases in flowing pipes, ducts or storage.

 Industrial furnaces, hot baths, solutions in chemical reactors etc.
 Measurement of subzero temperature in refrigeration system.

Factors to be considered while selecting thermocouples for temperature measurement

 Strength.
 Atmospheric or ambient conditions.
 Type of insulation used.
 Sensitivity

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 Piezoelectric Transducer

A piezoelectric transducer (also known as a piezoelectric sensor) is a device that uses the
piezoelectric effect to measure changes in acceleration, pressure, strain, temperature or force by
converting this energy into an electrical charge. When we squeeze a piezoelectric material or
apply any force or pressure, the transducer converts this energy into voltage. This voltage is a
function of the force or pressure applied to it and can be easily measured by voltage measuring
instruments.

The piezoelectric effect is discovered by Pierre and Jacques Curie. The word piezoelectric is
derived from the Greek word ‘piezen’, which means to squeeze or press.

Piezoelectric Material

A piezoelectric transducer consists of quartz crystal which is made from silicon and oxygen
arranged in crystalline structure (SiO2) and is electrically neutral. The atoms inside them may not
be symmetrically arranged. The quartz crystal has the unique property of generating electrical
polarity when mechanical stress is applied to it. There are two types of stress: (i) Compressive
stress (ii) Tensile stress.

Working Principle of Piezoelectric Transducer

Let, F be the force applied on the surface of the crystal. The magnitude and polarity of the
developed surface potential are proportional to the magnitude and direction of F. The developed
potential (charge) polarity depends on the direction of F.

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The charge developed by the crystal is given by,

where, F = Force applied in Newton

d = Charge sensitivity of the crystal. For a given crystal, d is constant.

The thickness of the piezoelectric crystal changes due to the applied force.

where, A = l  b = Area of the piezoelectric crystal in m2

E = Young's modulus in N/m2
t = Thickness of the piezoelectric crystal in m
l = Length of the crystal in m
b = Width of the crystal in m

Substituting, we get,

Due to this charge at the electrode, an output voltage Eo will be generated which is given by,

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Applications

 In microphones, the sound pressure is converted into an electric signal

 Automatic door operation
 Automobile seat belts lock in response to a rapid deceleration

Advantages

 It is an active transducer. No need for an external supply for operation

 Easy to handle and use as it has small dimensions
 Has a fast response to changes in the input

Disadvantages

 It is not suitable for measurement in static condition

 It is affected by temperature changes
 The output is low
 It is very difficult to give the desired shape to this material

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 Hall Effect Transducer

Hall Effect transducer is a device which is used for the measurement of magnetic field
strength. This transducer uses a conducting strip to convert magnetic field into proportional
potential difference (emf) across the opposite faces of strip using Hall Effect. The emf can be
measured by the analog and digital meters.

Principle of Operation
The working of Hall Effect Transducer is based on Hall Effect. The principle of the Hall Effect
states that when a current-carrying conductor or a semiconductor is introduced to a perpendicular
magnetic field, a voltage can be measured at the right angle to the current path.

Consider the Hall Effect element shown in figure. The current is supplied through the leads
1 and 2 and the output is obtained from across the leads 3 and 4. The leads 3 and 4 are at same
potential when no field is applied across the strip. When the magnetic field is applied to the strip,
the output voltage develops across the output leads 3 and 4. The developed voltage is directly
proportional to the strength of the magnetic field.

Flow of current corresponds to the flow of positive charges in the direction of current. The
magnetic field will exert a force on the moving positive charges as

where v & B are the velocity and strength of magnetic field (both are vectors).

Since v and B are perpendicular to each other, the magnitude of force on the moving
positive charges will be

The direction of force F will be perpendicular to both the v and B as per the law of cross
product of two vectors. This essentially means that F will be directed from edge 3 to 4 in the above
figure. Due to this force, the positive charges will continue to accumulate on the face 3 which in turn

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will create an Electric Field (E). The direction of electric filed will be opposite to the direction of F
i.e. from edge 3 to 4.

The force exerted on the charges by the electric filed E is given by

F=qE

After some time, the magnitude of force exerted by electric field E and magnetic field will
become equal and there will not be any further movement of the charges.
qE=qvB
E=vB

Due to the electric filed E in the conducting strip across edges 3 and 4, a potential difference
will be produced across this face. Assuming the thickness of strip to be ‘t’, the strength of potential
difference across 3 & 4 is given by
EH = E t = v B t

Since the current density through a material is directly proportional to the velocity of
carriers,
v = KH J
where J is the current through the strip and KH is a constant of proportionality called the Hall Effect
Coefficient.

Current density is current per unit surface area, therefore,

J= =

K I
v=
t
K IB
E =vBt =
t

The above expression gives the voltage developed due to Hall Effect, where I is the current
in ampere and the B is the magnetic flux density in Wb/m2. This voltage is called the Hall Effect emf
and used to either measure the magnitude of current or magnetic field strength.

The magnitude of Hall Effect emf is very small in. However, its value if quite sufficient in
semiconductors and can easily be measured by sensitive moving coil instruments.

Applications
The major applications of Hall Effect transducer are for measuring (i) Magnetic field
strength, (ii) Displacement, (iii) Current.

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Measurement of Magnetic Field Strength

The Hall Effect Transducer can be used as a Magnetic to Electric Transducer. To measure
the magnetic field strength, a semiconductor plate is inserted perpendicular to the magnetic field.
The transducer gives an output voltage proportional to B, the magnetic flux density.

The Hall Effect transducer requires small space and also gives the continuous signal
concerning the magnetic field strength. The only disadvantage of the transducer is that it is highly
sensitive to temperature and thus calibration requires in each case.

Measurement of Displacement

The Hall Effect element is used for the measurement of the location or displacement of a
structural element. i.e, it serves as a displacement or proximity transducer where a change in
geometry magnetic structure causes a change in the magnetic field strength. Figure below shows a
ferromagnetic structure having a permanent magnet. The Hall Effect transducer is placed in the gap
adjacent to the permanent magnet.

The field strength produced by the permanent magnet changes as the position of the
ferromagnetic structure is varied. Due to change in magnetic field strength, the Hall Effect emf
changes which can be calibrated with the displacement of ferromagnetic plate. In this way, it works
as a sensor to sense the displacement / position of the plate.

Measurement of Current

Hall Effect transducer can be used to measure the current flowing in a circuit without
interrupting the circuit. The circuit element through which the current flows is surrounded by a
ferromagnetic tube and a Hall Effect element is inserted in the slot of the ferromagnetic tube. The
ferromagnetic tube is called magnetic concentrator as its purpose is to concentrate the magnetic
field created by the current carrying circuit element. Figure below depicts a typical current
measuring application of Hall Effect transducer.

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 The current through the conductor creates a magnetic field around it proportional to the
current, according to Biot-Savart’s Law. When a Hall Effect element is kept perpendicular to the
magnetic field in the slot of ferromagnetic concentrator, a Hall Effect emf is produced. The
magnitude of emf is proportional to current flowing in the conductor. Thus, the measured emf
across the Hall Effect transducer gives the magnitude of current flowing through the circuit.

Measurement of Power

Hall Effect transducer can be used to measure the instantaneous power supplied by a
source. A Hall-effect sensor is constructed where the current through the conductor is generated by
AC voltage from an external circuit and the magnetic field was set up by a pair or wire coils
energized by the current of the AC power circuit. Hall Effect emf will be in direct proportion to the
multiple of circuit current and voltage.

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 Flow Meter

Flow meter measures the volumetric flow rate or mass flow rate of gases or liquids passing
through them. It is a device designed for measuring nonlinear or linear flow rate.

Working Principle

Most flow meters have three parts: the primary device, a transducer, and a transmitter. The
transducer senses the fluid passing the primary device.

mass flow rate = volumetric flow rate  density

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Page 3 of 3
 Selection - Thermocouple, Resistance Thermometer and Thermistor

Thermocouple
Thermocouples are active transducers. Thermocouples generally can measure temperatures over
wide temperature ranges, inexpensively, and are very rugged, but they are not as accurate or stable
as RTDs and thermistors.

Resistance Thermometer or Resistance Temperature Detector or RTD

RTD’s are passive transducers. RTD’s are stable and have a fairly wide temperature range, but are
not as rugged and inexpensive as thermocouples. Since they require the use of electric current to
make measurements, RTD’s are subject to inaccuracies from self-heating.

Thermistor

Thermistors are passive transducers. Thermistors tend to be more accurate than RTD’s or
thermocouples, but they have a much more limited temperature range. They are also subject to self-
heating.

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