CHM 101 GENERAL CHEMISTRY I (2 Units)

Lecture 2 Lecturers: Mr. Ogundele, O.D.

Dr. Ore, O.T.

CHEMICAL SYMBOLS, FORMULAS AND EQUATIONS

Chemical symbols are the chemist abbreviated form of writing or representing the names of
elements. The principle applied when representing element was put forward by Berzkelius in 1814.
The principle entails the following.

1. The first principle uses the first letter, (written in capital letter) of the name of an element
as its symbol. Examples includes; Hydrogen (H), Boron (B), Carbon (C), Nitrogen (N),
Oxygen (O), Fluorine (F), Phosphorus (P).

2. When the first letter had already been adopted. The first letter and any other letter in the
name of the element is used as the symbol. Here, the first letter is written in capital letter
while the second letter is written in small letter. Examples includes; Helium (He), Lithium
(Li), Beryllium (Be), Neon (Ne), Magnesium (Mg), Aluminum (Al).

3. When these two methods have been adopted, the symbol of the elements is then derived
from the Latin names of the elements using method one and two above. Example includes;
Sodium (Natrium, Na), Potassium (kalium, K), Iron (Ferrum, Fe) and Copper (Caprum,
Cu).

As earlier stated, these abbreviations are written in capital letter when the symbol is only one
letter. In cases where it has two letters, only the first letter is written in capital letter, while the
other letter is written in small letter.
The symbols of an element represent
1. One atom of the element
2. A definite mass of the element often expressed in grams

Chemical Formula
A chemical formula is an expression involving chemical symbols and numerical. The symbols
represent the different types of elements present (i.e. composition) in the compound while the
numerical indicates the number of atoms in one molecule of a compound, when it is written as a
subscript after the symbol of the element. Example is H2 which show that it contains two atoms
of hydrogen; H2SO4 shows that the chemical formula contains two atoms of hydrogen, one atom
of sulphur and four atoms of oxygen. There are basically three types of chemical formulas namely
empirical, molecular and structural formulas.
Empirical Formula
This is the simplest formula of a compound that shows the simplest whole number ratio of atoms
of different elements present in a compound. Hence the empirical formula of the compound
C2H4O2 is CH2O, where the integer multiplier is 2. Normally, the results of chemical analysis are
expressed as percentage by mass of each constituent element, so to know the identity of the
compound the empirical formula will be calculated from the percentage composition. Calculation
of the empirical formula of the compound entails first determining the relative number of moles
of atoms of each element present in the given mass of the compound. Thereafter, the number of
moles of each element is then divided by the smallest number of the mole present.

Molecular Formula
This is a formula of a compound that shows the exact (actual) number of atoms of different
element present in a compound. The molecular formula is given by

Molecular Formula = Empirical formula X integer multiplier

Molecular formula = n (Empirical formula)

Sometimes, empirical formula and molecular formula can be the same. This is when the molecular
formula cannot be reduced further. Examples includes NH3 (ammonia), CaCO3 (calcium
trioxocarbonate (IV), H2O (water) CO2 (carbon(IV)oxide) etc.

Structural Formula
The structural formula shows the way that atoms are joined together in a molecule. Knowledge
of the structural formula of compound is important in the study of chemistry because some
compounds may have the same molecular formula and empirical formula and the only thing that
will show that the compounds are different is their structural formula. As an illustration, Butanol
and ethyl ether have the same empirical and molecular formula as C4H10O. The only thing that
differentiates the two and gives both their respective unique set of properties is the structural
formula.

Predicting Formulas from Valencies

Recall that we earlier defined vacancy as the number of electrons an atom can lose, gain or share
to acquire an octet or duplet electronic configuration. The formulas of compounds can be
deduced from the valences of component elements or radicals using the following rules

Rule 1: Write the symbols of the component elements or radicals

Rule 2: Place the valences of each elements or radical below the respective element or radical
Rule 3: Interchange the valences and write them as subscript immediately after the respective
symbols of the atoms.
Rule 4: Write the formula of the compound by first writing the metals followed by the non- metal
Note: When the subscript is one, it is disregarded and when all the subscripts can divide
through, they are further reduced.

Example 1
Write the formula of the compound formed when iron (III) reacts with oxygen.

Rule 1: Fe O
Rule 2: Fe O
3 2

Example 2
What is the formula of aluminum sulphide

Rule 1: Al S
Rule 2: Al S
3 2

These rules are the same even when writing the formulas of compounds involving radicals.
Radicals are groups of atoms collectively carrying a single charge. The only modification is that
the radical is enclosed in a bracket if it has a value above one. Below in table 1 are some
radicals and their valences.

Table 1: Examples of Some Radicals and Their Valencies

Radical Formula Valency

Ammonium NH4+ 1
Hydroxide OH- 1
Trioxonitrate (V) NO3- 1
Trioxocarbonate(IV) CO32- 2
Tetraoxosulphate (VI SO42- 2
Tetraoxophosphate (V) PO43- 3
Example 3
Write the formula of calcium sulphate

Rule 1: Ca SO4
Rule 2: Ca SO4
2 2
Rule 3: Ca SO4

2 2

Rule 4: Ca2(SO4)2
Since both subscripts can divide through they can be further reduced, leaning our formula as
CaSO4

In summary, a chemical formula shows how many atoms of each element present in a compound.
When a group of atoms is put in a bracket e.g. Al2(CO3)3, the subscript that follows the bracket
applies to all the atoms inside the bracket only. As an illustration, the formula of aluminum
trioxocarbonate(V) implies that for each formula unit of aluminum troxocarbonate(V)

(1) There are two aluminum ions

(2) There are 3 trioxocarbonate ions
(3) In each trioxocarbonate ion there is one carbon atom and three oxygen atoms.

Al2 (CO3)3
2 aluminim ion 3 trioxo carbonate ion

Chemical Equations
A chemical equitation is a compressed statement about a chemical reaction, using symbols and
formulas. A reaction can be written in words for example oxygen reacting with hydrogen to
produce water
Oxygen + Hydrogen water.

This type of equation is of little importance to the chemist as it does not indicate the quantities of
each reactant taking part in the reaction and the quantities of the product formed in cause of the
chemical reaction. It does not even specify the state of the reactant and product.

For a chemical equation to be useful to chemist, the actual quantities of the reactants and
products must be specified. This is where the law of conservation of matter comes into place.
According to the law, the total quantity of the reactant must equal to the total quantity of the
product formed. A chemical equation that has this quality is said to be a balanced chemical
equation.
Balancing Chemical Equations
A balanced chemical equation is an exact symbolized expression of a chemical reaction, where
all the atoms of the different elements in the reactants are equal to all the atoms of different
elements in the products.

In balancing a chemical equation, the following steps should be taken:

Step 1: Write a word equation for the reaction.

Step 2: Write the correct formula of all the reactants and products
Step 3: Select coefficients that will make the equation balanced Note, do not change the subscript
in the formulas of the compound while balancing

Example 4

Write a balanced chemical equation for the reaction between chlorine and sodium bromide to
produce sodium chroride and bromine

Solution

Step 1:
Chlorine + sodium bromide sodium chloride + Bromine
Step 2:
Determine the formulas of sodium bromide and sodium chloride using methods for predicting
formulas, discussed earlier

Cl2 + NaBr NaCl + Br2

Step 3: Coefficient are selected in order to balance the equation. The subscript must not be
changed. Coefficients are whole numbers written before the formula of a compound, element,
ion, molecule, indicating the relative number of unit reacting in the chemical reaction.

Cl2 + 2NaBr 2NaCl + Br2.

Example 5
Write a balanced chemical equation for the reaction between hydrochloric acid and calcium
trioxocarbonate (IV) to produce calcium chloride, water and carbon(IV) oxide

Solution

Step 1:
Hydrochloric acid + calcium trioxocarbonate (IV) Calcium chloride + water +
carbon(IV)oxide

Step 2:
Using the steps for predicting formulas, predict the formulas for calcium trioxocarbonate(IV),
calcium chloride, carbon(iv)oxide, hydrochloric acid, and water.
 HCl + CaCO3 CaCl2 + H2O + CO2

Step 3: Select coefficient on either sides of equation‟s formulas that will balance the equation.

2HCl + CaCO3 CaCl2 + H2O + CO2

Example 6
Write the balanced equation for the reaction between aluminum sulphate and calcium chloride to
produce aluminum chloride and a white precipitate of calcium sulphate solution.

Step 1:
Aluminium sulphate + calcium chloride Aluminum chloride + calcium sulphate

Step 2:
Al2 (SO4)3 + CaCl2 AlCl3 + CaSO4

Step 3:
Al2 (SO4)3 + 3CaCl2 2AlCl3 + 3CaSO4

STOICHIOMETRY
This is the aspect of chemistry that deals with quantities of substances. These quantities can
be expressed in terms of number of moles, mass, volume and Avogadro’s number. And these
are based on;
i. Conservation of mass
ii. Relative masses of atoms
iii. The mole concept
This concept is used in all areas of chemistry which include;
i. predicting the quantities of reactants and products
ii. interpreting analytical results in chemistry
iii. preparation of standard solutions
iv. ascertaining the cost effectiveness of large scale chemical reactions

The Mole Concept

The mole concept is the expression of quantities (i.e. amount of solute in solution or solvent) in
terms of number of moles, mass, volume and Avogadro’s number.

The Mole and The Avogadro’s Number

The mole is the chemist way of measuring the amount of a substance. One mole of a chemical
species contains exactly one-gram atomic mass, molecular mass or formula mass of the
species. For example:
1 mole = One atomic mass

Fluorine = 19g

Calcium = 40g
A mole of specie also contains a constant number of the elemental particles, atoms, ions molecules
etc. The number is 6.02 x 1023 and it is called the Avogadro’s number. One mole of specie will
contain one atomic mass of that specie and will also contain the Avogadro’s number of particles

Table 2: Relationship between atomic mass and the Avogadro’s number

ONE MOLE ONE ATOMIC ONE AVOGADROS

MASS NUMBER

Hydrogen 1g 6.02 x 1023 atoms

Boron 11g 6.02 x 1023 atoms

Fluorine 19g 6.02 x 1023 atoms

Example 7
Express as mole (a) 24g of carbon (b) 10g of Neon (c) 120g of calcium

Solution
Since we are expected to convert from mass to mole, then our conversion factor will be 1 mole =
1 gram atomic mass

(a)
1 mole = 12g
x mole = 24g
Note that like terms are always on the same side of the equation. Cross multiply and make
x
subject
24g x 1 mole = 12g X xmole
24g x 1 mole
= x mole = 2 moles
12g
: - 24g of carbon is 2 moles
(b) 1 mole of Neon = 20g x mole of Neon = 10g

10g x1 mol
x mol = = 0.5
20
:- 10g of Neon is 0.5 mol

(c) 1 mole of calcium = 40g

X mole of calcium = 120g

120g x1 mol
x mol = =3
40
12g of calcium is 3 moles
The Mole and The Gram Formula Mass
The gram formula mass is the quantity of a chemical specie whose mass in gram is
numerically equal to the sum of all the atomic masses of its constituent elements. When the
formula is for an element, e.g. B, F, O, Zn, N, etc we use the atomic mass. Also when the
formula is that of a molecule (e.g. H2O, CH4, CaCO3 etc.) the term gram molecular mass is
used in place of gram formula mass. The term gram formula mass is still retained for ionic
compounds since it also represents a mole and one Avogadro number.

Example 8
Determine the gram formula mass of CaCO3

Solution
The atomic masses of the constituent elements are
Element Gram Atomic mass
Ca 40
C 12
O (16 x 3) = 48
Gram molecular mass = 40+12+48=100g

The gram atomic mass of oxygen is multiplied by three because there are three atoms of
oxygen in the compound's formula. Therefore, the sum in gram of the masses of all the
atoms in the formula CaCO3 is 100g.

This, implies that one mole of CaCO3 is equivalent to 100g and has 6.02 x 1023 number of
CaCO3

Mole, Mass and Volume Relationship

At standard temperature, (0OC or 273k) and standard pressure (760mmHg or 101.3 x 103 pa),
the volume occupied by one mole of any gas is a constant value. That value is called the
molar volume and it is numerically equal to 22.4dm 3• For example, the gram molecule mass
of one mole of carbondioxide (CO2) is

Element Gram Atomic Mass

C 12
O 16 x 2 = 32
44
This one mole, contains 6.02 x 1023 molecules and occupies a volume of 22.4dm3 at stp
In summary,
1 mole = one gram formula mass
1 mole = 6.02 x 1023 atoms, molecules, formulas, species etc.
1 mole = 22.4dm3 for any gas at s.t.p

Example 9
Calculate the (a) volume at s.t.p of ammonia in 8.50g of ammonia gas.
(b) How many molecules of ammonia will there be in the sample
(c) Express the volume at s.t.p in moles (one gram atomic mass of NH3 = 17g, one
Avogadro number = 6.02 x 1023)

Solution
(a) 17g = 22.4 dm3 (conversion factor) 8.59 = x
8.5gx22.4dm 3
x= = 11.2dm 3
17
g
(b) 179 = 6.02 x 1023 molecules (conversion factor)
8.5g = x
8.5gx6.02 x1023
X= =
179g
(c) 1 mole = 22.4dm3 (conversion factor)
x = 11.2dm3
3
x = 11.2dm x 1 mole = 0.5mile
22.4dm 3

Mole Ratio, Mass and Volume Relationship in Chemical Equation

The whole number in front of the reactant and product formula in a chemical reaction represents
the number of moles of reactants, reacting to give the number of moles of product. These whole
numbers are the mole ratio of the reactants and products in a chemical reaction. When no whole
number is written in front of a formula in a chemical equation, it implies that the mole ratio is
one. Example

Equation 2H2+ O2 2H2O

Mole ratio 2 1 2

Reacting mass (2x2) (16x2) (18x2)

Reacting mass 4g 32g 36g

From the above example, it is clear that the mass that reacted is simply the product of the number
of moles and the gram formula mass.