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CIE AS Physics Your notes

1.1 Physical Quantities

Contents
Physical Quantities

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Physical Quantities
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What is a physical quantity?
Speed and velocity are examples of physical quantities; both can be measured
All physical quantities consist of a numerical magnitude and a unit
In physics, every letter of the alphabet (and most of the Greek alphabet) is used to represent these
physical quantities
To represent a physical quantity, it must contain both a numerical value and the unit in which it was
measured
For example, the letter v can be used to represent the physical quantities of velocity, volume or
potential difference (voltage)
The units provide the context as to what v refers to:
If v represents velocity, the unit would be m s–1
If v represents volume, the unit would be m3
If V represents potential difference, the unit would be V

All physical quantities must have a numerical magnitude and a unit

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Estimating physical quantities

There are important physical quantities to learn in physics Your notes
It is useful to know these physical quantities, they are particularly useful when making estimates
A few examples of useful quantities to memorise are given in the table below (this is by no means an
exhaustive list)
Estimating physical quantities table

Quantity Size

Diameter of an atom 10−10 m

Wavelength of UV radiation 10 nm

Height of an adult human 2m

Distance between Earth and Sun (1 AU) 1.5 × 1011 m

Mass of a hydrogen atom 10−27 kg

Mass of an adult human 70 kg

Mass of a car 1000 kg

Seconds in a day 90 000 s

Seconds in a year 3 × 107 s

Speed of sound in air 300 m s−1

Power of a light bulb 60 W

Atmospheric pressure 1 × 105 Pa

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Worked example
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Estimate the energy required for an adult man to walk up a flight of stairs.
Answer:
Step 1: Recall the equation for energy for gain in gravitational potential energy:
For a man of mass m to gain height h in a gravitational field of strength g, the energy E required to
do so is:
∆ E = mg ∆ h
p

Here, g is approximately 10 N kg−1

Step 2: Estimate the mass and height
An adult person has a mass of approximately 70 kg
A flight of stairs gains around 3 m of height

Estimation of the adult man's mass and the height of the stairs
Step 3: Substitute these estimates into the equation:
The energy required for the man to walk up the stairs is approximately:
∆ E = 70 × 10 × 3 = 2100 J
p

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Examiner Tip
Your notes
The mark scheme for calculations involving estimates are normally quite generous and offer a range of
values as the final answer.
Many values are already given in your data booklet that therefore may not be given in the question, so
make sure to check there too!

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CIE AS Physics Your notes

1.2 SI Units
Contents
SI Units
Homogeneity of Physical Equations & Powers of Ten

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SI Units
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SI base quantities
There is a seemingly endless number of units in physics
These can all be reduced to seven base units from which every other unit can be derived
Only five of these are required for this course
These seven units are referred to as the SI Base Units; this is the only system of measurement that is
officially used in almost every country around the world
SI base units

Quantity SI base unit Symbol

Mass kilogram kg

Length metre m

Time second s

Current ampere A

Temperature kelvin K

Examiner Tip
You will only be required to use these five SI base units in this course, so make sure you know them!

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Derived SI units
Derived units are non-SI units, such as joules or pascals Your notes
These derived units can all be written as combinations of the SI base units
To deduce the combination of base units, it is necessary to use the definition of the quantity
The newton (N), the unit of force, is defined by the equation:
Force = mass × acceleration
Writing this equation in terms of the units of each quantity gives:
N = kg × m s–2 = kg m s–2
Therefore, the newton (N), written in terms of SI base units, is kg m s–2
The joule (J), the unit of energy, is defined by the equation:
energy = ½ × mass × velocity2
J = kg × (m s–1)2 = kg m2 s–2
Therefore, the joule (J) in SI base units is kg m2 s–2
The pascal (Pa), the unit of pressure, is defined by the equation:
pressure = force ÷ area
Pa = N ÷ m2 = (kg m s–2) ÷ m2 = kg m–1 s–2
Therefore, the pascal (Pa) in SI base units is kg m–1 s–2

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Homogeneity of Physical Equations & Powers of Ten

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Homogeneity of physical equations
An important skill is to be able to check the homogeneity of physical equations using the SI base units
The combined units on either side of the equation should be the same
To check the homogeneity of physical equations:
Check the units on both sides of an equation
Determine if they are equal
If they do not match, the equation will need to be adjusted

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Worked example
Your notes
The speed of sound v in a gas is given by

γp
v=
ρ
where p is gas pressure and ρ is gas density.
Show that γ has no units.
Answer:
Step 1: Determine the units on the left:
The only term on the left is speed, which has units of m s−1
Step 2: Apply the homogeneity of physical equations:
This equation describes the speed of sound waves and is therefore physical
This means it must be homogeneous, so the units on the left must be equal to the combined
units on the right
Step 3: Determine the combined SI base units of pressure:
Pressure is defined as the force F (units of N or kg m s−2) per unit area (units of m2) with the
equation:
F
P=
A
Written in terms of units:
kg m s−2
Pa = = kg m−1 s −2
m2
Step 4: Determine the combined SI base units of density:
Density is defined as mass m (units of kg) per unit volume V (units of m3) with the equation:
m
ρ=
V
Written in terms of units:
kg
units of density = = kg m−3
m3
Step 5: Equate the units of both sides of the equation:
The units of γ will be labelled as G

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G kg m−1 s−2
m s−1 = = G m2 s−2 = G m s−1
kg m−3 Your notes
This shows us that the square root of G is equal to 1, so G is equal to 1
Therefore γ has no units - this is sometimes called being dimensionless

Examiner Tip
There were multiple ways of answering this - you could have rearranged the equation to make γ the
subject and shown that the other side of the equation and no units, or you could have found that,
without γ in the equation, the equation was homogenous.

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Powers of ten
Physical quantities can span a huge range of values Your notes
For example, the diameter of an atom is about 10–10 m (0.0000000001 m), whereas the width of a
galaxy may be about 1021 m (1000000000000000000000 m)
This is a difference of 31 powers of ten
Powers of ten are numbers that can be achieved by multiplying 10 times itself
It is useful to know the prefixes for certain powers of ten
Powers of ten

Prefix Abbreviation Power of 10

Tera- T 1012

Giga- G 109

Mega- M 106

Kilo- k 103

Centi- c 10−2

Milli- m 10−3

Micro- μ 10−6

Nano- n 10−9

Pico- p 10−12

Examiner Tip
You will often see very large or very small numbers categorised by powers of ten, so it is very important
you become familiar with these as getting these prefixes wrong is a very common exam mistake!

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CIE AS Physics Your notes

1.3 Errors & Uncertainties

Contents
Errors & Uncertainties
Calculating Uncertainties

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Errors & Uncertainties

Your notes
Random & systematic errors
Measurements of quantities are made with the aim of finding the true value of that quantity
In reality, it is impossible to obtain the true value of any quantity, there will always be a degree of
uncertainty
The uncertainty is an estimate of the difference between a measurement reading and the true value
Random and systematic errors are two types of measurement errors which lead to uncertainty
Random error
Random errors cause unpredictable fluctuations in an instrument’s readings as a result of
uncontrollable factors, such as environmental conditions
This affects the precision of the measurements taken, causing a wider spread of results about the
mean value
To reduce random error: repeat measurements several times and calculate an average from them
Systematic error
Systematic errors arise from the use of faulty instruments used or from flaws in the experimental
method
This type of error is repeated every time the instrument is used or the method is followed, which affects
the accuracy of all readings obtained
To reduce systematic errors: instruments should be recalibrated or the technique being used should
be corrected or adjusted
A graph showing the precision and accuracy of different sets of measurements

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Your notes

Precision can only be used to describe multiple measurements - it tells us how close together those
measurements are. Imprecise measurements will have a large range, as shown by the accurate but
imprecise black line.
Zero error
Zero error is a type of systematic error which occurs when an instrument gives a non-zero reading
when the true reading is zero
An example may be a set of mass scales showing a reading of 0.200 g when nothing is on the
scales
This introduces a fixed error into readings which must be accounted for when the results are recorded

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Precision & accuracy

Precision Your notes
The precision of a measurement is how close the measured values are to each other; if a measurement
is repeated several times, then it can be described as precise when the values are very similar to, or the
same as, each other
Accuracy
The accuracy of a measurement is how close a measured value is to the true value; the accuracy can
be increased by repeating measurements and finding a mean average
Diagram showing the difference between accurate results and precise results

Random errors can affect precision - the quantity is being measured accurately but each measurement
is affected differently, spreading the results out. Systematic errors can lead to precise inaccurate
results, by adding 0.5 to each value, for example, the precise results are moved away from the true
value.

Examiner Tip
It is very common for students to confuse precision with accuracy or resolution. A single reading
cannot be precise - if something is measured to a high number of decimal points, it is a measurement
with high resolution.

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Calculating Uncertainties
Your notes
Calculating uncertainty
What is uncertainty?
There is always a degree of uncertainty when measurements are taken; the uncertainty can be thought
of as the difference between the actual reading taken (caused by the equipment or techniques used)
and the true value
Uncertainties are not the same as errors
Errors can be thought of as issues with equipment or methodology that cause a reading to be
different from the true value
The uncertainty is a range of values around a measurement within which the true value is expected
to lie, and is an estimate
For example, if the length of a box is measured multiple times as 12.55 cm, 12.45 cm and 12.51 cm, we
can say the length is 12.50 cm with an uncertainty of 0.05 cm,
This is often written as 12.50 ± 0.05 cm
Calculating Uncertainty
Uncertainties can be represented in a number of ways:
Absolute Uncertainty: where uncertainty is given as a fixed quantity (as above)
Fractional Uncertainty: where uncertainty is given as a fraction of the measurement
Percentage Uncertainty: where uncertainty is given as a percentage of the measurement

absolute uncertainty
percentage uncertainty = × 100%
measured value
To find uncertainties in different situations:
The uncertainty in a reading (e.g. from a voltmeter): ± half the smallest division
The uncertainty in a measurement (e.g. from a ruler): at least ±1 smallest division
The uncertainty in repeated data: half the range i.e. ± ½ (largest - smallest value)
The uncertainty in digital readings: ± the last significant digit unless otherwise quoted
Diagram showing a reading from an ammeter

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Your notes

Combining uncertainties
When combining two measurements that both have uncertainties, the uncertainties have to be
combined too
Adding or subtracting data
When adding or subtracting two values with uncertainties, just add the absolute uncertainties
Adding or subtracting data example

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Your notes

Multiplying or dividing data

When multiplying or dividing measurements with uncertainties, add their fractional or percentage
uncertainties
Multiplying or dividing data example

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Your notes

When the measurement is raised to a power, multiply the fractional or percentage uncertainty by the
power
Raising to a power example

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Your notes

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CIE AS Physics Your notes

1.4 Scalars & Vectors

Contents
Scalars & Vectors

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Scalars & Vectors

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What are scalar & vector quantities?
All quantities can be one of two types:
a scalar
a vector
Scalars
Scalars are quantities that have magnitude but not direction
For example, mass is a scalar quantity because it has magnitude but no direction
Vectors
Vectors are quantities that have both magnitude and direction
For example, weight is a vector quantity because it is a force and has both magnitude and
direction
Distance and displacement
Distance is a measure of how far an object has travelled, regardless of direction
Distance is the total length of the path taken
Distance, therefore, has a magnitude but no direction
So, distance is a scalar quantity
Displacement is a measure of how far it is between two points in space, including the direction
Displacement is the length and direction of a straight line drawn from the starting point to the
finishing point
Displacement, therefore, has a magnitude and a direction
So, displacement is a vector quantity
What is the difference between distance and displacement?

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Your notes

Displacement is a vector quantity while distance is a scalar quantity

When a student travels to school, there will probably be a difference in the distance they travel and
their displacement
The overall distance they travel includes the total lengths of all the roads, including any twists and
turns
The overall displacement of the student would be a straight line between their home and school,
regardless of any obstacles, such as buildings, lakes or motorways, along the way
Speed and velocity
Speed is a measure of the distance travelled by an object per unit time, regardless of the direction
The speed of an object describes how fast it is moving, but not the direction it is travelling in
Speed, therefore, has magnitude but no direction
So, speed is a scalar quantity
Velocity is a measure of the displacement of an object per unit time, including the direction
The velocity of an object describes how fast it is moving and which direction it is travelling in
An object can have a constant speed but a changing velocity if the object is changing direction
Velocity, therefore, has magnitude and direction
So, velocity is a vector quantity

Examples of scalars & vectors

The table below lists some common examples of scalar and vector quantities
Table of scalars and vectors
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Scalars Vectors
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distance displacement

speed velocity

mass acceleration

time force

energy momentum

volume

density

pressure

electric charge

temperature

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Combining vectors
Vectors are represented by an arrow Your notes
The arrowhead indicates the direction of the vector
The length of the arrow represents the magnitude
Vectors can be combined by adding or subtracting them from each other
There are two methods that can be used to combine vectors: the triangle method and the
parallelogram method
Triangle Method
To combine vectors using the triangle method:
Step 1: link the vectors head-to-tail
Step 2: the resultant vector is formed by connecting the tail of the first vector to the head of the
second vector
To subtract vectors, change the direction of the vector from positive to negative and add them in
the same way
Triangle method for adding and subtracting vectors

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Your notes

The triangle method links vectors tip to tail to find the resultant vector
Parallelogram method
To combine vectors using the parallelogram method:
Step 1: link the vectors tail-to-tail
Step 2: complete the resulting parallelogram
Step 3: the resultant vector is the diagonal of the parallelogram
Parallelogram method for adding and subtracting vectors

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Your notes

The parallelogram method links vectors tail to tail to find the resultant vector
When two or more vectors are added together (or one is subtracted from the other), a single vector is
formed, known as the resultant vector
The magnitude of the resultant vector can be found using Pythagoras' theorem or trigonometry

Condition for equilibrium

Coplanar forces can be represented by vector triangles
In equilibrium, these are closed vector triangles.
The vectors, when joined together, form a closed path
Forces in equilibrium

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Your notes

If three forces acting on an object are in equilibrium; they form a closed triangle

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Worked example
Your notes
A swimmer is crossing a river by swimming due north at 2.7 m s−1. The current flows east at 5.1 m s−1.
Determine the resultant velocity of the swimmer's motion.
Answer:
Step 1: Sketch a vector diagram of the scenario

Step 2: List the known quantities

Velocity 1, v = 2 . 7 m s −1 N
1
Velocity 2, v = 5 . 1 m s −1 E
2
Step 3: Calculate the magnitude of the resultant vector, v

Using Pythagoras
v 2 = v 12 + v 22

v= v 12 + v 22

v= 2 . 72 + 5 . 12
v = 5 . 8 m s−1
Step 3: Calculate the direction of the resultant vector
Using trigonometry
opposite v1
tan θ = =
adjacent v2

⎛ 2 . 7 ⎞⎟
θ = tan−1 ⎜⎜ ⎟
⎝ 5.1 ⎠

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θ = 28° (2 s . f . )
Your notes

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Resolving vectors
Two vectors can be represented by a single resultant vector that has the same effect Your notes
A single resultant vector can be resolved and represented by two vectors, which in combination have
the same effect as the original one
When a single resultant vector is broken down into its parts, those parts are called components
For example, a force vector of magnitude F and an angle of θ to the horizontal is shown below
Resultant vector diagram

A resultant vector, F
It is possible to resolve this vector into its horizontal and vertical components using trigonometry
Horizontal and vertical vector components

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Your notes

Horizontal and vertical components of F

For the horizontal component, Fx = Fcosθ

For the vertical component, Fy = Fsinθ

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