FORM FOUR MATHEMATICS BOOK

Table of Contents
CHAPTER 1:TRIGONOMETRY ............................................................................................. 3
1.1 Angles in Degrees and Radians .................................................................................................... 3
1.2.Graphs of trigonometric functions ............................................................................................. 31
1.3. Identities of two angles. .......................................................................................................... 42
1. 4. Solving trigonometric equations ............................................................................................... 63
1.5. Inverse of trigonometric functions ............................................................................................ 66
1.6. Definition of polar coordinates .................................................................................................. 74
CHAPTER 2: CALCULUS ..................................................................................................... 81
2.1 Limit ............................................................................................................................................ 82
2.2 Derivativs .................................................................................................................................... 89
2.3 Applications of derivatives ........................................................................................................ 116
2.4 Integration ................................................................................................................................ 133
2.5 Applications of integration ....................................................................................................... 138
CHAPTER 3: STATISTICS ................................................................................................. 143
3.1 Measures of Central Tendency ................................................................................................. 144
3.2 Presentation of Data ................................................................................................................. 145
3.3 Measures of Dispersion ............................................................................................................ 153
3.4 Distributions and Shapes .......................................................................................................... 173
3.5 Interpretation of Data ............................................................................................................... 177
3.7 Correlation ................................................................................................................................ 180
CHAPTER 4: BINOMIAL AND PROBABILITY ............................................................... 181
4.1 INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................................... 182
4.2 Permutation and Combination ................................................................................................. 185
4.3 BINOMIAL PROPABABILITY ....................................................................................................... 222
CHAPTER 5: COMPLEX NUMBERS ................................................................................. 229
5.1 Introductory Remark ................................................................................................................. 229
5.2 Complex Number System.......................................................................................................... 230
5.3 Operation of Complex numbers in Rectangular form............................................................... 230
5.4 Solving Quadratic Equations. .................................................................................................... 234
5.5 Complex Numbers in a Polar form. ........................................................................................... 236
5.6 Product and Quotient of Complex numbers in a Polar form. ................................................... 239
5.7 De moivers theorem ................................................................................................................. 242

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5.8 Powers and Roots of Complex numbers. .................................................................................. 242
REFERENCE LISTS............................................................................................................................. 248

Form Four Mathematics Book

••

2
 CHAPTER 1:TRIGONOMETRY

Objectives: By the end of this chapter student should be able

 Know radian measure and be able to convert to degrees and vice versa.
 Sketch and use the graphs of sine, cosine, tangent graphs up to 4πc or 7200
 Solve simple trigonometric equations in the range 00 ≤ x ≤ 3600.
 Use the exact values of the sine, cosine and tangent of 300,450 and 600 (eg. sin
150 = -√3/2 for angles > 900)
 Sketch & use the graphs of sec, cosec and cotan.
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥
 Use the identities 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 ≡ tanx, sin2x +cos2x ≡ 1, sec2x -tan2x ≡ 1 in proofs and

equations.
 Use the expansions of sin (A±B), cos (A ± B) tan (A±B), sin 2A, cos2A, tan2A
, asinx±bsinx ≡ Rsin(x±α) or Rcos(x±α) in proofs and equations
 Use the principal values of inverse trig. functions, sin-1, cos-1, tan-1
 Write. the trigonometry into polar form

The word Trigonometry is derived from two Greek words - 'trigon' (meaning a triangle) and
`metron' (meaning a measure) and hence literally Trigonometry means the measurement of a
triangle. Thus it is that branch of mathematics which deals with the measurement of the sides
and angles of a triangle and the investigation of various relations which exist among them

1.1 Angles in Degrees and Radians

Note that the definition says "an angle". This is because in the given configuration the
initial side may be rotated clock-wise or counter clockwise, and it may be rotated
completely around once or several times before resting at the terminal side.
3
 Following figure shows a few angles determined by the same configuration.

An angle so generated is called positive (+ve) if the direction of rotation (indicated by curved
arrows) is counter clockwise and negative (-ve) if the direction of rotation is clockwise.
 Zero angle and straight angle: If the ray OX does not rotate at all i.e. ray OP coincides
with OX without rotation then  XOP is a zero angle. When rotation takes place, the
angle so formed can be measured in terms of the amount of rotation. One full rotation in
counter clockwise sense describes an angle of 3600 of Sexagesimal system (or the English

System). Hence, one half of complete rotation is the angle of

1
2
 3600  .This angle is
called straight angle since ray OX and OP are in straight line but in the opposite direction.

Similarly quarter rotation i.e.

1
4
 3600  describes an angle of 900 (right angle) and so on.

ANGLES IN STANDARD POSITION

An angle in the coordinate plane is said to be in standard position, if
1. its vertex is at the origin, and
2. its initial side lies on the positive x-axis.

Example 2 The following angles are all in standard position:

First, second, third and fourth quadrant angles

 If the terminal side of an angle in standard position lies in the first quadrant, then it is called
a first quadrant angle.

4
 If the terminal side of an angle in standard position lies in the second quadrant, then it is
called a second quadrant angle.
 If the terminal side of an angle in standard position lies in the third quadrant, then it is
called a third quadrant angle.
 If the terminal side of an angle in standard position lies in the fourth quadrant, then it is
called a fourth quadrant angle.
Example 3 The following are angles in different quadrants:

Quadrantal angles
If the terminal side of an angle in standard position lies along the x-axis or the y-axis, then the
angle is called a quadrantal angle.
Example 4 The following are all quadrantal angles.

Angles with measures of –3600, –2700, –1800, –900, 00, 900, 1800, 2700, and 3600 are
examples of quadrantal angles because their terminal sides lie along the x-axis or the y-axis.
Example 5
The following are measures of different angles. Put the angles in standard position and
indicate to which quadrant they belong:

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a. 2000 b. 11250 c. – 9000
Solution:
a. 2000 = 1800 + 200
an angle with measure of 200o is a third quadrant angle.
b. 11250 = 3(360) 0 + 450
1125o is a measure of a first quadrant angle.
c. – 9000 = 2(– 360) 0 +(– 1800 )
– 9000 is a measure of a quadrantal angle.

Exercise 1.1.1
The following are measures of different angles. Put the angles in standard position and
indicate to which quadrant they belong:
a. 2400 c. 6200 e. –3500 g. 5500
b. 3500 d. 6660 f. – 4800 h. –10800

Radian measure of angles and Degree measures

So far we have measured angles in degrees. However, angles can also be measured in radians.
Scientists, engineers, and mathematicians usually work with angles in radians.
The angle  subtended at the centre of a circle by
an arc equal in length to the radius is 1 radian.
r
That is  =  1 radian (see Figure 1.1.9 a)
r
In general, if the length of the arc is s units and the
s
radius is r units, then   radians. (See Figure 1.1.9 b.) This indicates that the size of the
r
angle is the ratio of the arc length to the length of the radius.

Example 6 if s = 3 cm and r = 2cm, calculate  in radians

Solution
s 3
   1.5 radians
r 2

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Example 7 Convert 3600 to radians
Solution
A circle with radius r units as a circumference of 2 r
s 2 r
In this case  = becomes  =   =2 , i.e. 3600 =2 radians
r r
Example 8 Can you convert 1800 to radian measures?
Solution
3600
Since 3600 =2 radians , 1800 = radians ....because 1800 
2
1800
It follows that 1 radians   57.30


Example 9
a. Convert 300 to radians. b. Convert 2400 to radians.
Solution
 
a. 300  300  0
 radians
180 6
 4
b. 2400  2400  0
 radians
180 3

Exercise
1. Convert each of the following degrees to radians
a. 600 c. 1350 e. 1140
b. -1200 d. 10800 f. 3000

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 g. -450 h. 2700 i. 900
2. Convert each of the following radians to degrees:
 2 10
a. c. e. 
12 3 3
 5 f. 3
b.  d.
6 6
Arc Length & Area of the Sector
Arc length
O is the centre of the circle of radius 'r' (r > 0). A central
angle of c radians intercepts an arc AB of length‟s‟. We
know that angle subtended at the centre (is proportional to the
length of the arc.
 c = K. s .....(1). Where K is a constant. Let `C' be any
point on this circle such that
 BOC = 1 radian so that length of arc BC = r
Ks 
 1c = K. r..... (2). Comparing the two relations (1) and (2) we have   s  r
Kr 1

Note: In this formula  is always in radians with r and s measured in the same units of

length. But when  is measured in degrees, s   2 r
360
For military purpose this written as W = R m where m is the central angle in mils. R is the
radius (range) expressed in thousands of meters and W is the chord (width) expressed in
meters.
Example 1

0 2 c
The sum of two angles is 100 and their difference is . Find the angles in radian.
9
Solution
Let the required angles be x rad. and y rad. respectively.
 5
Also 1000  100  rad  rad
180 9
5 2
x y  rad and x  y 
9 9
Adding we get,

8
 7 7
2x  x
9 18
And on subtracting we get,
3 
2y  y
9 6
7 
 the two angles are and respectively.
18 6
Example 2
Find the approximate diameter of the moon if an observer on the earth measures an angle of
0.50 from the top to the bottom of the disk when the moon is 240000 km away.
Solution

Let O be the eye of the observer. C is the centre of the moon, r is the distance from O to C,
and DE is the diameter of the moon perpendicular to OC. Finally, Let A and B be the points
where the circle of radius r centered at O intersects the moon. Then r is the approximate
distance at O that intersects the moon. Then r is the approximate distance from the earth to
the moon, and DE is approximately S, where S = l (ACB).
From s = r
  
From s = r , since   0.50 = 0.50   rad
 180 
  
 s  r  240, 000  0.5    km
 180 
  
Estimating s = 240, 000  0.5     2000km
 180 
Since r = 240,000 is probably accurate to only two significant figures, thus the most we can
say is that the diameter ≥2100 km

Example 3
Find the interior angles of a regular polygon of 10 sides in radians.
Solution

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Example 4
The length of an arc of a circle is 7 cm. Find the angle (in degrees and radians) it makes at the
centre, if the radius is 4 cm. give the answer to three significant figures.
Solution
Given that s = 7cm, r = 4 cm with usual notations.
s
Now we have s = r c   =   = 7 cm/4cm = 1.75 rad or 1.75x180/π=100.270.
r
Example 5
From a circle of radius `a', a sector containing a central angle of 600 has been cut off, and the
remainder is folded over to form a right circular cone, find the radius of the base of the cone
Solution
As shown in the adjoining fig. A sector of central angle 600 is cut off from the circle, then the
remaining larger sector has a central angle

5
Now this sector with central angle , folded into a right circular cone. Note that the
3
circumference of the base of the cone = length of arc ACB (s).
Let 'r' be the radius of the base of the cone then circumference = 2 r

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Example 6
Find the diameter of a pulley which is driven at 360 revolutions per minute by a belt moving
at 44cm/sec.
Solution
The given pulley is driven at 360 revolutions per minute.
 It is driven at 6 revolutions per sec.
Let `r' be the radius of the pulley, then its circumference
=2r
The belt is around the pulley, therefore in one revolution the length of the belt unwound is
2r.
 Length of the belt unwound in 6 revolutions = 6  2r = 12 r

Exercise 1.2.1
1. Two cities 270 miles apart lie on the same meridian. Find their difference in
latitude.(Hints r = 3960 miles (of the earth).

.
2. A rail road curve is to be laid out on a circle. What radius should be used if the track is to
change direction by 250 in a distance of 120 m. ?

3. A field is in the shape of a circular sector containing an angle  / 3 rad. Its straight sides
are 100 feet each. What is its price per sq.foot if it is sold at the rate of $ 100 per foot of the
frontage (arc length)?

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4.The angles of a triangle are in the ratio 3 : 7 : 8. Find them in degrees as well as in radians?
Ans: - 300, 700 800 /6, 7 /18, 4 /6 rad.
5.Find the length of arc of a circle of radius 9cms. The arc subtending an angle of 400 at the
centre.
Ans: - 2 cms.
6.In a circle of radius 9 cms, an arc of length 2 cms subtends angle 'c ' at the centre. Find ''
in degrees?
Ans :- 400/ .
7.A circle has a radius of 30 in. How many radians are there in an angle at the centre
subtended by an arc of (a) of 30 in (b) of 20 in (c) of 50 in.
Ans :- (a) 1 rad (b) 2/3 rad (c) 5/3 rad
8. Find the radius of the circle for which an arc 15 in long subtends an angle
(a) of 1 rad, (b) of 2/3 rad, (c) of 3 rad (d) of 200 (e) of 500
Ans :- (a) 15 in (b) 22.5 in (c) 5 in (d) 43.0 in (e) 17.2 in
9. The end of a 40 in. pendulum describes an arc of 5 in. Through what angle does the
pendulum swing?
Ans: - 1/8 rad or 70 9' 43".
Area of a sector
Consider a circle with centre O and radius r. Let AB be an arc of this circle which sub tends
an angle  rad at the centre O of the circle. The areas of sectors are directly proportional to
the measures of their corresponding central angles
Area of sector OAB TheSize of the central angle of thee sector OAB
=
Area of circle Size of the angel of circe
A  rad

r 2
2

A  r2
2
1 2 c
A r
2

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Example 7
ABCDEF is a regular hexagon inscribed in a circle of radius 9 cm. Find the length of the
minor arc AB and the area of the corresponding sector OAB.
Solution

(i) length of the minor arc AB (s) = r c


9 cm
3
=3 cm  3  3.14  cm  9.42cm( Appro.)

(ii) Area of the sector O-AB (A)

Example 8
What is the angle measure, in radians of the acute angle formed by the minute hands of a
clock at 7.15 with hour hand?
Solution
1
The hour hand moves th of complete rotation in each hour.
12
1
Therefore in 15 minutes i.e hour, it moves
4
1 1 1
  th of a complete revolution.
12 4 48
Therefore, at 7.15, the hour hand and minute hand
4 1 16  1 17
are   = th of a revolution apart.
12 48 48 48
17 17 17  
Now of one revolution =  2  rad=127.50
48 48 24

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Example 9
Two concentric circles with centre at O and radii 5cms and 10 cms are drawn. A straight line
OP drawn through the centre cuts them in A and A' respectively. This line is rotated through
600 and in its final position it cuts the circles in B and B' respectively. Find the perimeter and
the area of the portion between the two circles and the two lines
Solution

(ii) Area of the portion ABB'A'A (shaded)

= Area of sector O - A'B' - Area of sector O - AB
1 1
= OA2 c ....(by using r 2 c )
2 2
1
=
23
10 2 52  sq. cms

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 
100  25 sq. cms   75sq. cms
6 6
=12.5 sq. cms

 12.5 3.14  sq. cms

A( ABB AA)  39.25sq. cms ( Approx)
Example 10
Find the area of the shaded portion of the sector of the
circle shown in the given figure.
Solution

Then it follows that  = 120 0 =

Area of the shaded portion = Area of the sector O-ABC -Area of  AOC
= 12  - 9 3 = 3 (4 - 33)
 22.11 sq. units.

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Exercise 1.2.2
1.In a circle of radius 6 cm. an arc PQ subtends an angle of 300 at the centre. Find the area
between arc PQ and chord PQ.
Ans :0.42 sq. cm 
2. The area of a circle is 64 sq. cms. Find the length of its arc subtending an angle of 600 at
the centre. Also find the area of the corresponding sector?
Ans: - 8 /3 cm , 32/3 sq. cms.
3. A wire of length 10 cms is bent so as to form an arc of a circle of radius 4 cms. What is the
angle subtended at the center in degrees?
Ans :- 4500/
4. How many degrees are there in a central angle subtended by an arc of length equal to the
diameter of the circle ? Also find the area of the corresponding sector?

Ans :- r2sq. units.

5. Two concentric circles with centre 'O'. Two radii 6 cms and 12 cms are drawn. A straight
line OX is drawn through their centres cuts the circles at A and A'. This line is rotated
through 300 and cuts the circles at B and B' on the final position. Find the perimeter and area
of the portion between the circles and the line?
Ans: - 12.5 ( - 2) sq. cms.
TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS OF ACUTE ANGLES
Trigonometric Ratios of Acute Angles
The building blocks of trigonometry is the characteristics of similar triangles, originally
formulated by 'Euclid'. If two corresponding angles are congruent then the two triangles are
similar. Also corresponding sides of two similar triangles preserve the same ratio. This idea
leads to the trigonometric ratios. For trigonometric ratios of acute angles, we need right
angled triangles. The measure of an acute angle in a right angled triangle, lower case Greek
letters  and  are usually used.
Let a revolving line OP starts from OA and revolve into a
position OP, thus tracing out the angle AOP. Draw
segment PM, perpendicular to the initial line OA. Let 
POM = . In the right angled triangle POM, OP is the
hypotenuse, PM is the opposite side of  and OM is the

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adjacent side of . Now trigonometric ratios or functions are relation between any two sides
of a right angled triangle with respect to a given angle. Thus a trigonometric ratio is a
function of an angle.
The trigonometric ratios of  POM =  are defined as follows :
MP opposite side opposite side
1. i.e. is called ''sine'' of AOP or sin =
OP hypotenuse hypotenuse
OM adjacent side adjacent side
2. i.e. is called ''cosine'' of AOP or cos =
OP hypotenuse hypotenuse
MP opposite side opposite side
3. i.e. is called ''tangent'' of AOP or tan =
OM adjacent side adjacent side
OM adjacent side adjacent side
4. i.e. is called ''cotangent' of AOP or cot =
MP opposite side opposite side
OP hypotenuse side hypotenuse side
5. i.e. is called ''cosecant'' of AOP or csc =
MP opposite side opposite side
MP hypotenuse side hypotenuse side
6. i.e. is called ''secant'' of AOP or sec =
OP adjacent side adjacent side
Fundamental Relations between the trigonometric ratios of an angle (from form three
books)

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Values Of The Six Trigonometric Functions For Angles Of Measures 300 , 450 and 600

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Example 1
In  ABC,  B = 900, BC = 1, AC = 2. Find  A, C and AB.

Solution

Example 2
Triangle ABC is isosceles with  B =  C =  / 6 rad. AD
is the median meeting BC in point D. Find AD and AB.
Given that BC = 6 cms.
Solution
Since B = C=  / 6 rad = 300. Since  ABC is an isosceles triangle, median AD is
perpendicular to side BC Also BD = DC = 3 cm and  BAD =  CAD = 600
AD AD 1
Now tan 300    AD  3  3
BD 3 3

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Also by the theorem of Pythagoras, AB2= AD2 + BD2
 AB2 = (3)2 + ( 3) 2 = 12  AB = 2  3
Example 3
If A is acute angle and tan A = x. Determine the values of the remaining trig-ratios.
Solution

Example 4
A 6 foot electric cord is stretched taut from the bottom of a clock on a wall to a socket on the
same wall. The socket is 1-foot above the floor. If you draw a line from the clock straight
down to the floor. The floor would make an angle with the cord whose cosine is 0.9. How
high above the floor is the bottom of the clock?

Trigonometric values of negative angles

Remember that an angle is positive, if measured anticlockwise and negative, if clockwise..

 is a positive angle whereas  is a negative angle.

20
Example 5 Using the unit circle, find the values of the sine, cosine and tangent functions of

 when  = –1800.

Example 6 Using the unit circle, find the values of the sine, cosine and tangent functions of
 when  = – 450
Solution: Place the –45o angle in standard position. Its
terminal side intersects the unit circle at Q (x, y). To
determine the coordinates of Q, draw QL parallel to the y-
axis. OQL is an isosceles right triangle.

21
Negative angles:
If  is any angle, then sin (–) = –sin, cos (–) = cos and tan (–) = –tan.

Let us refer to Figure 1.3.10 to justify the above

1.3.1.1 Exercise
1. Find the values of the sine, cosine and tangent functions of  and complete the
following two tables: (Use a dash “–” if it is undefined).

2. Which of the following pairs of values are equal?

a. sin(–300) and sin(300) f. tan(– 450) and tan(450)
b. cos(–300) and cos(300) g. sin(– 600) and sin(600)
c. tan(–300) and tan(300) h. cos(– 600) and cos(600)
d. sin(– 450) and sin(450) i. tan(– 600) and tan(600)
e. cos(– 450) and cos(450)
3. How do you compare the values of:
a. sin (– ) and sin ?
b. cos (– ) and cos ?
c. tan (– ) and – tan ?

22
Values of Trigonometric Functions for
Related Angles
The signs of sine, cosine and tangent functions
In this sub-section you will consider whether the sign for each of the trigonometric functions
of an angle is positive or negative. The sign (whether sin, cos and tan are positive or
negative) depends on the quadrant to which  belongs.

1. Determine whether the signs of sin, cos  and tan are positive or negative:
a. if  is a third quadrant angle
b. if  is a fourth quadrant angle
2. Decide whether the three trigonometric functions are positive or negative an
complete the following table:

In general, the signs of the sine, cosine and tangent functions in all of the four quadrants can
be summarized as below:

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• In the first quadrant all the three trigonometric functions are positive.
• In the second quadrant only sine is positive.
• In the third quadrant only tangent is positive.
• In the fourth quadrant only cosine is positive.
Do you want an easy way to remember this? Keep in mind the following statement:

24
Discussion
1. Discuss and answer each of the following:
a. If tan > 0 and cos < 0, then  is in quadrant______.
b. If sin > 0 and cos < 0, then  is in quadrant______.
c. If cos  > 0 and tan  < 0, then  is in quadrant______.
d. If sin  < 0 and tan  > 0, then  is in quadrant______.
2. Determine the sign of:
a. cos 2670
b. tan (– 2800)
c. sin (– 8150)
3. Determine the signs of sin, cos and tan, if is an angle in standard position and P
(2, - 5) is a point on its terminal side.

Reference angle (R)

If  is an angle in standard position whose terminal side does not lie on either coordinate axis,
then a reference angle R for q is the acute angle formed by the terminal side of q and the x-
axis as shown in the following figures:


Example 4 Find the reference angle R for  if:
a.  = 110° b.  = 212° c.  = 280°
Solution:
a. Since  = 110° is a second quadrant angle,R = 180 – 110° = 70°

b. Since  = 212° is a third quadrant angle, R = 212° – 180° = 32°

c. Since = 280° is a fourth quadrant angle,R = 360° – 280° = 80°

25
 
Exercise 1.4.1.2
Find the reference angle  R for  if:

a.  = 1500 c.  = 2400 e.  = 990 g.  = 3150

b.  = 170 d.  = 320  = 2250 h.  = 840
0 0 0
f.

Values of the trigonometric functions of  and its reference

angle R
Let us consider a second quadrant angle q. Put q in standard position as shown in the Figure
1.4.10, and let P (– x, y) be a point on its terminal side. Using the y-axis as an axis of
symmetry, reflect P through the y-axis. This will give you another point P'(x, y) which is the
image of P on the terminal side of  R .

The values of the trigonometric function of a given angle  and the values of the
corresponding trigonometric functions of the reference angle R are the same in
absolute value but they may differ in sign.

Example 5 Express the sine, cosine and tangent functions of 160° in terms of its reference

angle.

Solution
Remember that an angle with measure 1600 is a second quadrant angle .In quadrant II, only

sine is positive.

26
The reference angle  R = 1800 – 1600 = 200
Therefore, sin 1600 = sin 200, cos 1600 = – cos 200 and tan 1600 = – tan 200.
Supplementary angles
Two angles are said to be supplementary, if the sum of their measures is equal to 180o.
Example 6 Pairs of angles with measures of 300 and 1500, 1200 and 600, 450 and
1350, 750 and 1050, 100 and 1700 are examples of supplementary angles.
Example 7 Find the values of sin 1500, cos 1500 and tan 1500.
Solution: The reference angle  R = 1800– 1500 = 300

1 3
Therefore, sin 1500 = sin 300 = , cos 1500= – cos 300 = 
2 2
3
and tan 1500= – tan 300 = 
3

Example 8 Find the values of sin 2400, cos 2400 and tan 2400
Solution: The reference angle  R = 2400 – 1800 = 600

3 1
sin 2400 = – sin 600 =  , cos 240 = – cos60 =  and
0 0
2 2
tan 2400 = tan 600 = 3
… remember that in quadrant III only tangent is positive.

Exercise 1.4.1.3
1. Express the sine, cosine and tangent functions of each of the following angle measures in
terms of their reference angle:
a. 1050 c. 2200 e. – 3000
b. 1750 d. – 2600 f. 3800
2. Find the values of:
a. sin 1350, cos 1350 and tan 1350 d. sin 1150 , if sin 650 = 0.9063
b. cos 1430, if cos 370 = 0.7986 e. tan 1590, if tan 210 = 0.3839
c. tan 1380, if tan 420 = 0.9004 f. cos 240, if cos 1560 = – 0.9135

Co–terminal angles
27
Co–terminal angles are angles in standard position that have a common terminal side.

Example 9
a. The three angles with measures 300, – 3300 and 3900 are co-terminal angles.
(See Figure 1.4.11)

b. The three angles with measures 550, – 3050 and 4150 are also co-terminal. (See Figure
1.4.12)
Exercise 1.4.1.4
1. With the help of the following table find angles which are coterminal with 600.

2. Give a formula to find all angles which are co-terminal with 600.

28
Exercise 1.4.1.5
Find any two co-terminal angles (one of them positive and the other negative) for each of the
following angle measures:
a. 700 c. 2200 e. – 900 g. – 600
b. 1100 d. 2700 f. – 370 h. – 700

Trigonometric values of co–terminal angles

29
Exercise
1. Find the value of each of the following:
a. sin 390o, cos 390 o, tan 390 o
b. sin (– 405 o), cos (– 405 o), tan (– 405 o)
c. sin (– 690 o), cos (– 690 o), tan (– 690 o)
d. sin 1395 o, cos 1395 o, tan 1395 o
2. Express each of the following as a trigonometric function of a positive acute angle:
a. sin 130 o g. cos (–305 o)
b. sin 200 o h. tan 415 o
c. cos 165 o i. sin 1340 o
d. cos 310 o j. tan1125 o
e. tan 325 o k. sin (–330 o)
f. sin (–100 o) l. cos 14

30
1.2. GRAPHS OF TRIGONOMETRIC
Graphs of the Sine, Cosine and Tangent Functions
In this section, you will draw and discuss some properties of the graphs of the three
trigonometric functions: sine, cosine and tangent.

Graph of the sine function

ACTIVITY 1.5.A

31
Graph of the cosine function
ACTIVITY 1.5.B

32
From Activity above you can see that y = cos is never less than –1 or greater than +1.
Just like the sine function, the cosine function is periodic at every 3600 or 2 radians.
Therefore, 3600 or 2 is called the period of the cosine function.

33
Graph of the tangent function
ACTIVITY 1.5.C

The Activity above you have done above gives you a hint on what the graph of y = tan looks
like. Next, you will see the graph in detail.

34
35
GROUPWORK1.5

Exercise 1.5

36
THE RECIPROCAL FUNCTIONS OF THE BASIC TRIGONOMETRIC
FUNCTIONS
Introduction
In this section, you will learn about three more trigonometric functions, which are called the
reciprocals of the sine, cosine and tangent functions, named respectively as cosecant, secant
and cotangent functions.

ACTIVITY 1.6.A

37
38
39
The relationship of the trigonometric functions in a standard right angled triangle is shown
below.

Graphs of y = csc x, y = sec x and y = cot x

In the previous section, you studied the graphs of the sine, cosine and tangent functions. In
this section you will study the graphs of the remaining three trigonometric functions.
The domain, range and period of the cosecant, secant and cotangent functions are as follows.

40
You now want to draw the graph of f (x) = csc x. The domain of cosecant function is
restricted, in order to have no division by zero.
By taking the reciprocals of non-zero ordinates on the graph of the sine function as shown in
Figure 1.6.7, you obtain the graph of f (x) = csc x. The graph of cosecant function has vertical
asymptotes at the point where the graph of the sine function crosses the x-axis.

Applying the same techniques as for the cosecant function, we can draw the graphs of secant
and cotangent functions as follows.

Exercise 1.6.1

41
1.3. Identities of two angles.
The Compound angle Identities
In this part, we will study the trigonometric ratios (functions) of sum and difference of two
angles.

Verification
1) For all real values of  and  cos ( - ) = cos  cos  + sin  sin .
Consider a unit circle as shown in the Figure 1.8.1 Let R, P, Q, be three points on it such
that  ROP = ,  ROQ =  so that QOP =  - . Set the centre of the circle at the origin
of the rectangular Cartesian system. Let x- axis be along OR. Draw Y- axis.

Here we have OR = OP = OQ = 1
 R  (1, 0), P  (cos , sin ) and Q  (cos , sin ) ..... (Using x = r cos , y = r sin  i.e.
changing to polar coordinates)
 By distance formula, PQ2 = (cos  - cos ) 2 + (sin  - sin ) 2
= (cos2  + sin 2 ) + (cos2  + sin2 ) - 2 (cos  cos  + sin  sin )
= 1 + 1 - 2(cos  cos  + sin sin )
 PQ2= 2 -2 (cos  cos  + sin sin ) ....... (1)
Take point S on the circle so that ROS = -  S  [cos ( - ), sin ( - )]
Then by distance formula, RS2 = [cos (- ) -1]2 + [sin (-)] 2
= cos2 ( - ) + sin2 ( - ) -2 cos ( - )  RS2 = 2 - 2 cos ( -  ) ........ (2)

42
Since QOP = ROS, their corresponding arcs PQ and RS are also equal which implies that
the corresponding chords PQ and RS are also equal.
 From (1) and (2) we get
2 - 2 cos ( - ) = 2 - 2 (cos  cos  + sin  sin )

Put  = x and  = -y in
cos (x - y) = cos x cos y + sin x sin y, x, y  R
We get cos ( + ) = cos  cos (-) + sin sin (-)
but cos (-) = cos  and sin (-) = - sin 

Reduction to Functions of Positive Acute Angles and Negative Acute Angles

43
44
 Example 1: Evaluate sin 800cos 1300+ cos 800 sin 1300
Solution
Let a = 800and  = 1300 then sin 800 cos 1300 + cos 800sin 1300  sin  cos  + cos  sin 
1
= sin ( + )  sin (800+1300)  sin (2100)  sin (1800 + 300) = - sin 300 = 
2
Example 2 Find the value of i) cos 4800 ii) tan (- 9450) iii) sin 46200
Solution
i. cos 4800= cos (5 90 0 + 300) = - sin 300 = -1/2
as angle in Quad II, cosine ratio is negative. .... [Note: 4800 = 3600 + 1200 coterminal to
1200. Hence in Quad. II ]
ii. tan (-9450) = - tan (9450) ....  tan (- ) = - tan 
= - tan (10 90 0 + 450)
= - tan 450 ....  tan (n900+ )
= + tan  for n is even and angle is in Quadrant III.
= -1
[Note: 945 = 2 360 + 225 coterminal to 225, Hence in Quad III]
Example 3 Prove that

Solution

45
Example 4 Write sin 2340 in the form cos , 0 < < 900
Solution sin 2340 = sin (1800 + 540)
= - sin 54 0 . . . . [sin (18 0 + ) = - sin ]
= - sin (900 - 540) . . . . [sin = cos (900- )]
= - cos 360
Example 5 Show that cos  cos ( - ) - sin  sin (  -  ) = cos 
Solution
L.H.S = cos  cos (  -  ) - sin  sin (  -  )
= cos [  + (  - ) ]
= cos 
= R.H.S.

3 1
Example 5 prove that sin150 
2 2
Solution

Example 6

Solution

Example 6: Find the value of sin 15°.

46
Example 7
4 15
Find sin ( + ) if sin A =  and cos B = and A and  are in Quadrant IV. Also state
5 17
the Quadrant of ( + ).

Exercise 1.8.1
1. Evaluate the following without using calculator.
a) Sin 75o
b) Sin 165o
c) Sin 285o
d) Cos 25ocos 5o – sin 25o sin 5o
e) Sin 65o cos 35o – cos65o sin 35o
2. Verify each identities

a) sin  2700      cos 

   
b) sin      cos      0
 3  6

c) sin  x  300   cos  x  600   cos x

47
d) sin  x  y  sin  x  y   sin 2 x  sin 2 y

e) cos  x  y   cos  x  y   2cos x cos y

cos x  sin x  
f)  tan   x 
cos x  sin x 4 
       
g) cos   x  cos   y   sin   x  sin   y   sin  x  y 
4  4  4  4 
 
h) cos p  sin p  2 sin   p 
4 

 
t an   x 
   1  tan x 
2
4
i)  
   1  tan x 
t an   x 
4 
5 4
3. If sin A = and cos B =  . Find cos (A + B). State the Quadrant of (A + B) where A
13 5
and B are obtuse angles.
3 12
4. Given sin x = and that sin y = , x and y are acute angles. Find
5 13
a. sin (x + y) c. tan(x +y)
b. cos (x – y) d. cot(x – y)
Double - Angle
From the sum and difference formulas for sine and cosine, one can get `double angle'
formulas as :-

48
Trigonometric Ratios of (3)

The multiple - angle (Double & Half Angle) Formulas

With the help of the sum and difference (compound angle formulas studied in the previous

article, we will express the trigonometric functions of angle in terms of ).
2

From the above formulas, we derive the following formulas

49
Example1: Find the value of cos 150, using the ratios of 300only.
Solution

Example 2: Find the exact value for sin 1050using the half- angle identity.

Example 3
1  5
Find the values of sine and cosine of    , given that sin  = ,  is in Quad II
2  13
Solution

50
Example 4: Find the exact value for cos 1650 using half- angle identity.
Solution:

Example 5: Find sin 22.50, cos 22.50 and tan 22.50 using the half angle formulas.
Solution:

51
Example6

Solution:

1
Example 7: Express 1  sin 2 x in terms sin x and cos x
2
Solution:

Example 7:
3 1
Prove that sin 4    cos 2  cos 4
8 8

52
Example 8
sin 2 x
Prove that  tan x
1  cos 2 x
Solution:

Example 9
1  cos x x
Prove that  tan
1  cos x 2
Solution

Example 10

Solution

Example 11
3
1. Suppose x is b/w 90o and 180o and sin x = find sin 2x. Since sin2x = 2sinx cosx, find
5
cosx first. Use cos2x + sin2x = 1
Solution
2
 3 9 16
cos x + sin x = 1 cos x  1  sin x  cos x  1     1 
2 2 2 2 2

5 25 25

16 4
 cosx     . Since x is b/w 900 and 1800, cosx is negative
25 5
4
 cosx  
5
 3  4 
sin 2 x  2sin x cos x  2    
 5  5 
24
 sin 2 x  
25

53
Tangent Identities
1) Sum and Difference Identities

Double (Multiple) angle and Half (sub multiple) angle Identities

54
Example 12: Prove that tan 200 + tan 250+ tan 200 (tan 250) = 1
Solution

Example 13: Find tan 750

Solution

55
Example 15
If A + B =  /4, then prove that (1 + tan A) (1 + tan B) = 2

Example 16

Solution

56
Example 17: Find the value of tan ( + ) where a is in Quad III and b is in Quad .II such
3 20
that cos  =  and sin  =
5 29
Solution

Factorization and Defactorization

Factorization (Sums or Differences into Products)

Defactorization (Products into Sums or Differences)

57
Note: These identities are valid for both degree and radian measure whenever both sides are
defined.
C  D C D
Example 18: Verify that sin C  sin D  2sin   cos  
 2   2 
Solution

Example 19:

Solution
We know that sin ( +  ) = sin  cos  + cos  . sin  ......(i)
and sin (  - ) = sin  cos  - cos  sin  ......(ii)
Adding (i) and (ii) we get
sin (  + ) + sin (  -  ) = 2 sin  . cos 

58
Example 20: Write cos 7x cos 4x as a sum.
Solution

Example 21: Write the difference cos 2  - cos 8 as a product.

Solution

Example 22: Find the exact value of sin 75 0 + sin 150

Solution

59
Example 23: Prove that sin 7A + sin 3A = cot 2A
Solution

Example 24:
If sin  + sin 3  = cos  + cos 3  then prove that, either tan 2 = 1 or cos  = 0
Solution
sin  + sin 3 = cos  + cos 3 ...... (Given)
 2 sin 2 cos  = 2 cos 2 cos 
 sin 2 cos  - cos . cos 2 = 0
 (sin 2 - cos 2) cos  = 0  either i) sin 2 - cos 2 = 0 or ii) cos  =0
 i) sin 2 = cos 2  tan 2 = 1 ii) cos  = 0
Example25:
Find the value of cos 520 + cos 680 + cos 1720
Solution

60
Example 26:
Express as a sum or difference sin 55 0 sin 400
Solution
Using sin  sin  = 1/2 [cos ( - ) - cos ( + )] we get,
 sin 550 sin 400 = 1/2 [cos (56 0 - 400) - cos (550 + 400)] = 1/2 [cos 150 - cos 950]
Example 9:

Solution

Example 27: cos 3x sin2x = 1 /16 (2 cos x - cos 3x - cos 5x)

Solution: cos3x. sin2x = (sin x cos x) 2cos x
= (1/2 x 2 sin x cos x) 2 cos x
= 1/4 (2 sin x cos x) 2 cos x
= 1/4 (sin 2x) 2 (cos x).... ( sin 2x = 2 sin x cos x)
= 1/4 (sin 2x) (sin 2x cos x)
= 1/4 (sin 2 x) [1/2 (sin 3x + sin x)] ....sin  cos 
= 1/2[sin ( +) cos ( - )]
= 1/8 [sin 3x sin 2x + sin 2x sin x]
= 1/8 [1/2 (cos x - cos 5x) + 1/2 (cos x - cos 3x)]
= 1/16 [2 cos x - cos 3x - cos 5x]

61
Example 28: Simplify cos 3x cos 2x cos x
Solution:

Review Exercise1.8.4.

62
1. 4. Solving trigonometric equations
A trigonometric equation is an involving a trigonometric function. If the equation is true for all
values of the variable it is an identity.
Trigonometric equations may be solved by the same methods used to solve other equations.
For example, the use of algebraic techniques such as factoring and substitution may be
helpful in solving trigonometric equation.
Example 1
1. Solve 2sin2x – 3sinx +1=0 for principal values of x.
2sin2x – 3sinx +1=0
(2sin x – 1)(Sin x – 1) =0 factor
2sin x – 1=0 or Sin x – 1=0
Sinx = 1 sinx =1
2

x=Arcsin 1 x=Arcsin 1
2

x=30o x =90o
The solutions are 30o and 90o
2. solve 2tanx sinx + 2sinx =tanx +1 for all values of x
2tanx sinx +2sinx =tanx+1
2tanx sinx +2sinx – tanx – 1=0
(tanx +1)(2sinx – 1)=0
tanx +1=0 or 2sinx – 1 =1
tanx = -1 sinx = 1
2

x=Arctan(-1) x=Arcsin 1
2

x= -45 + n·̣̣̣̣̣̣̣̣̣̣ 180 x=30 + n ·̣̣̣̣̣̣̣̣̣̣ 160o

o o o
̣̣̣̣̣ ̣̣̣̣̣
The solutions are 45 + n·̣̣̣̣̣̣̣̣̣̣̣̣̣̣̣ 180o x=30o+ n·̣̣̣̣̣̣̣̣̣̣̣̣̣̣̣ 160o where n is any integer
o
̣̣̣̣̣̣̣̣̣̣ ̣̣̣̣̣̣̣̣̣̣
3. Solve sin(x+30o)=cos2x if 0≤ x ≤90o.
sin (x+30o)=cos 2x
(x+30o)+2x=90o
3x=60o or x =20o
If sinA =cosB, then A+B=90o since the sine and the cosine are co-functions.

The solution is 20o

63
4. solve 2sin2x – cosx – 1=0 for all values of x
2sin2x – cosx – 1=0
2(1 – cos2x) – cosx – 1=0 sin2x=1-cos2x
2cos2x+cosx – 1=0
(2 cosx – 1)(cosx+1)=0
2cosx – 1=0 or cosx +1=0
Cosx= 1 cosx = -1
2

x= Arc cos 1 x=Arc cos(-1)

2

x=60o+ n ·̣̣̣̣̣̣̣̣̣̣̣̣̣̣̣ 360o and 300o+ n ·̣̣̣̣̣̣̣̣̣̣̣̣̣̣̣ 360o and 180o + n ·̣̣̣̣̣̣̣̣̣̣̣̣̣̣̣ 60o for any integer n.
̣̣̣̣̣̣̣̣̣̣ ̣̣̣̣̣̣̣̣̣̣ ̣̣̣̣̣̣̣̣̣̣
5. Solve 2sin2x +3sinx – 2=0 for principal values of x.
2sin2x +3sinx – 2=0
(2sin x – 1)(sin x +2)=0
2sin x – 1=0 or sin x+2=0
Sin x = 1 sin x= -2
2

x=Arc sin 1 x=Arc sin(-2) there is no solution since sin x is in the interval -1≤sinx≤1
2

The solution is 30o.

Exercise 1.8.5.
Solve each equation for the principal values of x
1. 2cosx – 1=0 4. 2cosx - 3 =0
2. 2sinx+1 =0 5. 2cosx+1=0
3. 2 sin x 1  0

Each equation has how many solutions if 0o≤ Ø ≤360 o?

1. sin Ø =1 3. tan Ø = -3 3
5. sin 2 Ø =
3 4. sin 2 Ø= ½ 2
2. cos Ø = 2

Solve each question for general values of x.

1. 2sin2 x-sinx – 1=0 4. 2sin x+ 3 =0
2. sinx +sinx cosx =0 5. tan2x – 1=0
3. 2sin2x – 1=0
Solve each equation for principal values of x
1.2sin2x+sin x=0 3.4 sin2x – 3=0 5.2 cos2x =sin x+1

2. 2 cos x – 1=0 4.tan 2x = cotx

64
SIMPLE TRIGONOMETRIC EQUATIONS
Basic trigonometry equation, of the form of sin θ = k, cos θ = k and tan θ = k, where k is a
constant are solved as follows.
1) By considering the sign of k, identity the possible quadrants in which θ lies.
2) Find the basic angle α. Remember that α is acute and sin α, cos α and tan α are all
positive.
3) Find all values of θ mast be measured from the positive x-axis.
Example
Find all the values of θ such that
a) sin θ = -0.5, where 0o < θ < 360o
b) tan θ =-1 , where 0o< θ < 360o
c) cos θ = 0.46, where -360o < θ < 0o
Solution
a) sin θ = -0.5 0o< θ<360o , sin θ < 0 so θ is in the 3rd or 4th quadrant for the acute
angle α sin α > 0 and so sin α = 0.5 α =30 therefore θ = 180o+ α , 360o – α
= 210o, 330o
b) tan θ = -1, 0o< θ<360o , tan θ < 0 so θ is in the 2nd or 4th quadrant
tan α = -1 so α = 45 o. θ = 180o- α, 360o – α = 135o, 3150
c) cos θ = 0.46, cos θ > 0 so θ is in the 1st or 4th quadrant cos α = 0.46 = α = 62,6
θ = - α – (360o – α) = - 62.60, -29740
Exercise 1.7.C
1. Find all angles where 0o<x<360o such that
a) cos x = -0.17
b) tan x = 1.732
c) sin x = 0.866
d) 2 sin (-x) = 0.3
8cos x  1
e) 3
2  cos x
2. find the angles b/w -360o and 180o such that
a) sin x = - ½
b) cos x = √3/2
c) sin(-x) + 1 = 0
d) √2 sin(90o – x ) + 1 = 0

65
1.5. Inverse of Trigonometric Functions.
You now need to define inverses of the trigonometric functions, starting with a brief review of the
general concept of inverse functions. You first restate a few important facts about inverse functions.
Facts about inverse functions

The graph of f 1 is obtained by reflecting the graph of f in the line y = x.

You know that a function f is invertible if it is one -to-one. All trigonometric functions are
periodic; hence, each range value can be associated with infinitely many domain values.
As a result, no trigonometric function is one-to-one. So without restricting the domains, no
trigonometric function has an inverse function as shown in Figure 1.7.2 below. To resolve
this problem, you restrict the domain of each function so that it is one-to-one over the
restricted domain. Thus, for this restricted domain, the function is invertible.

66
Inverse trigonometric functions are used in many applications and mathematical
developments and they will be particularly useful to you when you solve trigonometric
equations.
ACTIVITY 1.7.A

a. Inverse sine function

  
From Activity 1.7.A, you should have seen that the sine function is invertible on   , 
 2 2
Now, you can define the inverse sine function as follows.

67
b. Inverse cosine function

You know that cos x is not one-to-one. Note, however, that cos x decreases from 1 to –1 in
the interval [0,  ]. Thus if y = cos x and x is restricted in the interval [0,  ], then for every y
in [–1, 1], there is a unique x such that cos x = y.

68
Use this restricted cosine function to define the inverse cosine function. Reflecting the graph
of y = cos x on [0,  ] in the line y = x, gives the graph of f ( x)  cos1 x as shown in
Figures 1.7.4 and 1.7.5.

69
c. Inverse tangent function

70
Reflecting the graph of y = tan x in the line y = x gives the graph of f ( x)  tan 1 x as shown
in the Figures 1.7.6. and 1.7.7

71
Inverse cotangent, secant, and cosecant functions
Here, the definitions of the inverse cotangent, secant and cosecant functions are given.
Whereas drawing the graphs is given as exercise.

72
Exercise 1.7.D

73
1.6. Definition of Polar Coordinates.
Before we can start working with polar coordinates, we must define what we will be talking
about. So let us first set us a diagram that will help us understand what we are talking about
First, fix an origin (called the pole) and an initial ray from O.
Each point P can be located by assigning to it a polar coordinate pair (r,  ) where r is the
directed distance from O to P and  is the directed angle from the initial ray to ray OP

When  is positive, then the angle was measured counterclockwise, and when  is negative,
the angle was measured clockwise. By this fact, a given polar coordinate is not unique.
Example 1
   11 
P  3,   P  3,   See diagram
 6  6 

Sometimes, there are occasions when we would like to allow r to be negative. For example,
force on an object in a certain direction. This is why we would say that r is a directed distance

74
Example 2
   11 
P  3,   P  3,  See diagram
 6  6 

Example 3
 
First of all, let us plot the original point  3,  
 4
SOLUTION:
First of all, let us plot the original point

(Remember we can go around the circle an infinite number of times in either direction, which
is why I use +/- and multiples of 2  .). Now, if r is positive, what is the  that gives the
 3
same point? What is the II? The answer is . Here are those related points.
4 4

ELEMENTARY COORDINATE EQUATIONS AND INEQUALITIES

Some forms of basic polar equations that occur most often are the equations for a circle
centered at the origin and the equation for the line through the origin
FACT: The equation of a circle with radius | a | centered at the origin is r = a.
Why did I say that the radius is | a |? Remember r is a directed distance, so the circle r = a and
r = -a will be the same circle, but start in different places.

75
Example 4
To illustrate the above fact I will graph the half circles
r = - 2 and r = 2 on the interval [0,  ]. r = - 2 is in
the blue. r = 2 is in the red. Notice that r = - 2 starts
at  and goes to 2  , whereas r = 2 starts at 0 and
goes to 
FACT:
The equation of a line through the origin making angle
00 with the initial ray is  = 00
In my opinion, it is kind of a waste using a polar equation to represent the equation of a line,
but it is possible to do.
Now, let us graph some polar equations and inequalities

Example 5: r  1
SOLUTION:
The graph of this polar inequality will be the shaded region
outside the circle of radius 1.

Example 6:

SOLUTION:
2
This is the graph of the line that makes the angle with the positive x-axis, but goes in the
3
opposite direction starting at 2.

76
Example 7
0     , r = -1
SOLUTION:
This is the half circle that starts at  and goes to 2  . I know that the interval starts at 0,
but r is negative. Therefore it goes in the opposite directions.

Example 8

SOLUTION:
The graph of this set of inequalities is two wedges cut out of the circle with radii of -1 and 1,

and all circles that are between those two values by the lines 
4

Here are the basic equations that relate polar coordinates to Cartesian coordinates.
x = r cos  , y = r sin  , x2+y2=r2, tan  = y/ x
Here is a diagram to help us understand where these equations came from.

77
CONVERTING FROM POLAR COORDINATES TO CARTESIAN COORDINATES
Example 9:

Convert (0, ) to Cartesian coordinates.
2
SOLUTION:

x = 0 cos ( )=0
2

y = 0 sin ( )=0
2

So (0, ) is equivalent to (0, 0) in Cartesian coordinates.
2
Example 10:
 
Convert the following polar coordinate to its equivalent Cartesian coordinate   2, 
 4
Solution:

So the equivalent Cartesian coordinates for the given polar coordinate is (-1, -1).
CONVERTING FROM A CARTESIAN EQUATION TO A POLAR EQUATION
Example 11:
Convert y = 10 into a polar equation.
Solution:

This is a graph of a horizontal line with y-intercept at (0, 10).

Example 12:
Convert x 2 - y 2 = 4 into a polar equation.
Solution:

78
This is an equation of a hyperbola, and here is its graph.

Example 13:
Convert y 2 = 4x into a polar equation.
Solution:

This is an equation of a parabola, and here is its graph.

Example 14:
Convert (x + 2) 2 + (y - 4) 2 = 16 into a polar equation.
Solution:
First of all, I am going to multiply out the original equation

79
(x + 2) 2 + (y - 4) 2
= 16  x 2
+ 4x + 4 + y 2 - 8y + 16 = 16
 x 2
+ y 2 + 4x - 8y = -4
Now convert this equation into its corresponding polar form.
r 2  4r cos   8r sin    4
This is an equation of a circle with center at (-2, 4) and radius 4.
CONVERTING A POLAR EQUATION TO A CARTESIAN EQUATION EXAMPLE 15:
Convert r sin  = 4 into its equivalent Cartesian equation
Solution:
r sin = 4  y = 4
This is an equation of a horizontal line through the point (0, 4).
1. 9 Exercise
2. Convert the given point from polar coordinates to Cartesian coordinates.
a. (6, 210◦)
b. (−4,3π)
c. (2,11π/6)
d. (6, 90◦)
e. (−1,405◦)
3. Convert the given point from Cartesian coordinates to polar coordinates.
a. (3,1)
b. (−1,−3)
c. (0,2)
d. (4,−2)
e. (−2,0)
4. Write the given equation in polar coordinates.
a. (x−3)2 + y2 = 9
b. y = −x
c. x2 − y2 = 1
d. 3x2 +4y2 −6x = 9
5. Graph the function r = 1+2 cos θ in polar coordinates.

80
CHAPTER 2: CALCULUS

Objectives: By the end of this chapter students should be able to:

 define the main concept of calculus
 know the concept of limit
 calculate the limit of polynomial function, rational functions and
trigonometric functions
 Differentiate algebraic functions and trigonometry functions.
 use the product, quotient and chain rule in derivative
 find first and second derivative
 know the properties of the first and second derivative
 sketch graph by using the derivative
 find a maximum and minimum (critical point)
 Find an inflection point.
 Integrate polynomial functions and simple rational functions.
 Integrate sine, cosine and tangent
 Find the area under the curve.
 Find out the area between two curves.
 Find volume.

What is Calculus?
Calculus is a mathematics of motion and change where there is motion or growth, where
variable forces at work producing acceleration. Calculus is the right mathematics to apply this
was true in the beginning of the subject and it is true today.
Calculus was the first created to meet the mathematical needs of scientists of the seventh
century. Differential calculus deals with the problems of calculating rates of change. it
enabled people to define slope of curves, to calculate the velocities , and accelerations of
moving bodies , to find the firing . Integral calculus dealt with the problems of determining a
function from information about its rates of change it enabled people to calculate the future
location of a body from its present position and knowledge of the force acting on it , to find
the areas of irregular regions in the plane to measure the lengths of curve, and to locate the
centers of mass of arbitrary solids.

81
Calculus is fundamentally different from the mathematics that you have studied previously
calculus is less static and more dynamic. it is concerned with change and motion , it deals
with quantities for the reason it may be useful to have an overview of the subject before
beginning intensive study . Here we give a glimpse of some of the main ideas of calculus by
showing how limits arise when we attempt to solve a variety propels
A circle with inscribed regular polygon let An , be the Area of the inscribed Polygon with n
sides. As n increases, it appears that An becomes closer and closer to the area of the circle we
say that the area of the circle is the limit of the areas of the inscribed polygons, and we write
𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑡 𝐴𝑛
𝐴=
𝑛→∞

2.1 Limit
Before we define a limit we give a glimpse by showing how limits arise when we attempt to
solve a variety problem.
For example A circle with inscribed regular polygon

Let An, be the Area of the inscribed polygon with n sides. As n increase (the number of sides
increases) it appears that An (the area of the circle) becomes closer and closer to the area of
the circle, we say that that the area of circle is the limit of areas of the inscribed polygons,
lim⁡
and we write 𝐴 = 𝐴𝑛
𝑛→∞
Concept of limit
In this section, we develop the notation of limit using some language and illustrate the idea
with some simple examples consider the functions
𝑥 2 −1 𝑥2− 2
𝑔 𝑥 = and 𝑓 𝑥 =
𝑥−1 𝑥−1

What‟s the first thing that notice about these functions? You probably observed that both
functions are undefined at𝑥 = 1, that means you cannot substitute 1 for 𝑥. It is helpful to
compute some vales of both functions for 𝑥 close to 1 as in the following tables:

82
In the first column of the table the 𝑥 −values get closer to 1, but all less than 1. We use the
notation𝑥 → 1 to indicate that 𝑥approaches from the left side. Notice that with as 𝑥get closer
& closer to 1(𝑥 < 1), g(x) is getting closer and closer to 2.
lim 𝑔 𝑥
We say that the limit of g(x) as𝑥 approaches to 1 from the left is 2. Witten =2
𝑥→1
On the other hand table indicate that as x gets closer and closer to 1(𝑤𝑖𝑡𝑕𝑥 < 1)𝑓(𝑥)increase
without bound (there is no number f(x) is approaching).
We say that limit of 𝑓(𝑥) as x approaches 1 from the left side does not exist, written.
lim 𝑓 𝑥
does not exist
𝑥→1
What happens to the function values for x close to 1 but larger than 1.

In the first column of the table, the 𝑥 −values get closer to 1, but all greater than 1.
The table indicates that x approaches to 1 from the right side. As x gets closer and closer to 1.
We say that the limit of g(x) as x approaches 1 to from the right side is 2. Written
lim 𝑔 𝑥 = 2
𝑥→1+

On the other hand as x gets closer & closer to 1 (𝑤𝑖𝑡𝑕𝑥 > 1) f(x) decrease with out bound.
Similarly as the first.
lim 𝑔 𝑥 = lim− 𝑔(𝑥)
𝑥→1+ 𝑥→1

83
One – sided limits, since the two
One-sided limits of g(x) as x approaches to 1 is 2.
Written lim𝑥→1 𝑔 𝑥 = 2
Another hand there is no common value for the one-sided limits of f(x). We say that the limit
of f(x) as x approaches 1 does not exist
Written lim𝑥→1 𝑓 𝑥 = 2 does not exist
Theorem 1
For any constant c and a real number a
lim 𝑐 = 𝑐
𝑥→𝑎

Theorem 2
For any real number a,
lim 𝑥 = 𝑎
𝑥→𝑎

Theorem 3
Suppose lim f(x) and lim g(x) where both functions of x as x approaches to a both exist and c
be any number constant then the following are true:
i. lim x a cf ( x)  c lim x a f ( x)

ii. lim x a  f ( x)  g ( x)  lim x a f ( x)  lim x a g ( x)

iii. lim x a  f ( x)  g ( x)  l im x a f ( x)lim x a g ( x) 

 f ( x)  lim x a f ( x)
iv. lim x a   , where lim x a g ( x)  0
 g ( x)  lim x a g ( x)
Corollary
For any national number n, and any real number a,
lim x a x n  a n

Example 1
Find the limit of the following functions.
1. lim𝑥→2 4 4. lim𝑥→−2 x 3
2. lim𝑥→2 ( x 2 + 4x − 8) 5. lim𝑥→4 (5 x 2 + 8x + 2)
3. lim𝑥→3 ( x 2 + 4)(x 3 + 2x + 1)
Solutions:
1. lim𝑥→2 4 = 4
2. lim𝑥→2 x 2 + 4x − 8

84
= limx2 + 4 lim⁡x-lim8
𝑥→2 𝑥 →2 𝑥→2
2
= (2) + 4 (2) – 8 = 4 + 8 – 8 = 4
3. lim𝑥→3 ( x 2 + 4)(x 3 + 2x + 1)
= lim (x2 + 4 ) . lim (x 3 + 2x + 1 )
𝑥→3 𝑥→3

= [ (3) + 4 ] . [ (3)3 + 2(3)+1 ]

2

= ( 9 +4 ) . (27+6+1 )
= ( 13 ) . (34)
= 442
Example 2
Find the limits of the following.
𝑥 2 −4
1. lim𝑥→2 𝑥−2
3𝑥+9
2. lim𝑥→−3 𝑥+3
𝑥 2 −5𝑥+6
3. lim𝑥→2 𝑥 −2

Solution:
Find the limit of this function

1. x2  4
lim x2
x2
If we substitute the value x = 2, then the denominator and enumerator are ( 0/0 ), therefore we
factorize:
x2  4  x  2 x  2
lim x2  lim x2  lim x2 x  2  2  2  4
x2 x2

2. 3𝑥+9
lim𝑥→−3 𝑥+3
3 𝑥+3
3. = lim𝑥→−3 𝑥+3

= lim 3
𝑥→−3

=3
𝑥 2 −5𝑥+6
4. lim𝑥→−3 𝑥−2

𝑥 − 3 (𝑥 − 2)
= lim
𝑥→−3 𝑥−2
= lim (𝑥 − 3)
𝑥→−3

=2–3
= -1
85
Exercise 1
Find the limit of the following functions.
3x  9
1. lim x3
x3
x2  5x  6
2. lim x3
x3
3. lim x2 x3  4

4. lim x5  x 2  4  x3  2 x  1

5. lim x3 x 2  4 x  8

x2  4
6. lim x3
x2
2 x 2  10 x  12
7. lim x3
x2

Limits of infinity
We consider the following cases:

1. lim x x 2  

1
2. lim x 0
x

Example 3
Find the limits
3𝑥 2
a) lim𝑥→∞
4𝑥 2
4𝑥 3 +2𝑥 2 +1
b) lim𝑥→∞
𝑥 2 −2𝑥
5𝑥 4 −3𝑥 2 +1
c) lim𝑥→∞
𝑥 5 −2
Solution:
3𝑥 2
a) lim𝑥→∞ divide both sides by x2
4𝑥 2
3𝑥 2
𝑥2 3 3
lim𝑥→∞ 4𝑥 2
= lim𝑥→∞ =
4 4
𝑥2

86
 4𝑥 3 +2𝑥 2 +1
b) lim𝑥→∞
𝑥 2 −2𝑥
4𝑥 3 2𝑥 2 1
+ 3+ 3
𝑥3
= lim𝑥→∞ 𝑥 𝑥
𝑥 2 −2𝑥 2
− 3
𝑥3 𝑥
2 1
4+ + 3
𝑥 𝑥
= lim𝑥→∞ 1 2
−
𝑥 𝑥2
2 1
4+ +
= lim𝑥→∞ ∞ ∞
1 2
−
∞ ∞

4+0+0
=
0−0
4
= =∞
0
5𝑥 4 −3𝑥 2 +1
c) lim𝑥→∞ divide both sides by x5
𝑥 5 −2

5𝑥 4 3𝑥 2 1
5 − 5 + 5
𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
= lim𝑥→∞ 𝑥5 2
−
𝑥5 𝑥5
5 3 1
−
𝑥 𝑥3
+
𝑥5
= lim𝑥→∞ 2
1− 5
𝑥
5 3 1
−
∞ ∞
+ ∞
= 2
1 −∞

0
=
1−0
=0

Exercise 2
1. lim x x3  5x

4 x3  4 x
2. lim x
5 x3  3
1
3. lim x
x  3x
3

Continuity
İf you say that a machine had been in continuous operation for the past 48 hr .What do have
in mind? that means that the machine has been in operation all of that time, without any

87
 interreption all even a moment. Mathematicians mean very much the same thing when we say
that a function is continuous on an interval means the graph can be dawn without
interruption.
A function is said to be continuous on an interval if there is no disjoint on that interval
Definition
A function f in continuous of x = a when
I. F (a) is definded
II. lim𝑥→𝑎 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑠𝑡
III. lim𝑥→𝑎 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑎)
Otherwise f is said to be discontinuous at x = a

Example 4
Determine where the function is continuous or discontinuous at the gıven point .
𝑎) 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 + 2 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 2 𝑥
𝑏) 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 1
𝑥−1
Solution
𝑎) 𝑖 𝑓 2 = 2+2 = 4=2
𝑖𝑖 lim 𝑓 𝑥 = 2 + 2 = 2
𝑥−𝑎

𝑓 2 = lim𝑥→2 𝑓 𝑥 → then f(x) is continuous at x = 2

𝑏) 𝑖 𝑓 1 𝑖𝑠𝑛𝑜𝑡𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑.
𝑥 𝑥
𝑖𝑖 lim 𝑑𝑜𝑒𝑠𝑛𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑠𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑖𝑠𝑛𝑜𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 1.
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥 − 1 𝑥−1

Exercise 3
Determine the following functions are continuous or not at the given point.

𝑎) 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 + 3𝑎𝑡𝑥 = −4
𝑥2 − 4
𝑏) 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑡𝑥 = −2
𝑥+2
𝑐) 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 2 + 3 𝑎𝑡𝑥 = 1
𝑑) 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 + 2 𝑎𝑡𝑥 = 0
𝑒) 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 − 𝑥𝑎𝑡𝑥 = 0
2
𝑓) 𝑓 𝑥 = + 3 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 0
𝑥
88
 𝑥2 𝑖𝑓𝑥 < 2
𝑕) 𝑓 𝑥 =
3𝑥 − 1 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ≥ 2
𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 2
𝑥2 + 1 𝑖𝑓𝑥 < 1
𝑔) 𝑓 𝑥 =
2 csc 00 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ≥ 1
𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 1

2.2 DERIVATIVE

The slope of the secant line through the point (a,f(a) ) and [ (a+h) , f(a+h) ] ıs gıven by
f(a+h) – f(a)
Msecant = 𝑎+𝑕 −𝑎

Defınıtıon.
The slope Mtan of the tangent line to y = f(x) at x = a is given by
f(a+h) – f(a)
Mtan=lim𝑕→0 𝑕

Provided the limit exists.

Example5
Find the equation of the tangent line to y = x2 + 2x +1 at x = 1
Solution
𝑓 𝑎+𝑕 −𝑓(𝑎)
We compute the slope Mtan = lim𝑕→0 𝑕
𝑓 1+𝑕 −𝑓(1)
Mtan = lim𝑕→0 𝑕
1+𝑕 2 +2 𝑕+1 +1 −[1+2+1)]
= lim𝑕→0 𝑕

h---0

89
 1+2𝑕+𝑕 2 −2𝑕+2+1 −4
Lım lim𝑕→0 𝑕
[𝑕 2 +4𝑕+4−4]
= lim𝑕→0 𝑕

𝑕(2𝑕 + 2)
= lim
𝑕→0 𝑕
= lim (2𝑕 + 2)
𝑕→0

=2

Example 6
Find the equation of the tangent line𝑦 = 3𝑥 + 1 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 2
Solution:

𝑓 𝑎+𝑕 −𝑓(𝑎)
Slope of tangent = Mtan = 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑕→0 𝑕
[3 2+𝑕 +1−𝑓(2)
= Lım lim𝑕→0 𝑕
6+3𝑕+1−7)
= Lım lim𝑕→0 𝑕
3𝑕
= lim𝑕→0 𝑕

=3
Definition
The slope Mtan of the tangent line to y = f(x) at x = a ıs given by
f(a+h) – f(a)
Mtan=lim𝑕→0
𝑕

Provided the limit exists. If the limit exist we say that f is differentiable at x = a
Example 7
𝐹(𝑥) = 2𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 − 5 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 1
Solution:
𝑓 1+𝑕 −𝑓(1)
lim𝑕→0 𝑕
[2(1+𝑕)3 +4 𝑕+1 −5−[2+4−5]
=lim𝑕→0 𝑕
[2 1+3𝑕+3𝑕 2 +𝑕 3 +4𝑕+4−5−1]
= lim𝑕→0 𝑕
[2+6𝑕+6𝑕 2 +2𝑕 3 +4𝑕+4−6]
= lim𝑕→0 𝑕

2𝑕 3 +6𝑕 2 +10𝑕]
= lim𝑕→0 𝑕

90
 𝑕(2𝑕 2 +6𝑕+10)
= lim𝑕→0 = lim𝑕→0 (2𝑕2 + 6h + 10) = 10
𝑕

Defınıtıon 2
The derivative of f(x) ıs the function f,(x) ıs given by
𝑓+𝑕 −𝑓(𝑥)
𝑓 , (x) = lim𝑕→0 𝑕
𝑓+∆𝑥)−𝑓(𝑥)
Or lim𝑕→0 𝑕

Theorem
𝑑
For any constant C 𝑑𝑥 C = 0

Proof
𝑑
C = 𝑓 , (𝑥)
𝑑𝑥
𝑓 𝑥+𝑕 −𝑓(𝑥)
𝑓 , (𝑥) = lim𝑕→0 𝑕
𝑐−𝑐 0
=lim𝑕→0 =𝑕
𝑕

Theorem 2
𝑑
x=1
𝑑𝑥
Proof
𝑑 𝑓 𝑥 +𝑕 −𝑓(𝑥)
x = 𝑓 , (𝑥)=𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑕→0
𝑑𝑥 𝑕

𝑓 𝑥+𝑕 −𝑓(𝑥)
𝑓 , (𝑥) =𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑕→0 𝑕

𝑥 +𝑕 −𝑥
=𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑕→0 𝑕

𝑕
= 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑕→0 𝑕 = 1

91
 𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒐𝒓𝒆𝒎 𝟑( 𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒓𝒖𝒍𝒆)
𝑑
For any ınteger n>0 𝑑𝑥 𝑥 𝑛 = 𝑛𝑥 𝑛 −1

General Derivative Rules

If f(x) and g(x) are differentiable at x and c ıs any constant, then

𝑑
I. 𝑓 𝑥 +𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑓 , 𝑥 + 𝑔, (𝑥)
𝑑𝑥
𝑑
II. 𝑓 𝑥 −𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑓 , 𝑥 − 𝑔, (𝑥)
𝑑𝑥

𝑑
III. 𝑐𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑐𝑓 , 𝑥
𝑑𝑥

Provided the limit exists .The process of computing a derivative ıs called dıfferentıatıon.
The slope of secant line
y2  y1
M sec ant 
x2  x1

Δ𝑦 𝑓 𝑥 + Δ𝑥 − 𝑓 𝑥 𝑓 𝑥+Δ𝑥 − 𝑓 𝑥
Slope of the secant = Δ𝑥 = =
x + Δ𝑥 − 𝑥 Δ𝑥

Slope of tangent = lim𝑥→𝑎 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑛𝑡

𝑓 𝑥 + Δ𝑥 − 𝑓 𝑥
= lim
𝑥→𝑎 Δ𝑥
Slope of the curve = slope of Tangent to the curve at the point x = a
f ( x  x)  f ( x)
M tan 
x

92
Example 1
Differentiate the following using the first principle (difference of quotient)
a) y  x2  2

b) y  2 x 2  3x  5
2
c) y
x
Solution
dy f ( x  x)  f ( x)
From the above definition  limx 0
dx x
a) y  x2  2
Given
f ( x)  x 2  2

f ( x  x)   x  x   2  x 2  2 xx  x 2  2
2

There fore

 x  x   2   x2  2 
2
dy x 2  2 xx  x 2  2  x 2  2
 limx 0  limx 0
dx x x
2 xx  x 2 x  2 x  x 
 lim x 0  limx 0  limx 0 2 x  x
x x
dy
  2x
dx
b) y  2 x 2  3x  5
Given
f ( x)  2 x 2  3x  5

f ( x  x)  2  x  x   3( x  x)  5  2 x 2  4 xx  2x 2  3x  3x  5

2

There fore

93
dy 2 x 2  4 xx  2x 2  3x  3x  5  2 x 2  3x  5
 limx 0
dx x

4 xx  2x 2  3x x  4 x  2x  3

 limx 0  limx 0  limx 0 4 x  2x  3
x x
dy
  4x  3
dx

2
c) y
x
Given
2
f ( x) 
x
2 2
f ( x  x)  
 x  x  x  x
Therefore

2 2 2 x  2  x  x 

dy
 limx 0 x  x x   x  x  x
dx x x
2 x  2 x  2x 2x 1
 limx 0  x  limx 0 2 
 x  x  x x  xx x

2 2
 limx 0  2
x  xx
2
x  x(0)

dy 2
  2
dx x
Example 2
Find the gradient of the curve y  3x2  4 x  6 at x = 2, from the first principle of
differentiation
Solution
Given
f ( x)  3x 2  4 x  6
f ( x  x)  3  x  x   4( x  x)  6  3x 2  6 xx  3x 2  4 x  4x  6
2

dy 3x 2  6 xx  3x 2  4 x  4x  6   3x 2  4 x  6 

There fore  limx 0
dx x

94
 3x 2  6 xx  3x 2  4 x  4x  6  3x 2  4 x  6
 limx 0
x

dy 6 xx  3x 2  4x x  6 x  3x  4 

 limx 0  limx 0
dx x x
 limx 0 6 x  3x  4

dy
  6x  4
dx
Therefore the gradient of the curve at x = 2 is 6(2) – 4 = 8

Exercise
1.Differentiate the following w.r.t. to x from the first principle
a. y  x 2  5x  6
3
b. f ( x) 
x
c. y  x3  2 x

d. y  x
2.Find the gradient of the following curves at the indicated point using the first principle of
differentiation
a. y  2  x2

b. y  x3  2
1
c. y
x
d. y  4 x 2  5x  7
Differentiation by Rule
Derivative: is used to find the slope of a curve and the process used is called differentiation.

𝒅𝒚
 The derivative of the function y = xn is = nxn-1
𝒅𝒙

Example 8
dy
Find dx for each of these functions

a) y  x3

b) y  7 x5
95
 7
c) y 
x3
5
d) y 
x7
2
e) y  x 3
1
f) y
x5
Solution
dy dy
a) y  x3 ,  3x31   3x 2
dx dx
dy dy
b) y  7 x5 ,  7(5) x51   35 x 4
dx dx
7 dy dy dy 21
c) y 3
 7 x 3 ,  7(3) x 31   21x 4    4
x dx dx dx x
5 dy dy dy 35
d) y 7
,  y  5 x 7 ,  5(7) x 71   35 x 8    8
x dx dx dx x
2 2 1
dy 2 3 1 dy 2  3 dy 2
e) y  x 3 , ,  x   x   1
dx 3 dx 3 dx
3x 3
5 5
1 1 dy 5  1
f) y , , y  5
yx ,  x 2
2

x5 dx 2
x2
7
1  1 dy 1
 x 2  7  
2 dx 2 x 7
2x 2
Exercise 3
1. Find f/(x) given that f(x) is:
a. x4
b. 2x 5
4
c.
3x 4
d. 6 x
2
e.
5
x3
dy
2. Find for :
dx
96
a. y  3x5

b. y  x3
3
c. y
5x2
d. y 5
x
Rules of differentiation
1) Derivative of constant is zero.

If F(x) = c then F(x)’ = 0

2) if f(x) = x then f(x)’ = 1

3) Derivative of Sum or Difference of two Functions

To find the derivative of a function that has more than one term, you need to differentiate
each function
dy d
y  f ( x)  g ( x) then   f ( x)  g ( x) 
dx dx
Example 9
dy
If y  4 x3  2 x 2 , find and interpret its meaning
dx
Solution
dy
As y  4 x3  2 x 2 ,  12 x 2  4 x
dx
dy
is
dx
 the gradient function or derivative of y  4 x3  2 x 2 from which the gradient of the
tangent at any point can be found
 the instantaneous rate of change of y with respect to x.

Example 10
Find f ( x) if f ( x) is equal to:
5 3
F(x) = 6 x  5x  3x  3 b) 8x  
4 2
a)
x x2
Solution
97
a) f ( x)  6 x 4  5 x 2  3 x  3 5 3
b) f ( x)  8 x   2  8 x  5 x 1  3x 2
x x
 f ( x)  6(4 x3 )  5(2 x)  3(1)
 f ( x)  8(1)  5(1x 2 )  3(2 x 3 )
 24 x3  10 x  3
5 6
8 2  3
x x

Example 11
find the first and second derivative of the following

a) y = 𝑥 3 +4x2+3x
b) y = x4+2x3+6

Solution
a) y = 𝑥 3 +4x2+3x
𝑑𝑦 b) y = x4+2x3+6
= 3x2+8x+3
𝑑𝑥
𝑑2𝑦
𝑦 ′ = 4x3+6x2
= 6x+8
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑦 ′′ = 12x2+12x

Example 12
2
Find the gradient function of y  x3  and hence find the gradient of the tangent to the
x
function at the point where x = 2.
Solution
2
y  x3 
x
 x  2 x 1
3

dy 2
  3x 2  2(1x 2 )  3x 2  2
dx x
dy 2 1 1
When x  2 ,  3 2   12   12
2

 2
2
dx 2 2
𝑑𝑦 2 1 25
When x=2, = 3(2)2 + 22 = 12 + 2 =
𝑑𝑥 2
25
So the tangent has a gradient of 2

98
Example 13
dy
Find for each of these functions
dx
a) y   x  3
2

b) y  x  x3  1

6
c) y  x3 
x2

Solution 7
dy 7 2 1 1 2 1 7 2 1  2
1 5 1
  x  x  x  x
a) y   x  3 first expand the brackets dx 2 2 2 2
2

dy 7 5 1
  x 
y   x  3 x  3 dx 2 2 x
y  x2  6 x  9 6
dy c) y  x3 
 2x  6 x2
dx
6
y  x3   x3  6 x 2
b) y  x  x  1 3
x2
1 7 1 dy 12
y  x  x3  1  x 2  x3  1  x 2  x 2   3x 2  6(2 x 3 )  3x 2  3
dx x

Exercise 14
1. Find the first and second derivative if f ( x) is
1 4 2x  3
a) x  6 x2 d)
2 x
b)  2 x  1
2
3x  6
e)
x2
 x  2
3
c)

2. Differentiate with respect to x:

a) 5  x 
2
c)  x  1 x  2
6 x2  9x4 d) x  x  1 2 x  5
b)
3x
3. Find the gradient of the tangent to: 8  8
b) y at  9, 
 81 
2
y  x 2 at x  2 x
a)
c) y  2 x 2  3x  7 at x  1

99
 2 x2  5 x2  4  3
d) y at x  1 e) y at the point  4, 
 4
2
x x
4. Find the gradient function of f(x) where f(x) is:
a) 4 xx e) 2x  x

b) 3
x 2
f) 
x
5
c)
x2 x
3
d) 2x 
x x
3 dy
5. a) If y  4 x  , find and interpret its meaning.
x dx
b) The position of a car moving along a straight road is given by S = 2t2 +4tmetres where
dS
t is the time in seconds. Find and interpret its meaning.
dt
c) The cost of producing x toasters each week is given by C = 1785 + 3x + 0:002x2 dollars.
dC
Find and interpret its meaning.
dx

Gradient of the Curve

Since the gradient of a curve is continually changing, then the gradient of the curve at point p
is equal to the gradient of the tangent line at point p.

Example 14
Find the gradient of the curve y  x3  4 x 2  2 at the point [1,-1]
Solution
y  x3  4 x 2  2 ,

100
dy
 3x 2  12 x
dx
dy
whenx  1   3 1  12(1)
2

dx
dy
 3  12   9
dx
Thus: the gradient of the curve at the point [1, -1] is -9.
Example 15
1
Find the gradient of the curve f ( x)  x 2  at the point p (1, 2)
x
Solution
dy
To find the gradient of the curve first find f ( x) or
dx
1
f ( x)  x 2   f ( x)  x 2  x 1
x
f ( x)  2 x 2 1  (1) x 11  2 x  x 2
1
 f ( x)  2 x 
x2
The gradient of the curve at the point p (1, 2) is equal to f ( x)
1 1
f ( x)  2 x   f ( x)  2(1)  2  2  1
1
2
x
 f ( x)  1
The gradient of the curve at point p is 1.
Example 16
The gradient of the curve y  3x 2  x  3 , at the point p is 13 find the coordinates of point p.
Solution
dy dy dy
When y  3x 2  x  3 ,  6x  1 = 13 at point p  6 x  1  12  x  2 .To find y
dx dx dx
coordinate substitute x  2 into y  3x 2  x  3 , y  3(2)2  2  3
Therefore: the coordinates of the point p are (2, 11)
Example 17
a
A curve whose equation is y   c passes the point (3, 9) with gradient 5. Find the values of
x
the constants a and c ?
Solution

101
 a
Rewriting y   c ⇒ y  ax 1  c
x
dy dy a
 ax 2   2
dx dx x
Now, the point (3, 9) is on the curve
a
So 9   c  3c  a  27..............(1)
3
The gradient of the curve at x = 3 is 5
a a
So  5  5  a  45.............(2)
 3
2
9

Then substituting a  45 in equation (1)

3c   45  27  3c  27  45
 3c  72  c  24
a  45 And c  24

Exercise 5
1. Find the gradient of each of these curves at the point given
a. y = x2 at (3,9)
b. y = 2x3 at (2, 12)
c. y = 5-x2 at (-2,1)
2  5
d. y  3 
x  2 
at 5,

2. Find the coordinates of any points on each of these curves where the gradient is as stated.
a. y = x3-x2 + 3, grad = 0
4
b. y  , grad = -6
x
3
c. y  x 2  , grad = 3
2 x2
3.The curve C is defined by y = ax2+b, where a andb are constants. Given that the gradient of
the curve at the point (2,-2) is 3. Find the values of a and b.
4. Given that the curve with the equation y = Ax2+Bx has a gradient 7 at the point (6, 8),
find the values of the constants A and B.

102
5. Find the coordinates of the points on the curve y = x2+2x-1 at which the tangent line is
parallel to the horizontal axis.
THE PRODUCT RULE

Example 18
dy
Find if:
dx
a) y = (x2 ) ( x4 ) b) y = x2(x + 1)

y  x2  x2  2x  y  x  2 x  1
4 3
c) d)

Solution

a) y = (x2) ( x4)

b) y = x2(x + 1)

y  x2  x2  2x  v   x2  2x 
4 4

c) is the product of u  x and

2

  
 u   2 x and v  4 x 2  2 x (2 x  2)   4 x  8 x 2  2 x 
3 3

103
 dy
Now  u v  uv  (product rule)
dx

2 x  x 2  2 x   x 2  4 x  8  x 2  2 x 
4 3

 2 x  x 2  2 x    4 x3  8 x 2  x 2  2 x 
4 3

y  x  2 x  1 v   2 x  3
3 1 3

d) is the product of u  x and 2

v   3  2 x  3 (2)...chain rule
2
1
1 
 u   x 2 and
 6  2 x  3
2
2

dy
Now  u v  uv  (product rule)
dx

  2 x  3   x  6  2 x  3 
1 1
1 
 x 2
3 2 2

2
1 1 1
x 2  2 x  3  6 x  2 x  3
3 2
= 2
2
Exercise 6

𝑑𝑦
5 find 𝑑𝑥 if

a) y = (3x2 - 1)(4x + 8)

104
b) y = 3𝑥 ( 4x – 8)
c) y = (x2 + 5x)(x3+1)
THE QUOTIENT RULE
𝑢 𝑥
𝑄𝑢𝑜𝑡𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑕𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑄 𝑥 =
𝑣 𝑥
𝑁𝑜𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑕𝑎𝑡 𝑢 𝑥 = 𝑄 𝑥 𝑣 𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 𝑟𝑢𝑙𝑒,
𝑢′ 𝑥 = 𝑄 ′ 𝑥 𝑣 𝑥 + 𝑄 𝑥 𝑣 ′ 𝑥
∴ 𝑢′ 𝑥 −𝑄(𝑥)𝑣 ′ 𝑥 = 𝑄 ′ 𝑥 𝑣(𝑥)
𝑢 𝑥
i.e, 𝑄 ′ 𝑥 𝑣 𝑥 = 𝑢′ 𝑥 − 𝑣 𝑣′ 𝑥
𝑥

𝑢′ 𝑥 𝑣 𝑥 − 𝑢(𝑥)𝑣 ; (𝑥)
∴ 𝑄′ 𝑥 𝑣 𝑥 =
𝑣(𝑥)
𝑢′ 𝑥 𝑣 𝑥 − 𝑢(𝑥)𝑣 ′ (𝑥)
∴ 𝑄′ 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡𝑕𝑖𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑞𝑢𝑜𝑡𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑟𝑢𝑙𝑒.
[𝑣 𝑥 ]

Example1
𝑑𝑦 1 + 3𝑥 𝑥
𝑈𝑠𝑒 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑞𝑢𝑜𝑡𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑟𝑢𝑙𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝑓: 𝑎. 𝑦 = 2 𝑏. 𝑦 =
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 + 1 1 − 2𝑥
𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
1 + 3𝑥
𝑎. 𝑦 = is a quotient with 𝑢 = 1 + 3𝑥𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑣 = 𝑥 2 + 1
𝑥2 + 1
𝑑𝑦 𝑢′ 𝑣 − 𝑢𝑣 ′
𝑁𝑜𝑤 = 𝑞𝑢𝑜𝑡𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑟𝑢𝑙𝑒
𝑑𝑥 𝑣2
3 𝑥 2 + 1 − 1+3𝑥 2𝑥
= (𝑥 2 + 1)2

3𝑥 2 + 3 − 2𝑥 − 6𝑥 2
=
(𝑥 2 + 1)2
3 − 2𝑥 − 3𝑥 2
=
(𝑥 2 + 1)2
1
𝑥
𝑏. 𝑦 = 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑞𝑢𝑜𝑡𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 Where 𝑢 = 𝑥 2 and 1 − 2𝑥)2
(1−2𝑥)

105
 1 1
∴ 𝑢′ = 𝑥 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣 ′ = 2(1 − 2𝑥)2 −2 == −4(1 − 2𝑥)
2
𝑑𝑦 𝑢′ 𝑣 − 𝑢𝑣 ′
𝑁𝑜𝑤, =
𝑑𝑥 𝑣2
1 −12 2
1
𝑥 (1 − 2𝑥) − 𝑥 2 x − 4(1 − 2𝑥)
= 2
1 − 2𝑥 4
1 −12 2
1
𝑥 (1 − 2𝑥) + 4𝑥 2 (1 − 2𝑥)
= 2
1 − 2𝑥 4
1 − 2𝑥 4
1 − 2𝑥 2 + x
𝑥
= 𝒍𝒐𝒐𝒌 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒎𝒐𝒏 𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓𝒔
1 − 2𝑥 4
1 − 2𝑥 + 8𝑥
= 3
2 𝑥 1 − 2𝑥
6𝑥 + 1
=
2 𝑥(1 − 2𝑥)3

Example 2
𝑥2 + 2
𝑓 𝑥 =
𝑥−3

Solution
𝑓 𝑥
𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑛,
𝑔 𝑥
𝑔 𝑥 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 − 𝑓(𝑥)𝑔′ (𝑥)
𝑓′ 𝑥 =
[𝑔(𝑥)]2
𝑥 −3 2𝑥− 𝑥 2 +2 .1 2𝑥 2 −6𝑥−𝑥 2 −2
= =
(𝑥−3)2 (𝑥−3)2

𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 − 2
=
(𝑥 − 3)2
Example 3
1 + 3𝑥 3
𝑦=( )
1 − 2𝑥
Solution
1 + 3𝑥 3
𝑦=( )
1 − 2𝑥

106
 𝑑 𝑑
(1 + 3𝑥)3 [ 1 + 3𝑥)3 − (1 + 3𝑥)3 [ (1 − 2𝑥)3
= 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
[(1 − 2𝑥)3 ]
(1 − 2𝑥)3 . 3(1 + 3𝑥)2 . 3 − (1 + 3𝑥)3 . 3(1 − 2𝑥)2 . (−2)
=
(1 − 2𝑥)6
9(1 − 2𝑥)3 (1 + 3𝑥)2 + 6(1 + 3𝑥)3 (1 − 2𝑥)2
=
(1 − 2𝑥)6
3(1 − 2𝑥)2 (1 + 3𝑥)2 [3 1 − 2𝑥 + 2 1 + 3𝑥 ]
=
(1 − 2𝑥)6
15(1 − 2𝑥)(1 + 3𝑥)2
=
(1 − 2𝑥)6
Exercise

THE CHAIN RULE

This rule is extremely important and enables us to differentiate complicated functions much
faster.
Example 2
Differentiate the following w.r.t.x

y   2 x3  2 
5
b. y  2  x
2
a.

107
Solution

y   2 x3  2  ,
5
a.

dy dy du
 
dx du dx
Let u  2 x3  2 , then y  u 5
du dy
 6x2 ,  5u 4 , since u = 2x3-2
dx du
dy
then = (2x3-2)5
du

 5  2 x3  2   6 x 2
dy dy du 4
 
dx du dx
 30 x 2  2 x3  2 
dy dy du 4
  
dx du dx
For example, for any function f(x):

Alternative method

y   2 x3  2 
5

 5  2 x3  2   6 x 2    30 x 2  2 x3  2 
dy 51 dy 4

dx dx

b. y  2  x 2
1
y  2  x2  y   2  x2  2
1 1
  2  x2  2   2  x2  2
dy 1 1 1 

dx 2 2
dy 1
 
dx 2  2  x 2 

Example 3
𝑑𝑦
Find𝑑𝑥 .

a) y = 𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 4
b) y = 3𝑥 4 − 2 3

108
Solution
a) y = 𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 4

𝑑𝑦
= 4( 𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 3
2𝑥 + 4
𝑑𝑥

b) y = 3𝑥 4 − 2 3

𝑑𝑦
= 3( 3𝑥 4 − 2 2
12𝑥 3 = 36𝑥 3 3𝑥 4 − 2 2
𝑑𝑥

Exercise

109
Exercise

Derivative of trigonometric functions

110
Proof
𝑑 𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥 =
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥
𝑑 𝑑
[ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 . 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥] − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 . 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥
= 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 2
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥. 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 − −𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 . 𝑠𝑛𝑥
=
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 2
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 2 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 2 1
= 2
=
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 2
𝑑 1
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥 =
𝑑𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 2
Example 1
a) 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥
b) 𝑓 𝑥 = 2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥
c) 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥
d) 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥

e) 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 − 𝑥𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥
Solution
𝑑 𝑑
a) 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 = 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 (𝑥 2 )
𝑑𝑥

= −𝑥 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 + 2𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥
= 𝑥(2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 − 𝑥𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥)
b)𝑓 ′ 𝑥 = −2𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑥
𝑑 𝑑
c) 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥)
𝑑𝑥

= 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥. 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥(−𝑠ı𝑛𝑥)

= 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 2 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 2
𝑑 𝑑
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 (𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥)
𝑓′ 𝑥 = 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 2
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 −𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥. 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥
=
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 2
−(𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 2 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 )2
=
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥2
−1
=𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 2

111
 =-cscx.
𝑑 𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
e)𝑓 ′ 𝑥 = 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑥 − [𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑠ı𝑛𝑥 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑥 ]

= 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 1 − [𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 1 ]

= −𝑥𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 − 𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥
= −𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥.
Exercise
1) Find the derivative of each function
a) 𝑓 𝑥 = 6𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥
b) 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 2
c) 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛3𝑥 − 2
𝑠𝑖𝑛 3𝑥
d) 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 3𝑥
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 −3
e) 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥2

f) 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥. 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥
g) 𝑓 𝑥 = 4𝑥𝑠ı𝑛4𝑥
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
h) 𝑓 𝑡 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡
1−𝑠𝑖𝑛 4𝑡 2
i) 𝑓 𝑡 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 4𝑡

j) 𝑓 𝑡 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡. 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
2) Find the equation of tangent line to 𝑦 = 𝑓 𝑥 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 𝑎
𝜋
a) 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 , 𝑎= 2
𝜋
b) 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 , 𝑎= 2

c) 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥 , 𝑎 = 2𝜋
𝜋
d) 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 , 𝑎= 6
𝜋
e) 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 , 𝑎= 3

3) use the position function to find the velocity at time t=a

𝜋
a) 𝑠 𝑡 = 𝑡 2 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑎= 2

b) 𝑠 𝑡 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑎=0
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑡
c) 𝑠 𝑡 = 𝑎=𝜋
𝑡

112
TANGENTS AND NORMALS
Equation of a Tangent
Consider a curve y = f(x). If A is the point with x-coordinate a, then the slope of the tangent
at this point is f (a)  m .
The equation of the tangent is you can use differentiation to find the equation of the tangent
line to a curve at particular point since the tangent is a straight, so its equation is given by:

Example 1
Find the equation of the tangent to the curve y = x2 at the point p (3, 9)
Solution
dy
The gradient of the tangent to the curve at point p is given by evaluated when x=3
dx
dy
y = x2 so, = 2(3) = 6
dx
dy
Therefore: m  6.
dx
The tangent passes through p (3, 9) Thus, 9 = 6(3) + c, C = -9
Therefore: the equation of the tangent is y = 6x-9
Alternatively:
The equation of the tangent line can
be found by using y  y1  m( x  x1 ) ,

dy
where m  6
dx
And y1 = 9, x1 = 3 therefore

y  9  6( x  3) by simple
substitution

 The equation of the tangent line is y  6 x  9

113
The The Equation of the Normal linenormal to a curve at a point p is the straight line throu

Normal line
The normal line at point P to the curve is a line perpendicular to the tangent at point of
contact.Since tangent and normal are perpendicular to each other the product of their
gradients is equal to -1
𝑇𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒, 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑁𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑏𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎:
1 1
y =− 𝑚 𝑥 + 𝑐 𝑜𝑟 𝑦 − 𝑦1 = − 𝑚 (𝑥 − 𝑥1 )

When two lines are perpendicular (𝐿1 𝐿2 ), the product of their sloops is equal to −1.
𝑚1 𝑚2 = −1.

𝑬𝒙𝒂𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒆 𝟑
𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑜 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 y = 3x2+7x-2 at the point p where x = -1
Solution
𝑊𝑕𝑒𝑛 𝑥 = −1, 𝑦 = 3(−1)2 + 7(−1) − 2 = −6
𝑇𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒: 𝑝 𝑕𝑎𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 (−1, −6)
When y = 3x2+7x-2, 𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑛 𝑑𝑦/𝑑𝑥 = 6𝑥 + 7 𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 (−1, −6)
𝑥 = −1, 𝑑𝑦/𝑑𝑥 = 6(−1) + 7 = 1
𝑇𝑕𝑒 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑝 𝑖𝑠 1. 𝑇𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒, 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑝 𝑖𝑠
− 1/1 = −1. 𝑇𝑕𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑝 𝑖𝑠 𝑦 = −𝑥 + 𝑐
𝑇𝑕𝑒 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑝𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠 𝑡𝑕𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔𝑕 𝑝 (−1, −6), 𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒: = −6 = − (1) + 𝑐
𝑇𝑕𝑒𝑛 𝐶 = −7. 𝑇𝑕𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑁𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑜 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑝 (−1, −6) 𝑖𝑠:
y  x  7

114
Exercise

115
2.3 APPLICATIONS OF DERIVATIVES
Sketching the graph
if the function f(x) is continues on the interval 𝑎, 𝑏 , then:
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) > 0 𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑛 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔(𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔)
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) < 𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑛 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔(𝑓𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔)

F(x) is increasing for 𝑎 ≤ 𝑥, 𝑐

F(x) is decreasing for 𝑐 < 𝑥 < 𝑑
F(x) is increasing for 𝑑 < 𝑥 ≤ 𝑏
MAXIMA AND MINIMA

Consider the following graph

A is global minimum as it is the minimum value of y and occurs at an endpoint.
B is a local maximum as it is a turning point where the curve has shape
and 𝐹 ′ 𝑥 = 0 at that point.
C is a local minimum as it is turning point where the curve has shape
and 𝐹 ′ 𝑥 = 0 at that point.
D is a global maximum as it is the value of y and occurs at the end point of the domain.
Note: For local maxima/minima , tangents at these points are horizontal and thus have a slope
of 0, i.e d 𝐹 ′ 𝑥 = 0

116
SUMMARY

Maximum point
At the maximum point, the gradient of the curve ispositiveat the left of the stationary point
through zero at stationary point and negative at the right of the point.

Notice that:
𝑑𝑦
 At the right of the maximum point 𝑑𝑥 > 0 , and the gradient is positive.
𝑑𝑦
 At the maximum point 𝑑𝑥 = 0, and the gradient is zero.
𝑑𝑦
 At the right of the minimum point 𝑑𝑥 < 0 and the gradient is negative.

At the maximum point, as x increases from left to right, the rate of change of the gradient
with respect to x is non-positive.

117
Minimum point
For the minimum point, the gradient of the tangent goes from negative through zero to
positive.

Notice that:
𝑑𝑦
 At the left of the minimum point 𝑑𝑥 < 0 and the gradient is negative.
𝑑𝑦
 At the right of the minimum point 𝑑𝑥 > 0 and the gradient is positive.
𝑑𝑦
 At the minimum point 𝑑𝑥 = 0 and the gradient is zero.

In this case the gradient of the curve is increasing as x increases from left to right.
Points of inflexion
An inflection point is a point on a curve at which the sign ofcurve changes from Concave
upward to concave downward or vice versa. The signs of the gradient at the point of
inflection are same at both sides (left and right side) of the gradient. The two diagrams below
are summarized this information.

118
Notice that:
 At the left of the stationary point  At the left of the stationary point
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
>0 (positive) <0 (negative)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
 At stationary point 𝑑𝑥 = 0  At stationary point 𝑑𝑥 = 0
𝑑𝑦
 At the right of stationary point >  At the right of stationary point
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
0 (positive) <0
𝑑𝑥

(Negative
Be careful: Not all points of inflection are stationary points! The gradient of the curve must
be zero at a stationary point.
In summary there are 4 types of behavior of the gradient in the stationary point.
No At stationary At right of stationary
At left of stationary point type
. point point
1 Positive zero Negative maximum
2 Negative zero Positive minimum
2 Positive zero Positive inflection
3 Negative zero Negative inflection

Finding the Stationary Point

You can find stationary points easily by following the following three steps
 Make derivative of the given function
 Put the result equal to zero
 Solve the equation
Once we know the x-coordinates of a stationary point, we can find out its character by
analyzing the behavior of the graph to the left and the right of the stationary point.
Example (1)
Find the coordinate of stationary point on the curve y = x2 – 8x+10.
Solution
y = x2 – 8x+10
𝑑𝑦
= 2x-8
𝑑𝑥

2x-8 = 0

119
2x = 8
X=4
Find y when x = 4
y = x2 – 8x+10
= 42 - 8(4) +10
= 16-32+10
=26-32
= -6
Therefore, the coordinate of stationary point of the curve is (4, -6)
Example (2)
Find the coordinates of stationary points of the curve y = 2x3−3x2−12x+5. Find the nature of
each coordinate and then sketch the curve .
Solution
y = 2x3−3x2−12x+5
= 6x2−6x−12
0 = 6x2−6x−12
0 = x2−x−2 (by dividing each term by 6)
(x-2)(x+1) = 0
Thus, x = 2 or −1
When x = 2,
y = 2x3−3x2−12x+5
= 2 23 – 3 22 − 12 2 + 5
= 16 – 12 − 24 + 5
= 21 −36
= −15
When x = 1,
y = 2x3−3x2−12x+5
= 2 −13 – 3 −12 − 12 −1 + 5
= −2 – 3 + 12 + 5
= −5 + 17
= 12
Therefore, the coordinates of stationary points are (2, −15) and (−1, 12).

120
To check the nature of the stationary points, test x-values around the stationary points to
determine the sign of the gradient in the first derivative.
For the point (2, −15)
X 1 2 3
𝑑𝑦 −12 0 5
𝑑𝑥

So, the curve look like

Therefore, the point (2,−15) is a minimum

For the point (−1, 12)
X −2 −1 0
𝑑𝑦 24 0 −12
𝑑𝑥
So, the curve is like

Therefore, the point (−1, 12) is a maximum.

To illustrate these results in a diagram, plot the minimum and maximum points in a Cartesian
plan.
Example (3)
Find the coordinates of stationary points for the curve y= 2 + 3x 2–x3. Determine their nature
and sketch the curve.
Solution
Step 1: Differentiate the function
y= 2 + 3x2–x3

121
𝑑𝑦
= 6x−3x2
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
Step 2: put zero for the place of𝑑𝑥

0 = 6x−3x2
Step 3: solve the quadratic equation
Note 0 = 6x−3x2 is equal to 6x−3x2 = 0
6x−3x2 = 0
3x(2−x) = 0
3x = 0, 2 – 𝑥 = 0
x = 0 or 2
Find the value of y when x = 0 or 2
y = 2 + 3x2–x3
= 2+3(02 ) –(03)
=2
y = 2 + 3x2–x3
= 2+3(22 ) –(23)
= 2+12 – 8
= 14 – 8
=6
Therefore, the coordinates of stationary points are (0, 2) and (2, 6).

To check the nature of the stationary points, test x-values around the stationary points to
determine the sign of the gradient in the first derivative.
For the point (0, 2)
X −1 0 1
𝑑𝑦 −3 0 3
𝑑𝑥

For the point (2, 6)

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X 1 2 3
𝑑𝑦 3 0 −9
𝑑𝑥

To sketch the curve, use stationary values.

Stationary points and second derivative

To use the second derivative to distinguish stationary points, simply test the stationary point
into the second derivative.
𝑑2𝑦
 If the result is positive (𝑑𝑥 2 > 0), then the graph is concave up. Hence, the stationary

point is a minimum.
𝑑2𝑦
 If the result is negative (𝑑𝑥 2 < 0), then the graph is concave down. Hence the

stationary point is a local maximum.

𝑑2𝑦
 If the result is zero (𝑑𝑥 2 = 0), then the point is a horizontal point of inflection.

Example (4)
Find the coordinates of the stationary points for the curve y = x 2+6x+10. Determine the
nature.

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Solution
Step 1: differentiate the function
y = x2+6x+10
𝑑𝑦
= 2x
𝑑𝑥

Step 2: solve the equation

0 = 2x
x=0
Find y when x = 0
y = x2+6x+10
= 22+6(2)+10
= 4+12+10
= 26
Therefore, the coordinate is (0, 26)
Step 3: differentiate again
𝑑2 𝑦
=2
𝑑𝑥 2
Therefore:
𝑑2𝑦
> 2 (minimum)
𝑑𝑥 2

Example (5)
Find the coordinates of the stationary points for the curve y = x3+ 3x2 –9x+ 5. Determine the
nature.
Solution
Step 1: differentiate the function
y = x3+ 3x2 –9x+ 5
𝑑𝑦
= 3x2 +6x – 9
𝑑𝑥

Step 2: solve the equation

3x2 +6x – 9 = 0
x2 +2x – 3
(x+3)(x-1) =
x = -3, or 1
Step 3: differentiate the function again

124
𝑑2𝑦
= 6x+6
𝑑𝑥 2

Step 4: check the nature

𝑑2𝑦
= 6x+6
𝑑𝑥 2

=6(-3)+6
= -18+6
= -12
𝑑2𝑦
< (maximum)
𝑑𝑥 2
𝑑2𝑦
= 6x+6
𝑑𝑥 2

=6(1)+6
= 6+6
= 12
𝑑2𝑦
> 0 (minimum)
𝑑𝑥 2

Exercise
1. Find the value of x for which y has a stationary value
a) y= 3x2 e) y = x3−12x+8
b) y = x2−6x+2 f) y = x2−10x+1
c) y = x3−2x+9 1
g) y=𝑥
d) y = 25x−5x2
h) y = 6x3 +3x2−24𝑥+3
2. Find the coordinates of stationary points of the following curves
a) y = 2x2 h) y = 6x – x2
b) y = x2 – 4x i) y = 1 – x – 2x2
c) y = x2 – 6x + 5 j) y = x3 – 3x2
d) y = 9x3−25𝑥 k) y = x3−3𝑥 − 5
e) y = x2 + 2x – 8 l) y = 16 – x4
f) y = 16 – x2 m) y = x3 – 3x
9 n) y = x3 + 1
g) y = x+𝑥

3. Find the coordinates of the following curves and determine their nature.
a) y = x2−4x+1 d) y = 2x3
b) y = x2+6x+5 e) y = x3−64
c) y = x2(6−x) f) y = x3−2x2

125
4. Find the coordinates of stationary points of the following functions. Determine their
nature using second derivative and sketch their graphs.
a) f(x) = x2+6x +1 d) f(x) = 24 –x3
b) f(x) = x2 +8x+ 13 e) f(x) = 8−4x +x2
c) f(x) = x3− 18x+2 f) f(x) = 60x + 3x2–4x3
5. Find the coordinates of stationary points of the following functions. Determine their
nature and sketch their graphs.
a) Y = x2–8x c) Y = x2+ 2x– 7
b) Y = x2 –10x+ 3 d) Y = 25 –x2
Solve the following problems
1. Find the coordinates of the turning points of the curve with equation y = x3– 3x + 2
and determine their nature.
2. The diagram below shows the curve with equation y = x3– 6x2+ 9x.
B has coordinates (3, 0). Find the coordinates of A.

3. A curve has equation f(x) = x4− 32x. Find the coordinates of the turning points of f(x)
and determine their nature.
4. The graph below shows part of the curve f(x) = 2x3– 7x2.
a) Find the coordinates of P.
b) Find the x-coordinate of the minimum turning point Q.

126
5. A curve has equation y = 2x2– x4.
a) Find the coordinates of the points where this curve cuts the x-axis.
b) Find the coordinates of the stationary points on this curve and determine their nature.
6. A curve has equation y = x3−6𝑥 2 + 9𝑥 − 2. Find the stationary points of the curve
and determine the nature of each stationary point.
7. The function f x   ax3  bx 2  cx  d has turning points (0, 2), and (2, - 4). Find the
constants a, b, c, and d and sketch the graph of f (x).
Gradient rate of change
Position, displacement, velocity and acceleration
Position is just the location of an object relative to some reference point. Displacement,x
or y, is a change in position, not to be confused with distance. Displacements can be
positive, negative, or zero. A displacement only depends on initial and final positions, not the
𝑑𝑠
motion in between. Velocity is the rate of change of displacement (𝑑𝑡 = v). Average velocity

is displacement divided by time, while average speed is distance divided by time. Speed is
always positive or zero, but average velocity can be positive, negative, or zero. Acceleration
𝑑𝑣
(a) is the rate of change of velocity of a moving object. This means = a.
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑦
In general,𝑑𝑥 gives the rate of change in y with respect to x.

Example 6

127
A particle is moving in a straight line and its distances, in metres, from a fixed point in the
line after t seconds is given by the equation, s = 12t−15t2+4t3.
Find the:
a) velocity and acceleration of the particle after 3 seconds,
b) distance travelled between the two points when the velocity is instantaneously zero.
Solution
a) To get the velocity, differentiate the function and then solve.
s = 12t−15t2+4t3
𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑠
= 12 −30t+12t2 (note 𝑑𝑡 = v)
𝑑𝑡

V = 12 −30t+12t2
v = 12−30(3) +12(3)2
= 12 – 90 +108
= 120 – 90
= 30
Therefore, the velocity is 30m/s.
To get the velocity, differentiate the function again and then solve.
V = 12 −30t+12t2
𝑑𝑣
= −30+24t
𝑑𝑡

= −30+24(3)
= −30+72
= 42
Therefore, the acceleration is 42m/s2
𝑑𝑠
b) Velocity is zero when 𝑑𝑡 = 0
𝑑𝑠
= 12 −30t+12t2
𝑑𝑡

0 = 12 −30t+12t2
2t2 – 5t+2 =
(2t-1)(t - 2) =
2t = 1, t-2 =0
1
t = 2 or 2

Therefore,
s = 12t−15t2+4t3

128
 = 12(2) – 15(2)2+4(2)3
= −4
s = 12t−15t2+4t3
= 1 1 1
12(2) – 15(2)2 +4(2)3
11
= 4
1
Therefore, the distance when t = 2and when t = 2
11
S= – (−4)
4
11
= +4
4
27
= 4

Therefore, the distance travelled between the two points when the velocity is instantaneously
27
zero is meter.
4

Example 7
If the position of a particle at time t is given by the equation below, find the velocity and
acceleration of the particle at time, t = 2.
S = t2−11t+20
Solution
S = t2−11t+20
𝑑𝑠
= 2t −11
𝑑𝑡

V = 2t −11
= 2(2) −11
= 4 −11
= −7
V = 2t −11
𝑑𝑣
=2
𝑑𝑡

a=2
Exercise
1.Find the velocity, acceleration for the function s = t2+4t-5 when t = 2 seconds.
2.The velocity of a particle moving on a line at time t is v = t2. How many meters did the
particle travel from t= 1 to t = 8?

129
3.A particle moves along the x-axis with acceleration at any time t given as a(t) = 3t2+4t+6. If
the particle‟s initial velocity is 10 and its initial position is 2, what is the position function?
4.If the position of a particle is given below, find the point at which the particle changes
direction. S = t3 −12t+10.
5.A rock is tossed from a bridge 15 m above the water. The height of the rock, h, in metres
above the water at t seconds can be modeled by the function h(t )  4.9t 2  12t  15 .
a) Determine the instantaneous velocity at 1 s and at 2 s.
b) Determine the initial velocity of the rock.
c) When does the rock reach its maximum height? What is its maximum height?
d) When does it hit the water? With what velocity does it hit the water?
6.How far does a particle travel between zero and four seconds if its position is given by
s = t3 – 8t2.
7. The position function of a cheetah moving across level ground in a straight line
chasing after prey is given by the equation s(t )  t 3  15t 2  63t where t is measured in
seconds and s in metres.
a) What is the cheetah's velocity at 1s?
b) When the cheetah is momentarily stopped?
c) What are the positions of the cheetah in part b)?
d) When is the cheetah moving in the positive direction? When is it moving in the
negative direction?
e) Find the position of the cheetah after 10 s.
f) Find the total distance traveled by the cheetah during the first 10 s.
8. A particle moves along a line. The particle‟s position, s, in metres at t seconds is
modeled by s(t )  2t 3  15t 2  36t  40 , where t  0 .
a) Determine the initial position of the particle.
b) What is the velocity at 1 s? at 5 s?
c) When is the particle stationary?
d) When is it moving away? Moving towards?
e) Determine the total distance traveled during the first five seconds.
9. A ladder which is 5 m long slips down a wall at a rate of 2 m/s. How fast, in m/s, is
the base of the ladder moving away from the wall at the instant when its height above the
ground is 3 metres?

130
10. A cone has radius 5 cm and height 15 cm. It is empty and is being filled with at a
constant rate of 12  cm 3 /s . Find the rate of change of the radius, in cm/s, when the radius of
the water is 2 cm.
11. A bus travels along a straight road for 600 m. It travels at a constant velocity for the
whole journey, which takes 90 s. Sketch the displacement-time graph. What was the velocity
of the bus?
Application of maximum and minimum
Example 8
A factory has x employees and makes a profit of P rand per week. The relationship between
the profit and number of employees is expressed in the formula P(x) = –2x3+ 600x+ 1000,
where x is the number of employees.
Solution
Step 1: find the derivative of P(x)
P(x) = –2x3+ 600x+ 1000
𝑝′ (𝑥) = –6x2+ 600
Step 2: solve the equation
–6x2+ 600 = 0
–6x2 = 600
x2 = 100
x = ±10 (but, it is not possible that the factory to have a negative number of people)
So, to get the maximum profit of the factory; substitute x by 10:
P(x) = –2x3+ 600x+ 1000
= -2(103 )+600(10) +1000
= -2000+6000+1000
= 5000
So, the maximum profit is 500 rand.

Example 9
A stone is dropped from the top of a tower. The distance, S metres, which it has fallen after t
seconds is given by S= 5t2. Calculate the average speed of the stone between t= 3 and t= 6
seconds.

131
Solution
S= 5t2
= 5(32 )
= 45
S= 5(62)
= 180
𝑠 6 −𝑠(3)
Therefore, the average speed =
6−3
180−45
= 6−3
135
= 3

= 45m/s
The average speed is 45m/s.

Exercise
1. A box having a square base and an open top is to contain 108 cubic feet. What should
its dimensions be so that the material to make it will be a minimum? That is, what
dimensions will cost the least?

2. A farmer wishes to construct a rectangular storage bin with a volume of 1000 cubic
feet. Both the top and the bottom of the bin are to be squares. Find the dimensions of the bin
which will minimize its surface area.
3. A can is to be constructed in the form of a right circular
cylinder. If it is to contain a given volume V, what dimensions will
require the least amount of material? Show, in fact, that the height h
of the can must equal its width, which is twice the radius r.

4. A metal can in the shape of a right circular cylinder without a top is to be made so that it
holds 100 cubic centimeters. Find the dimensions of the can which minimize its surface area.

132
5. Find the dimensions of the rectangle of maximum area that can be
inscribed in a circle of radius r. Show, in fact, that that area will be 2r2.

6. Farmer wishes to fence in a rectangular field with 600 yards of fencing. What should
the dimensions of the field be in order to maximize the area of the field?

2.4 INTEGRATION
In many problems in calculus, we know the rate of change of one variable with respect to
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
another , that is , but if we have 𝑑𝑥 (the changes of y with respect to x ) how we can get y
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
in terms of x .The process of finding y from 𝑑𝑥 ( or the function f(x) from f/(x) ) is the reverse

process of differentiation is called Integration . From our work on differential, we know if y

= 1/3x3, then
dy/dx = 3/3 x2 = x2 .
𝑑𝑦
However, if y = x2 + 2 , y = x2 – 7 and y = x2 , then the derivative all the functions = 2x
𝑑𝑥

, then the integral is x2 + c and write ∫2xdx = x2 + c , this reads “ the integral of2 x with
respect to x ”
In general:

Example 1
1
a. ∫ 𝑥 3 dx b. ∫ 𝑥 2 dx c. ∫ 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 . d. ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Solution.
𝒙𝟒
a. ∫ 𝒙𝟑 𝒅𝒙 = 𝟒
+𝒄

𝒙𝟑
b. ∫ 𝒙𝟐 𝒅𝒙 = 𝟑
+𝒄
𝟏 𝟑
𝟑
c. ∫ 𝒙𝒅𝒙 =∫ 𝒙𝟐 𝒅𝒙 =𝟐 𝒙𝟐 + 𝒄

133
 𝟏 𝟏
d. =∫ 𝒙𝟐 𝒅𝒙 = − +𝒄
𝒙

RULES OF INTEGRATION
1. ∫ c f(x) dx = c ∫ f(x) dx , where c is a constant .
2. ∫ [ f(x) + g(x) ] dx = ∫ f(x) dx + ∫ g(x) dx

Example 2:
a. ∫ 3x2dx
b. ∫ ( x3 + 4x )dx
Solution:
a. ∫ 3x2dx = 3∫ x2dx = 3 x3/3 + c = x3 +c
b. ∫ ( x3 + 4x )dx = ∫ ( x3 dx + 4∫ ( x )dx
𝑥4
= 4 + 2𝑥 2 + 𝑐

Exercise 1

Integral by substitution method

𝑥 𝑛 +1
Some of the functions are not possible to integrate by rule ∫ 𝑥 𝑛 𝑑= 𝑥 +c
𝑛 +1

Example
4(𝑥+1)
𝒄) ∫ (2𝑥 2 +4𝑥+1)2 𝑑𝑥
𝒂) ∫ 𝑥(𝑥 2 + 3)4 𝑑𝑥
𝑥2
𝑑) ∫ (1+𝑥 3 )4 𝑑𝑥
𝑏) ∫(𝑥 2 + 3𝑥)4 (2𝑥 + 3) 𝑑𝑥
Solution
a)
∫ 𝑥(𝑥 2 + 3)4 𝑑𝑥 Let 𝑢 = 𝑥 2 + 3
𝑑𝑢
= ∫𝑢 du = 2xdx
2

134
 1 du
= ∫ 𝑢𝑑𝑢 = xdx
2 2
1 𝑢2
=2 +𝑐
2
1
= 4 𝑥 2 + 3 + 𝑐.

𝑏) ∫(𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 2)4 (2𝑥 + 3) 𝑑𝑥

lat 𝑢 = 𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 2
𝑑𝑢 = 2𝑥 + 3 𝑑𝑥
∫ 𝑢4 𝑑𝑢
𝑢5
+𝑐
5
(𝑥 2 +3𝑥−2)5
∴ 𝑑𝑥
5
4(𝑥+1)
𝑐) ∫ (2𝑥 2 +4𝑥+1)2 𝑑𝑥

u: 2𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 1
𝑑𝑢 = 4𝑥 + 4
𝑑𝑢
∫ 𝑢 2 = ∫ 𝑢−2 𝑑𝑢
𝑢 −1
= +𝑐
−1
1
= −𝑢 +𝑐
1
= − 2𝑥 2 +4𝑥+1 + 𝑐
𝑥2
𝑑) ∫ (1+𝑥 3 )4 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑢 = 3𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑢
= 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
3
𝑑𝑢 1 1 𝑢 −3
∫ 3 = 3 ∫ 𝑢−4 𝑑𝑢 = +𝑐
3 −3
𝑢4

1
= − 9 𝑢−3 + 𝑐
1
= − 9𝑢 −3 + 𝑐
1
=− +𝑐
9(1+𝑥 3

135
Exercise

Definite integrals

Definition: If f(x) is the integral of f(x), where f(x) is continuous on interval a ˂ x ˂ b denoted by

𝑎
∫𝑏 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑓 𝑎 − 𝑓(𝑏) then the integral is called definite integral .

𝑏
Note: ∫𝑎 𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 reads “ the integral of f(x) from x = a to x = b with respect to x ”.

Example 1

Evaluate the following

3 3 6𝑥
𝑎) ∫1 (𝑥 2 + 3) 𝑑𝑥 𝑏) ∫1 𝑑𝑥
(2𝑥 2 +1)4

solution

𝑥3
= + 3𝑥
3

(3)3 1 3
= +3 3 −[ + 3 1 ]
3 3

1
=9+9− −3
3

1
= 15 − 3

44
= 3

3 6x
b) ∫1 dx
(2x 2 +1)4

u = 2x 2 + 1

du = 4xdx

du
= xdx
4

136
 6 du
∫ = ∫ u−4 du
4 u4

6 u −3
=4 −3

6
= − 12u 3

1
=− 2(2x 2 +1)3

1 1
=− +
2(2(2)2 +1)3 2(0+1)3

1 1
=− +
1458 2

1+729
=− 1458

728
= 1458

364
=−
729

THE INTEGRAL OF TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTION

Example: find the integral of the following:

𝑎) 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥𝑑𝑥

𝑏) 𝑠𝑖𝑛4𝑥𝑑𝑥

𝑥
𝑐) 4𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑑𝑥
2

𝑑) 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥𝑑𝑥

(𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥)2
𝑒) 𝑑𝑥
𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥

Solution
1
𝑎) 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥𝑑𝑥 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑥 + 𝑐
2
1
𝑏) 𝑠𝑖𝑛4𝑥𝑑𝑥 = − 𝑐𝑜𝑠4𝑥 + 𝑐
4

137
 𝑥 8 𝑥
𝑐) 4 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 + 𝑐
2 2 2
Example
3 3 3
𝑎) (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥)3 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥𝑑𝑥 𝑏) (𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥)2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥𝑑𝑥 𝑐)| (𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥)2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥𝑑𝑥
2 2
𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏

𝑎) (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥)3 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥𝑑𝑥 𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑢 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 − 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥𝑑𝑥

𝑢4 1
− 𝑢3 𝑑𝑢 = − +𝑐 = − (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥)4 + 𝑐
4 4
3
𝑏) (𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥)2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥𝑑𝑥

𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑢 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥𝑑𝑥

5
3 𝑢2
𝑢2 𝑑𝑢 =2 +5
5

2 5
= (𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥)2 + 𝑐
5

2.5 APPLICATION OF INTEGRAL CALCULUS.

The fundamental theorem of Calculus

The link between differential calculus and the definite integral. This link is called fundamental theorem

of Calculus. We summarize “ If f(x) is a continuous positive function on an interval [ a, b ], then the

area under the curve between x = a and x = b is

138
The area between curve and x-axis

If f(x) is positive continuous function from [ a, b ], then the area bounded by f(x) = y and the x-axis is

given by

𝑏 𝑏
∫𝑎 𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 . or The area bound by 𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑦) and 𝑦 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 is given by ∫𝑎 𝑓 𝑦 𝑑𝑦

Example 1

Find the area between the line y = 2x +1 and x-axis for 0≤ 𝑥 ≤ 2

Solution

𝟐
∫𝟎 𝟐𝒙 + 𝟏 𝒅𝒙 = 𝒙𝟐 + 𝟐𝒙

22 + 2 2 − 0 = 8 𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡

Example

Find the area between the parabola y  4  x 2 and x-axis?

Solution

The points of intersection of the parabola and x-axis  4  x2  0

 x2  4  x  2
2
2
 x3 
Area    4  x  dx   4 x  
2

2  3 2

  2    2  
3 3
8  8
 4  2     4  2     8    8  
 3   3  3  3

139
 8 8 16 32 2
 8   8   16    10 sq..unit
3 3 3 3 3
Area between two functions

If two functions f(x) and g(x) intersect at the points x = a and x = b and f(x) ≥ 𝑔 𝑥 For all x in the

𝑏
interval [ a, b ] , then the area of the two functions is given by ∫𝑎 [𝑓 𝑥 − 𝑔(𝑥)]𝑑𝑥.

Example:

Find the area of the region enclosed by the line y = x + 4 and the cuvre y = x2 - 5

Solution

Intersection coordinate is

x +4 = x2 + x – 5 = x + 4 - x2 - x + 5 = 0

= x2 - 9 = 0 =(x-3)(x+3)

= x = 3 or x = -3

𝟑
∫ ∫−𝟑( ((𝒙 + 𝟒) − 𝒙𝟐 + 𝒙 − 𝟓 )𝒅𝒙

10 2/3 sq. Units .

Example 2

Find the area between the two curves y  x 2  12 and y  6  x 2

Solution

Sketching the curves

The coordinates of intersection points are

140
x 2
 12    6  x 2 
 2 x 2  18  x 2  9  x  3
3
A   6  x    x  12  dx
2 2

3
3 3
   6  x  x  12 dx   18  2 x dx
2 2 2

3 3

 2  3   2  3 
3 3 3
 2 x3 
 18 x    18  3    18  3  
 3  3  3  
 
3 

 54  18   54  18  54  54  18  18  108  36
 A  72sq.unit

Volume of Revolution
Consider the curve y = f(x) for a a < x < b. If the shaded part is revolved about the x-axis a 3-

dimensional solid will be formed. This is called a solid of revolution.

We can use integration to find volumes of revolution between x = a and x = b.

The solid can be thought to be made up of an infinite number

of thin cylindrical discs.

Volume =   f ( x) x
2

Since the volume of the cylinder is V   r 2 h

In volume of one disc is   f ( x) x there are infinite

2

number of discs, letting x  0

We can summairize

141
 x b b b
limx0    f ( x) x     f ( x)  dx   y 2 dx
2 2

x a a a

Similarly if part of the curve is rotated about the y-axis a solid of revolution will also be formed

Example 1

Find the volume of the solide formed the graph 𝑦 = 𝑥 𝑓𝑜𝑟 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 3 is rolved about the x-axis .

Solution

3
𝑣 = 𝜋 ∫ 𝑦 2 𝑑𝑥 = 𝜋 ∫0 ( 𝑥)2 𝑑𝑥

142
 3 𝑥2 3
= 𝜋 ∫0 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝜋 ]0
2

=𝜋 𝜋 9 =9
(3)2 − 2 (0)2 =2 𝜋 − 0 𝜋
2 2

Exercise

1. Find the volume of the solid formed when the following are revolved about the x-axis

𝑎) 𝑦 = 2𝑥 𝑓𝑜𝑟 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 2

𝑏) 𝑦 = 𝑥 𝑓𝑜𝑟 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 5

c) 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 𝑓𝑜𝑟 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 3

𝑑) 𝑦 = 36 − 𝑥 2 𝑓𝑜𝑟 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 6

e)𝑦 = 𝑥 3 𝑓𝑜𝑟 1 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 2

CHAPTER 3: STATISTICS
Objectives: By the end of this lesson students should be able to.

 Understand why, how and where we use mean, median, and mode in

discrete and continuous data.

 Draw and know how and where to use: pictograms, bar charts, pie charts,

line charts, histograms with unequal intervals, frequency & cumulative

frequency graphs.

 Understand and use dispersion statistics i.e. Mean deviation, standard

deviation (in the normal distribution), and range, percentiles and quartiles

in frequency and cumulative frequency distributions.

 Recognize that shapes are either symmetric or skewed.

 Identify different data presentations and interpret them.

 Compare related data as poor, medium and high correlation.

143
3.1 Measures of Central Tendency
The mean, median and mode of a data set are collectively known as measures of central tendency since

these three measures focus on where the data is centered or clustered. We use statistics such as the mean,

median and mode to obtain information about a population set of observed values.

The mean

The mean is useful for predicting future results when there are no extreme values in the data set. Many

statistical analyses use the mean as a standard reference point. The mean income of a group of people

might be of more interest to retailers and the tax office. The mean uses every value in the data and hence

is a good representative of the data.

The median

The median may be more useful than the mean when there are extreme values in the data set as it is not

affected by the extreme values. Use the median to describe an entire set of observations with a single

value representing the center of the data. Half of the observations are above the median, half are below it.

It is determined by ranking the data and finding observation number. The median is at the middle of an

ordered (ranked) data set and is a useful measure for ordinal variables.

The mode

The mode is useful when the most common item, characteristic or value of a data set is required. The

mode is the value that occurs most frequently in a set of observations. Minitab also displays how many

data points equal the mode. The mode has applications in printing, manufacturing. For example, it is

important to manufacture more of the most popular shoes; because manufacturing different shoes in equal

numbers would cause a shortage of some shoes and an oversupply of others. It is the only measure of

central tendency that can be used for data measured in a nominal scale.

144
3.2 Presentation of Data
Once data has been collected, the main tasks are the organization and presentation of the data in such a

way that it becomes easily readable, understandable and interpretable. The data can be present as tables,

charts, diagrams or graphs. The data in their original form (before it has been organized) is called raw

data. Raw data is not very informative. Data must be turned into information through tables or charts

Tables

Tables are a standard method of presenting qualitative or categorical data, but they can also be used to

summarize quantitative data. The table is a means of arranging data in rows and columns. The use of

tables is pervasive throughout all aspects of academic life such as communication, research and data

analysis etc. Tables are often used for reporting extensive numerical data in an organized manner.

For example:

On an exam consisting of 60 questions, 40 students received the following scores: 48, 20, 33, 23, 25, 49,

40, 27, 28, 41, 29, 47, 33, 30, 31, 44, 31, 36, 31, 36, 32, 33, 35, 41, 35, 36, 36, 37, 37, 40, 37, 40, 41, 43,

44, 40, 37, 39, 45, 37.

If you consider this exam results, it is not very informative. It needs to present in a readable and

understandable way. When you present this exam results in a table as we do below, it will be very

informative and understandable information.

Class Boundaries Frequency

18 – 22 1
22 – 26 2
26– 30 4
30 – 34 7
34 – 38 11
38 – 42 8
42 – 46 4
46 – 50 3

145
Graphs

Graphs are a useful method to display quantitative data. It is a very common procedure to represent data

in the form of a graph. There are many statistical graphs or charts, but the most common once are:

Pictogram

They are often used as part of advertising campaigns. For example: Senior students in the faculty of

Education at Amoud University collected data on the number tortoises in certain field at different places

and presented are presented in this frequency table.

Places A B C D F
Frequency 200 900 600 300 100

If we present the above data set on pictogram it will be like this:

Grade A

Grade B

Grade C

Grade D

Grade F

…..Represent 100 tortoises

146
Bar Charts

A bar chart is the most common type of diagram, and is frequently used. Bar charts display simple results

clearly. They are not generally useful for large amounts of structured information. For example, if we

present the information of above on bar chart, it looks like this:

Pie charts

A pie chart is a circular chart used to compare parts of the whole. It is divided into sectors that are equal

in size to the quantity represented. A pie chart shows data in terms of proportions of a whole. The 'pie' is

divided into segments that represent this proportion. This is done by dividing the angles at the centre. It is

most useful where one or two results dominate the findings. Pie charts work best when a relatively small

number of categories are used.

For example, if we present the information given of above on pie chart, it looks like this:

147
Line chart

Line graphs are useful to display more than one relationship in the same picture.

For example, if we present the grades of above 21 students on line chart, it looks like this:

Histogram

A histogram looks similar to a bar chart but the bars of histogram are joined together while the bars of the

bar charts are separate. For example, the graph below is histogram.

148
 But, if you ask yourself, how this histogram is plotted, go back to chapter 3 (statistics and probability)

in form 3 mathematics.

Frequency and Cumulative frequency graphs

Frequency is a number of times something happen. To construct the frequency graph, use the horizontal

axis for mid-point or upper class bounder and vertical axis for frequency. Then plot points that represent

the midpoint or upper class bounder and frequency of each class and connect the points in order to form a

graph.

A cumulative frequency is also called ogive. An Ogive is a graph that represents cumulative frequencies

of a data set. The cumulative frequency is the sum of the frequencies accumulated up to the upper

boundary of a class in the distribution. To construct the cumulative frequency graph, use the horizontal

axis for mid-point or upper class bounder and vertical axis for cumulative frequency. Then plot points that

represent the midpoint or upper class bounder and cumulative frequency of each class and connect the

points in order to form a graph.

Example

Draw for grouped data set below on:

a) frequency graph

b) cumulative frequency graph

Class bounders Frequency
99 – 104 2
104 – 109 8
109 – 114 18
114- 119 13
119 – 124 7
124 – 129 1
129 – 134 1

149
Solution

a) To represent this information on frequency graph, use upper class bounders and frequency directly

as follows.

b) To represent this information on cumulative frequency graph, follow the following steps:

Step 1: Find the cumulative frequency for each class.

Step 2: connect the corresponding values of upper class bounders and cumulative frequencies.
Class bounders Frequency Cumulative frequency
99 – 104 2 2
104 – 109 8 10
109 – 114 18 28
114- 119 13 41
119 – 124 7 48
124 – 129 1 49
129 – 134 1 50

Thus the graph of cumulative frequency or ogive is as follows:

150
Exercise

1. A class of 35 students took a mathematics test. Their test marks are shown below:

20 17 9 4 6 12 19 4 19 24 13 12 15 17 16 29 20 14 5 25 10

11 28 17 8 14 12 18 27 23 30 23 18 8 22

a) Complete the grouped frequency table below.

b) Represent the information on histogram

c) Draw frequency and cumulative frequency graph for this test scores
Test scores Frequency
1–5
6 – 10
11 – 15
16 – 20
21 – 25
26 – 30

2. The grouped frequency table shows information about the heights of 46 students.
Heights (h) in meter Frequency
1.60 < h ≤1.65 3
1.65 < h ≤1.70 9

151
 1.70 < h ≤1.75 17
1.75 < h ≤1.80 10
1.80 < h ≤1.85 5
1.85< h ≤1.90 2

a) Represent the above information on cumulative frequency graph.

b) Illustrate the heights of students on frequency graph

c) Draw a histogram, bar char and line chart for this data set.

3. Differentiate between the following:

a) Bar chart and histogram

b) Line graph and cumulative frequency graph

4. The total number of students in a school is 800. 571 of this total are boys while 229 of them are

girls. Present this statistics on pie chart.

5. 50 students took exams in a class and exam scores are as follows:

70, 53, 43, 85, 54, 68, 55, 97, 63, 91, 60, 89, 75, 62, 87, 66, 10, 68, 69, 70, 71, 88, 81, 77, 57, 85,

72, 41, 77, 94, 78, 36, 79, 86, 53, 88, 89, 95, 96, 45, 99, 30, 66, 75, 69, 83, 39, 58, 49,78.

a) Copy and complete the table below using examination scores this 50 students

b) Present the information on:

i) Frequency graph iii) Cumulative frequency graph

ii) Histogram iv) Bar chart

Examination scores (s) Frequency (f)
30 < s ≤ 40
40 < s ≤50

152
 6. The table shows the number of tyres fitted for the following months by a local garage.
Month number of tyres
22
May
35
June
45
July
20
August

Present the data set on the table above on:

a) bar chart b) Pie chart

3.3 Measures of Dispersion

Dispersion is also called spread, variability or dispersion. It refers to how spread out a set of data around

the mean or median is.

Mean Deviation

The mean deviation is the first measure of dispersion. It is the average of absolute differences between

each value in a set of value, and the average of all the values of that set. The mean deviation is sometimes

called the Mean Absolute Deviation (MAD) because it is the mean of the absolute deviations. The Mean

Absolute Deviation (MAD) of a set of data is the average distance between each data value and the mean.

The formula of mean deviation is:

Σ 𝑥 −𝑥
Mean deviation = 𝑁

Example (1)

Calculate the Mean Deviation of 3, 4, 6, 7, 8.

Solution

To calculate the mean deviation, you must following the following steps

 Find the mean of the data set, 𝑥

153
  Find the difference between each data value and the mean (deviation), 𝑥 − 𝑥

 Find the absolute value of the deviation, 𝑥 − 𝑥

 Find the sum of the absolute value , Σ 𝑥 − 𝑥 .

 Divide the sum by the number of terms of the data set

Σx 3+4+6+7+8 28
𝑋= = = = 5.6
𝑁 5 5

𝑋 𝑋 𝑋−𝑋 𝑋−𝑋
3 5.6 −2.6 2.6
4 5.6 −1.6 1.6
6 5.6 0.4 0.4
7 5.6 1.4 1.4
8 5.6 2.4 2.4
Σ 𝑥 − 𝑥 = 8.4

Σ 𝑥 −𝑥
Mean deviation = 𝑁

8.4
= = 1.68
5

∑𝒇 x −𝑥
The Absolute mean deviation of grouped data is obtained as where x is the mid-point, 𝑥 is the
∑𝒇

mean and f is the frequency of the data set.

Example (2)

The following data shows the mass of 40 items of Asma‟s shop. Calculate the mean absolute deviation of

the data.
Mass (kg) Frequency (f)
20-24 2
25-29 6
30-34 7
35-39 12
40-44 8
45-49 4
50-54 1

154
Solution

To calculate mean deviation of grouped data, you should follow the following steps

 Find the mid-point of the data, x

 Find the product of frequency and mid-point

 Find the deviation, x −𝑥

 Find the absolute value of the deviation, x − 𝑥

 Find the product of frequency and abosulute deviation value, f x − 𝑥

Mass Frequency Mid-point Fx 𝑥 x −𝑥 x −𝑥 f x −𝑥

(kg) (f) (x)
20-24 2 22 44 36.25 −14.25 14.25 28.5
25-29 6 27 162 36.25 −9.25 9.25 55.5
30-34 7 32 224 36.25 −4.25 4.25 29.75
35-39 12 37 444 36.25 0.75 0.75 9
40-44 8 42 336 36.25 5.75 5.75 46
45-49 4 47 188 36.25 10.75 10.75 43
50-54 1 52 52 36.25 15.75 15.75 15.75
∑𝒇 =40 ∑𝒇𝒙 =1450 ∑f x − 𝑥 =227.5

∑𝒙 1450
𝑥 = ∑𝒇 = = 36.25
40

∑𝒇 x −𝑥 227.5
Absolute mean deviation = =
∑𝒇 40

155
Variance and standard deviation

Variance

Variance is the measures of how spread out a distribution is. In other words, it is the measures of

variability. Variance is symbolized by  2

or S2. The variance is computed as the average squared

deviation of each number from its mean. The variance of ungrouped data is obtained by:

∑ 𝑋−𝑋 2
 2= ∑N

Example (1)

Find the variance of: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5.

Solution

To calculate the variance, you must follow the following steps

 Calculate mean of the given data, 𝑥.

 Subtract the mean from each value in turn, 𝑥 − 𝑥 (deviation).

 Square each value you get from deviation, 𝑥 − 𝑥 2 .

 Add up all squared values, ∑ 𝑥 − 𝑥 2 .

 Divide the total by n.

1+2+3+4+5 15
𝑥= = =3
5 5

2
X 𝑥 𝑥−𝑥 𝑥−𝑥
1 3 −2 4
2 3 −1 1
3 3 0 0
4 3 1 1
5 3 2 4
∑18

∑ 𝑋−𝑋 2 18
 2= = = 3.6
∑N 5

156
Standard deviation

The standard deviation is a measure that summarizes the amount by which every value within a dataset

varies from the mean. Effectively it indicates how tightly the values in the dataset are bunched around the

mean value. The standard deviation formula of ungrouped data is very simple: it is the square root of the

variance.

𝑋−𝑋 2
𝜎= 𝑁

Example (1)

Find the standard deviation of: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5.

Solution
1+2+3+4+5 15
𝑥= = =3
5 5
2
X 𝑥 𝑥−𝑥 𝑥−𝑥
1 3 −2 4
2 3 −1 1
3 3 0 0
4 3 1 1
5 3 2 4
∑18

𝑋−𝑋 2 18
𝜎= = == 3.6 = = 1.90
𝑁 5

Example (2)

Find the variance and standard deviation of 8, 10, 12, 14, 15, 16, 19, and 20.

Solution

8+10+12+14+15+16+19+20 114
𝑋= = = 14.25
8 8

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 2
X 𝑥 𝑥−𝑥 𝑥−𝑥
8 14.25 −6.25 39.0625
10 14.25 −4.25 18.0625
12 14.25 −2.25 5.0625
14 14.25 −0.25 0.0625
15 14.25 0.75 0.5625
16 14.25 1.75 3.0625
19 14.25 4.75 22.5625
20 14.25 5.75 33.0625
∑121.5

∑ 𝑋−𝑋 2 𝑋−𝑋 2
 2= 𝜎=
∑N 𝑁

121.5 121.5
= =
8 8

= 15.1875(4d.p) = 15.1875

= 3.8971

∑f 𝑋−𝑋 2
The variance of a grouped data is obtained as 𝟐 = while the standard deviation of a grouped
∑N

∑f 𝑋−𝑋 2
data is obtained as  = , where x is the mid-point, 𝑥 is the mean and f is the frequency of the
∑f

data set.

Example (3)

The table below shows the distance travelled to school by a class of 20 students in a certain school.

Calculate the variance and standard deviation of this data set.

Solution

To calculate variance and standard deviation of the grouped data, you should follow the following steps:

 Find the mid-point of the data, x

158
  Find the product of frequency and mid-point

 Find the deviation of the data, x −𝑥

2
 Find the square of the deviation, x − 𝑥
2
 Find the product of frequency and result of squared deviation, f x − 𝑥 .

2
Distance (km) Frequency (f) Mid-point (x) Fx 𝑥 x −𝑥 x f x −𝑥
2
−𝑥
0 ≤ d<1 7 0.5 3.5 1.5 -1 1
1 ≤ d<2 8 1.5 12 1.5 0 0
2 ≤ d<3 4 2.5 10 1.5 1 1
4 ≤ d<5 1 4.5 4.5 1.5 3 9
2
∑f =20 ∑fx = 30 ∑f x − 𝑥 =
11

∑x 30
𝑥= = 20 = 1.5
∑f

∑f 𝑋−𝑋 2 11
 = = = 0.55 = 0.74 (2 d.p)
∑f 20

Properties of standard deviation

When using standard deviation keep in mind the following properties.

 Standard deviation is only used to measure spread or dispersion around the mean of a data set.

 Standard deviation is never negative.

 Standard deviation is sensitive to outliers.

 A single outlier can raise the standard deviation and in turn, distort the picture of spread.

 For data with approximately the same mean, the greater the spread, the greater the standard

deviation.

 If all values of a data set are the same, the standard deviation is zero because each value is equal to

the mean.

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Exercise

1. What does variance measure?

2. How do we compute a variance?

3. What is the difference between variance and standard deviation?

4. State whether the following statistic is a measure of center or a measure of spread.

a) mean c) variance e) standard deviation

b) range d) Inter-quartile range f) median

5. Calculate the Mean Deviation of :

a) 3, 6, 6, 7, 8, 11, 15, 16.

b) 89, 110, 100, 99, 102, 40, 75,

6. Find the standard deviation of each of the following

a) 10, 10, 10, 10 d) 45, 24, 30, 35, 31

b) 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 e) 13, 15, 17,19, 25

c) 0, 15, 15, 30 f) 90, 40, 83, 60, 69, 100

7. Find the mean deviation, variance and standard deviation of the following set of numbers.

a) 1,3,5,7,9 d) 2, 5, 7, 9,12, 20, 15, 9

b) 12, 15, 20, 40 e) 9, 12, 10, 5, 8, 15, 9

c) 8, 9, 10, 11, 13, 14, 15 f) 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100

8. Find the mean deviation of: 92, 83, 88, 94, 91, 85, 89, 90

9. Calculate the variance and standard deviation of the: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, and 10.

10. Consider two more data sets: data Set x: 2, 4, 3, 4, 5, 6 and data Set y: 3, 2, 4, 10, 5, 4,12

Calculate the mean deviation variance and standard deviation for data sets x and y.

11. The Biology examination results of 28 students are summarized in a grouped frequency table

below. Calculate absolute mean deviation, variance and standard deviation.

160
 Examination results Frequency
0–4 1
4–8 3
8 – 12 8
12 – 16 14
16 – 20 2

12. A population consists of four observations: {1, 3, 5, 7}. What is the variance?

13. This table shows the subject selected by 40 students in an educational institution. Calculate

variance and standard deviation.

Subject Frequency
Biology 5
Mathematics 7
Information Technology 9
History 5
Physics 11
English 3

14. A student took 8 exams in a class and had scores of 84, 93, 65, 80, 48, 90, 96 and 78. Find the:

a) Mean for her test score c) Variance for her test scores

b) mean deviation for her test scores d) Standard deviation for her test scores

15. Calculate the mean deviation of the following data: 29, 30, 25, 48, 30, 50, 78, 99, 54, 26.

16. Calculate absolute mean deviation, variance and standard deviation of the following data set:
Interval Frequency
10≤ x<20 2
20≤ x<30 5
30≤ x<40 10
40≤ x<50 12
60≤ x<70 9
70≤ x<80 6
80≤ x<90 4
90≤ x<100 3

161
 17. This frequency table gives information about the ages of 54 teachers. Calculate the mean

deviation, variance and standard deviation of the data set.

Age (A) in years Frequency
20≤ A<30 10
30≤ A<40 22
40≤ A<50 13
50≤ A<60 7
60≤ A<70 2

18. A simple random sample consists of four observations: {1, 3, 5, 7}. Based on these sample

observations, what is the best estimate of the standard deviation of the population?

19. The grouped frequency table below shows information about the weekly wages of 85 factory

workers. Calculate the mean deviation, variance and standard deviation of the data set.
Weekly wage (W) in Somaliland Shillings Frequency
50 000 < W ≤ 60 000 5
60 000 < W ≤ 70 000 9
70 000 < W ≤ 80 000 25
90 000 < W ≤ 100 000 18
110 000 < W ≤ 120 000 12
120 000 < W ≤ 130 000 9
130 000 < W ≤ 140 000 5
140 000 < W ≤ 150 000 2

Range, inter-quartile range and percentile

Range

The range of a data set is the difference between the largest and smallest data values. It is the simplest

measure of variability. It is very sensitive to the smallest and largest data values. The range is simple to

compute and is useful when you wish to evaluate the whole of a dataset. The range is useful for showing

the spread within a dataset and for comparing the spread between similar datasets.

162
Example

Find the range for the data set: 38, 55, 75, 40, 58, 51, 64, 53, 69, 57, 68, 59, 63.

Solution

Range = 75 – 40 = 35

Quartiles and Inter-quartile Range (IQR)

Quartiles:

Quartiles are the values that divide a list of numbers into quarters. First put the list of numbers in order;

then cut the list into four equal parts. The first quartile (lower quartile), is denoted by Q1, and is the

median of the lower half of the data set (25%). The second quartile (middle quartile) is denoted by Q2,

and is the median of whole data set (50%). The third quartile (upper quartile) is the median of the upper

half of the data set (75%).

For n numbers listed in order:

1
 the median is the 2 (n+1) th number,

1
 the lower quartile is the 4 (n+1)th number,

3
 The upper quartile is the 4 (n+1)th number.

Example (1)

Find Q1, Q2 and Q3 for the numbers: 9, 12, 15,20, 25, 30, 32

Solution

Lower quartile (Q1) = 12

Middle quartile (Q2), which is also the Median, = 20

Upper quartile (Q3) = 30

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Example (2)

Find the lower, middle and upper quartile for these set of numbers: 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11

Solution

4+5 9
Quartile 1 (Q1) = = 2 = 4.5
2

Quartile 2 (Q2) = 7

9+10 19
Quartile 3 (Q3) = = = 9.5
2 2

Inter-quartile Range (IQR):

The inter-quartile range is a measure that indicates the extent to which the central 50% of values within

the dataset are dispersed. It is based upon, and related to, the median. The inter-quartile range of a data set

is the difference between the third quartile and the first quartile.

Inter-quartile range = upper quartile −lower quartile,

Thus, IQR = Q3 − Q1

Example (1)

Find the inter-quartile range for the date set of: 4, 6, 9, 10, 17, 19, and 21.

Solution

4, 6, 9, 10, 17, 19, 21

Q1 Q2 Q3

IQR = Q3 – Q1 = 19 – 6 = 13

Example (2)

Find the lower quartile, upper quartile middle quartile and inter-quartile range for the data set below:

2, 5, 9, 11, 3, 16, 8, 1, 7, 20, 15, 12, 17, 4

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Solution

Put the numbers in order from least to greatest first

1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9, 11, 12, 15, 16, 17, 20

Q1 Q2 Q3
Lower Middle Upper
Quartile Quartile Quartile

Thus,

Q1= 4

8+9 17
Q2 = = = 8.5
2 2

Q3 = 15

IQR = Q3 – Q1

= 15– 4

= 11

Grouped data and Quartiles

To find the quartiles of grouped data, you use the following formulae:
𝑛
−𝑐𝑓
Lower quartile (Q1) =l+ 4 𝑓 × c
𝑛
−𝑐𝑓
Middle quartile or median (Q2) = l+ 2 𝑓 × c
4𝑛
−𝑐𝑓
Upper quartile (Q3) = l+ 3
×c
𝑓

Where l= lower class bounder

cf = cumulative frequency of the preceding class

f = frequency of the class

c = class size

n = total number of observation in the data set

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Example (3)

The table below shows the mass of sugar sold by 50 shopkeepers in a town.
Mass (m) in kilogram Frequency
10 < m ≤ 20 3
20 < m ≤ 30 6
30 < m ≤ 40 7
40 < m ≤ 50 8
50 < m ≤ 60 10
60 < m ≤ 70 6
70 < m ≤ 80 5
80 < m ≤ 90 3
90 < m ≤ 30 2

Calculate:

a) Lower quartile of the b) Middle quartile of the c) Upper quartile of the

data set data set data set

Solution

To calculate lower, middle and upper quartiles of the data set:

 Cumulative frequency of the data set

 Identify the class interval within which the class required (Q1, Q2, and Q3) located.
Mass (m) in kilogram Frequency (f) Cumulative frequency
(cf)
10 < m ≤ 20 3 3
20 < m ≤ 30 6 9
30 < m ≤ 40 7 16 Q1
40 < m ≤ 50 8 24
50 < m ≤ 60 10 34 Q2
60 < m ≤ 70 6 40 Q3
70 < m ≤ 80 5 45
80 < m ≤ 90 3 48
90 < m ≤ 30 2 50

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a) Given: l = 30, cf = 9, f = 7 and c = 10
𝑛
−𝑐𝑓
Lower quartile (Q1) =l+ 4
×c
𝑓

50
−9
= 30+ 4
× 10
7

𝟏𝟐.𝟓−𝟗
= 30 + × 10
𝟕

3.5
= 30 + × 10
7

= 30+ 5

= 35

b) Given: l = 50, cf = 24, f = 10 and c = 10

𝑛
−𝑐𝑓
Middle quartile or median (Q2) = l+ 2
×c
𝑓

50
−24
= 50+ 2
× 10
10

𝟐𝟓−𝟐𝟒
= 50 + × 10
𝟏𝟎

1
= 50 + 7 × 10 = 50+ 1.43

= 51.43

c) Given: l = 600, cf = 34, f = 6 and c = 10

4𝑛
−𝑐𝑓
d) Upper quartile (Q3) = l+ 3
×c
𝑓

3(50 )
−34
= 60+ 4
× 10
6

𝟑𝟕.𝟓−𝟑𝟒
= 60 + × 10
𝟔

3.5
= 60 + × 10 = 60+ 5.83
6

= 65.83

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Percentiles

Percentiles are like quartiles, except that percentiles divide the set of data into 100 equal parts while

quartiles divide the set of data into 4 equal parts. Percentiles are often used in education and health-

related fields to indicate how one individual compares with others in a group. Percentiles measure

position from the bottom. Percentiles are most often used for determining the relative standing of an

individual in a population or the rank position of the individual. A percentile provides information about

how the data are spread over the interval from the smallest value to the largest value.

To calculate the 𝑘 𝑡𝑕 percentile of the data set where k is any number between zero and one hundred, do

the following steps:

1. Order all the values in the data set from smallest to largest.

2. Multiply k percent by the total number of values, n.

3. If the index obtained in Step 2 is not a whole number, round it up to the nearest whole number and

Count the values in your data set from left to right (from the smallest to the largest value) until

you reach the number you obtained.

4. If the index obtained in Step 2 is a whole number, Count the values in your data set from left to

right until you reach the number indicated by Step 2. The 𝑘 𝑡𝑕 percentile is the average of that

corresponding value in your data set and the value that directly follows it.

Example (1)

A 25 students took exams in a class and exam scores is order from lowest to highest as follows: 43, 54,

55, 60, 62, 66, 68, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 77, 78, 79, 86, 87, 88, 89, 94, 95, 96, 97, 99, 99. Find the:

a) 90th percentile for these scores.

b) 20th percentile for these scores.

Solutions

a) 90th percentile = 90% off 25

90
= 100 × 25 = 22.5≅ 23

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 Counting from left to right, you go until you find the 23 value in the data set. That value is 97, and

it‟s the 90th percentile for this data set.

b) 20th percentile = 20% off 25

20
=100 × 25 = 5

This is a whole number; the 20th percentile is the average of the 5th and 6th values in the ordered

data set (62 and 66).

62+66
Therefore the 20th percentile comes to = 64.
2

Percentile Ranking

A percentile rank is the percentage of scores that fall at or below a given score. The formula of percentile

𝐵+0.5𝐸
ranking of a score, x, out of a set of n scores, where x is included is: × 100 where B is the number
𝑛

of scores below x and E is the number of scores equal to x and n is the number of scores.

Example (1)

A student took 8 exams in a class and had scores of 84, 93, 65, 80, 48, 90, 96 and 78. Find the percentile

ranking 78 for the 8 test scores.

Solution

Order all the values in the data set from smallest to largest: 48, 65, 78, 80, 84, 90, 93, 96

𝐵+0.5𝐸
Percentile ranking= × 100
𝑛

2+0.5(1)
= × 100
8

2+0.5
= × 100
8

2.5 250
= × 100 =
8 8

=31.25

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The score of 78 is at the 31.25th percentile for this test.

Example (2)

The math test scores were: 50, 65, 70, 72, 72, 78, 80, 82, 84, 84, 85, 86, 88, 88, 90, 94, 96, 98, 98, 99.

Find the percentile rank for a score of 82 and 88on this test.

Solution

𝐵+0.5𝐸
Percentile ranking of 82 = × 100
𝑛

7+0.5(1)
= × 100
20

7+0.5
= × 100
20

7.5
= 20 × 100

750
= 20

=37.5

The score of 82 is at the 37.5th percentile for this test.

𝐵+0.5𝐸
Percentile ranking 88= × 100
𝑛

12+0.5(2)
= × 100
20

12+1
= × 100
20

13
= 20 × 100

1300
= 20

=65

The score of 88 is at the 65th percentile for this test.

Exercise

1. Find the range each of the following numbers.

170
 a) 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7
b) 7, 10, 14, 17
c) 11, 5, 8, 3, 8
d) 12, 7, 9, 13, 17, 5, 14, 8
2. Find the inter-quartile range of:
a) 2, 5, 7, 8, 9
b) 10, 15, 9, 27, 3, 5, 18.
c) 12, 10, 6, 8, 13, 19, 20, 16
d) 12, 14, 2, 11, 10, 13, 2, 1, 8, 3
3. Find the range and inter-quartile range in each of the following:
a) 6, 8, 9, 10, 20
b) 7, 8, 3, 7, 12, 19, 10, 3, 20
c) 5, 8, 12, 14, 1, 0, 19, 6, 17, 18
d) 10, 25, 30, 40, 23, 8, 11, 34, 55
4. For the scores 3, 5, 7, 9, 12, 21, 25, 30, calculate the 25th percentile
5. The history test scores were: 45, 55, 58 60, 65, 66, 68, 70, 70, 73, 77, 78, 81, 81, 81,
86, 86, 89, 90, 92, 93, 95, 96, 96, 97, 98, 99. Find the percentile rank for a score of 66
and 81 on this test.
6. The marks of 30 students geography are given below:
46, 79, 66, 66, 68, 47, 45, 44, 48, 58, 92, 79, 70, 81, 68, 97, 96, 85, 79, 71, 32, 63, 66,
79, 88, 88, 94, 77, 59, 80. Find the:
a) Percentile rank for 58, 79 and 94 for exam scores.
b) 45th percentile and 95th percentile
7. The Final Exam test scores were: 62, 66, 71, 75, 75, 78, 81, 83, 84, 85, 85, 87, 89, 89,
91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 99. Find the:
a) Percentile rank for a score of 85 on this test.
b) 25th and 91th percentile
8. Muna recorded the heights of 12 girls in her class in centimeters. She put the heights
in order.
144, 150, 152, 160, 162, 162, 167,167, 170, 172, 177, 181. Find:
a) The range.
b) The lower quartile.
c) The upper quartile.

171
 d) The inter-quartile range
9. The heights of students in inches in Block 3 math class are 55, 59, 59, 60, 61, 63, 64,
64, 65, 68, 68, 69, 72, 74. Find the percentile rank for a height of 61 inches.
10. The following data are exam grades of 10 students in a math class.
Exam score interval Frequency
69-76 1
77-84 4
85-92 3
93-100 2
a) Which interval contains the first (lower) quartile?
b) Which interval contains the third (upper) quartile?
c) If students who received at least an 85% on this exam received a "math star"
pencil, what percent of the students received a pencil?
11. Consider grouped date below.
Interval Frequency
20-24 1
25-29 2
30-34 4
35-39 3
40-44 2
45-49 5
50-54 7
55-59 3
60-64 2
65-69 1

a) Calculate the 25th percentile for the exam scores

b) Find the 50th percentile for the exam scores.
c) Determine the 70th percentile for the exam scores.

12. The teacher recorded the times some girls to do a 50 questions exam paper.

172
 Time (t) in Minutes Frequency
30 < t ≤ 40 1
40 < t ≤ 50 3
50 < t ≤ 60 7
60 < t ≤ 70 10
70 < t ≤ 80 6
80 < t ≤ 90 2
a) Calculate the 25th percentile for the exam scores
b) Find the 50th percentile for the exam scores.
c) Determine the 70th percentile for the exam scores.

3.4 Distributions and Shapes

The data sets can be classifying into three basic categories that describes the shape of the data
in the distribution: symmetric, left skewed, right skewed. These classifications can be used
for any data set,

Symmetric Distributions
A symmetric distribution is also known as normal, or bell shape. A symmetric distribution is
one where the left and right hand sides of the distribution are roughly equally balanced
around the mean. The histogram below shows a typical symmetric distribution

The mean of the distribution is almost same as the median of the distribution. This means, the
right and left tails of the distribution are balanced.
In general, for symmetric distributions, the mean is approximately equal to the median. The
tails of the distribution are the parts to the left and to the right, away from the mean. The tail
is the part where the counts in the histogram become smaller. For a symmetric distribution,
the left and right tails are equally balanced, meaning that they have about the same length.

173
The figure below shows the box and whisker diagram for a typical symmetric data set.

The median is in the middle of first and third quartiles.

Another major property of a symmetric distribution is that its median (second quartile) lies in
the middle of its first and third quartiles.

Skewed Distribution
Skewed distributions are asymmetrical and have data that clusters toward one end either to
the left or to the right. This means, a distribution is skewed if one of its tails is longer than the
other.
There are two major types of skewness, positive and negative skewness.

Positive skew

This distribution is positive skewed. This means that the distribution has a long tail in the
positive direction of the distribution.

Negative skew

This distribution has a negative skew since it has a long tail in the negative direction of the
distribution.

174
Exercise
State whether each of the following distributions is symmetric, skewed right or skewed left

No Distribution

175
5

10

11

176
3.5 Interpretation of Data
Data interpretation is part of daily life for most people. Interpretation is the process of making
sense of numerical data that has been collected, analyzed, and presented. For example, what
does it mean that 25% of Somalilanders rated the textbook a 5 and 75% rated it a 4.
Interpretation is the process of attaching meaning to the data. Data interpretation usually
need to basic steps. First, you have to read tables, charts or graphs in order to obtain certain
information. Secondly, you have to manipulate the information in order to get an answer.
Example (1)
Consider the Table below. Suppose this is information collecting in certain city in
Somaliland.
Year Number of births
2012 62
2013 67
2014 71
2015 83
Here, you see the year as the category and the number of births as the numerical count.
What should be added to this table to provide the reader with more information?
Solution
This table showed the number of birth of the city in specific years. Also the table showed that
the number of birth increase year after year in that city.
Example (2)
Look at graph below. Suppose this is information reported in capital city of Somaliland.

You see the year as the category and the number of accidents as the numerical count.
What should be added to this chart to provide the reader with more information?

177
Solution
This bar chart concerned the accidents occur in Somaliland between 2011 and 2016.
Additionally, this graph showed that the most accidents happened in 2011 and least accidents
happen in 2014.
Exercise
1. Table below shows information taken from 25 students in a class. Interpret the
information in the table.
Class Frequency Percent
A 5 20
B 7 28
O 9 36
AB 4 16
2. The national examination in Somaliland was set by 7850 students nearly in 2015; the
average results are summarized in the table below. Interpret the examination results.
Subject of the examination Average grade of each subject in
percentage.
Islamic 95
Biology 82
Mathematics 76
Physics 79
Arabic 69
Chemistry 75
English 83
3. Sixty-two workers were asked how they travelled to work. Their results are shown in
the table below. Interpret the information in the table.
Way they travel Frequency
Walk 23
Car 11
Train 3
Bicycle 10
Bus 15

178
4. Wajale‟s average monthly rainfall, in millimeters, in the first six months of the 2014 is
shown in the table.
Month January February March April May
Average monthly rainfall (mm) 30 23 54 47 36
5. Here are the numbers of days of 41 workers were absent from work in a year.
Interval of absents Number of days of absents
0–4 5

5–9 17

10 – 14 9

15 – 19 3

20 – 24 4

25 – 29 2

30 – 34 1
6. The numbers of televisions in 100 houses are shown in the table. Interpret information
in the table.
Number of televisions Number of houses
0 5
2 35
3 39
More than 3 24

7. This graph showed the employee salary in a certain company. Interpret information in
the graph.

179
 8. The table showed the lengths of phone calls made by a salesperson in one week.
Interpret the data set in the table.
Length (L) of calls in minutes Frequency
1< L ≤ 10 8
11< L ≤ 20 11
21< L ≤ 30 15
31< L ≤ 40 31
41< L ≤ 50 9
51< L ≤ 60 3
9. The pie chart below demonstrates the grades of group of students in a academic
institution. Interpret the information in the chart.

3.7 Correlation
Correlation is the relationship between two variables. Moreover, correlation is a statistical
measure that indicates the extent to which two or more variables fluctuate together.
Correlation is a statistical technique that can show whether and how strongly pairs of
variables are related. For example, height and weight are related. When two sets of data are
strongly linked together we say they have a High Correlation and vice verse.3

180
Types of Correlation
There are many different types of correlation. The most common once are:
1. A positive correlation: the positive correlation indicates the extent to which those
variables increase or decrease in parallel. This means, an increase in one variable
increases the value in another and vice verse. For example: temperature with ice
cream sales. As temperature goes up, on average ice cream sales go up.
2. A negative correlation: the negative correlation indicates the extent to which one
variable increases as the other decreases. In this case, an increase in one variable
decreases the value of another. For example: hours spent watching TV with grades in
class. The more hours a student spends watching TV per week, typically the lower
his/her average grade.
3. Zero Correlation: If the change in values of one set doesn't affect the values of the
other, then the variables are said to have no correlation or zero correlation. In this
case, the variables are not related to each other and there is no apparent relationship
between the variables. For example, the race and colour of the person has nothing to
do with Allas‟ reward.

CHAPTER 4: BINOMIAL AND PROBABILITY

Objectives: By the end of this chapter students should be able to

 Use the concept of fundamental counting principles
 Differentiate permutation and combination
 Solve problems about permutations and combinations
 Use the Binomial Theorem and Pascal‟s triangle in
expansions e.g. (a ± b) n where n is a positive integer.
 Use of Combinations in the Binomial Theorem.
 Work out problems on binomial probability
 Work probability tree and associated application

181
4.1 INTRODUCTION
In Form Three, you have studied basic concepts of probability. In this section you will revise
some definitions before we proceed to the next section.
 An Experiment is an activity (measurement or observation) that generates results.
 An Outcome (Sample point) is any result obtained in an experiment.
 A Sample Space (S) is a set that contains all possible outcomes of an experiment.
 An Event is any subset of a sample space.
Example 1:
When a "fair" coin is tossed, the possible results are either head (H) or tail (T). Consider an
experiment of tossing a fair coin twice.
a) What are the possible outcomes?
b) Give the sample space.
c) Give the event of H appearing on the second throw.
Give the event of at least one T appearing.
Solution:
a) HH, HT, TH, TT
b) S = {HH, HT, TH, TT}
c) A = {HH, TH}
d) B = {HT, TH, TT}

Note:
In tossing a coin, if the coin is fair, the two possible outcomes have an equal chance of
occurring. In this case, we say that the outcomes are equally likely.

Probability of an event (E)

If an event E can happen in m ways out of n equally likely possibilities, the probability of the
occurrence of an event E is given by
number of favourable outcomes n( E ) m
P( E )   
total number of possible outcomes n( S ) n

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Example 2:
A box contains 4 red and 5 black balls. If one ball is drawn at random, what is the probability
of getting a
a) Red ball? b) Black ball?
Solution
Let event R = a red ball appears and event B = a black ball appears. Then,
𝑛 (𝑅) 4 𝑛 (𝐵) 5
a) P(R) = 𝑛 (𝑆) = b) P(B) = 𝑛 (𝑆) = 9
9

Example 3:
If a number is to be selected at random from the integers 1to10, what is the probability that
the number is
a) Odd?
b) Divisible by 3?
Solution
S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑑𝑑𝑠 5 1
a) Odd is the event E = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9} = P(odd) = = =
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 10 2
3
b) Divisible by 3 is the event E = {3, 6, 9} = P(divisible by 3) = 10

Example 4
The numbers 1 to 20 are each written on a card. The 20 cards are mixed together. One card is
chosen at random from the pack. Find the probability that the number on the card is:
a) Even c) Prime
b) A factor of 24 d) A composite number
Solution
a) Required outcomes are 2,4,6,8,10,12,14,16,18,20.
∴P(even) = 20 = 1 2
10

b) Favorable outcomes are 1,2,3,4,6,8,12,24.

P(factor of 24) = 8 20=2/5.
c) Favorable outcomes are 2,3,5,7,11,13,17,19
∴P (Prime) = 8 20 = 2 5
d) Composite numbers are 4,6,8,9,10,12,14,15,16,18,20
11
∴P(composite) = 20

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Exercises 4.1.
6. A letter is chosen at random from the alphabet. Find the probability that it is:
a) F d) Not one of the letters of the word”
b) F or T table‟‟.
c) the letters of the word „frequency‟
7. If 250 tickets are sold for a raffle, what is the probability of winning when you buy:
a) 1 ticket
b) 5 tickets
c) 250 tickets
d) 0 tickets
8. A dice is rolled. Find the probability that the score is:
a) A composite number c) Less than 6
b) a score of 5 d) greater than 2
9. Tiles, each lettered with one different letter of the alphabet are put into a bag. If one tile is
drawn out at random, calculate the probability that it is:
a) An A or a P d) An X, a Y or a Z
b) A vowel e) A letter in your first name
c) A consonant
10. A playing card is drawn from a standard deck of 52 cards. What is the probability that the
card is:
a) a king? i) honor or picture card?
b) a heart? j) a red card?
c) the king of hearts? k) a queen?
d) either a king or a heart? l) a number 6 card?
e) black? m) a face card?
f) honor? n) a black card or a face card?
g) black honor? o) a red card or number 6 card?
h) either black or an honor?
11. In a bag are 100 discs numbered from 1 to 100. A disc is selected at random from the
bag. Find the probability that the number on the selected disc is:
a) even d) a multiple of 5 or even
b) a multiple of 5 e) multiple of 3 or 12
c) a multiple of 10

184
4.2 Permutation and Combination

Introduction
Suppose you have a suitcase with a number lock. The number lock has 4 wheels each labeled
with 10 digits from 0 to 9. The lock can be opened if 4 specific digits are arranged in a
particular sequence with no repetition. Somehow, you have forgotten this specific sequence
of digits. You remember only the first digit which is 7. In order to open the lock, how many
sequences of 3-digits you may have to check with? To answer this question, you may,
immediately, start listing all possible arrangements of 9 remaining digits taken 3 at a time.
But, this method will be tedious, because the number of possible sequences may be large.
Here, in this Chapter, we shall learn this question, you may, immediately, start listing all
possible arrangements of 9 remaining digits taken 3 at a time. But, this method will be
tedious, because the number of possible sequences may be large. Here, in this Chapter, we
shall learn some basic counting techniques which will enable us to answer this question
without actually listing 3-digit arrangements. In fact, these techniques will be useful in
determining the number of different ways of arranging and selecting objects without actually
listing them. As a first step, we shall examine a principle which is most fundamental to the
learning of these techniques.

Fundamental Principle of Counting

Let us consider the following problem. Amiin has 3 pants (trousers) and 2 shirts. How many
different pairs of a pant and a shirt, can he dress up with? There are 3 ways in which a pant
can be chosen, because there are 3 pants available. Similarly, a shirt can be chosen in 2 ways.
For every choice of a pant, there are 2 choices of a shirt. Therefore, there are 3 × 2 = 6 pairs
of a pant and a shirt. Let us name the three pants
as P1, P2, P3 and the two shirts as S1, S2. Then
these six possibilities can be illustrated in the
Figure right
Let us consider another problem
Let us consider another problem
Of the same type Sareedo has 2 school bags, 3
tiffin boxes and 2 water bottles. In how many ways

185
can she carry these items (choosing one each). A school bag can be chosen in 2 different
ways. After a school bag is chosen, a tiffin box can be chosen in 3 different ways. Hence,
there are 2 × 3 = 6 pairs of school bag and a tiffi box. For each of these pairs a water bottle
can be chosen in 2 different ways Hence, there are 6 × 2 = 12 different ways in which,
Sareedo can carry these items to school. If we name the 2 school bags as B1, B2, the three
tiffin boxes as T1, T2, T3 and
the two water bottles as W1, W2, these possibilities can be illustrated in the Figure below

In fact, the problems of the above types are solved by applying the following principle known
as the fundamental principle of counting, or, simply, the multiplication principle, which states
that
“If an event can occur in m different ways, following which another event can occur in n
different ways, then the total number of occurrence of the events in the given order is m×n.”
The above principle can be generalised for any finite number of events. For example, for 3
events, the principle is as follows: „If an event can occur in m different ways, following
which another event can occur in n different ways, following which a third event can occur in
p different ways, then the total number of occurrence to „the events in the given order is m ×
n × p.” In the first problem, the required number of ways of wearing a pant and a shirt was
the number of different ways of the occurrence of the following events in succession:
(i) the event of choosing a pant
(ii) the event of choosing a shirt.
In the second problem, the required number of ways was the number of different
ways of the occurrence of the following events in succession:
(i) the event of choosing a school bag
(ii) the event of choosing a tiffin box

186
(iii) the event of choosing a water bottle.
Here, in both the cases, the events in each problem could occur in various possible orders.
But, we have to choose any one of the possible orders and count the number of different ways
of the occurence of the events in this chosen order.
Example 1
Find the number of 4 letter words, with or without meaning, which can be formed out of the
letters of the word ROSE, where the repetition of the letters is not allowed.
Solution
There are as many words as there are ways of filling in 4 vacant places

by the 4 letters, keeping in mind that the repetition is not allowed.

The first place can be filled in 4 different ways by anyone of the 4 letters R, O, S, E.
Following which, the second place can be filled in by anyone of the remaining 3 letters in 3
different ways, following which the third place can be filled in 2 different ways; following
which, the fourth place can be filled in 1 way. Thus, the number of ways in which the 4
places can be filled, by the multiplication principle, is 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 = 24. Hence, the required
number of words is 24.
If the repetition of the letters was allowed, how many words can be formed?
One can easily understand that each of the 4 vacant places can be filled in succession in
4 different ways. Hence, the required number of words = 4 × 4 × 4 × 4 = 256

Example2
Given 4 flags of different colours, how many different signals can be generated, if a signal
requires the use of 2 flags one below the other?
Solution
There will be as many signals as there are ways of filling in 2 vacant places

in succession by the 4 flags of different colours. The upper vacant place can be filled in 4
different ways by anyone of the 4 flags; following which, the lower vacant place can be filled
in 3 different ways by anyone of the remaining 3 different flags. Hence, by the multiplication
principle, the required number of signals = 4 × 3 = 12.
Example 3

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How many 2 digit even numbers can be formed from the digits 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 if the digits can
be repeated?
Solution
There will be as many ways as there are ways of filling 2 vacant places

in succession by the five given digits. Here, in this case, we start filling in unit‟s place,
because the options for this place are 2 and 4 only and this can be done in 2 ways; following
which the ten‟s place can be filled by any of the 5 digits in 5 different ways as the digits can
be repeated. Therefore, by the multiplication principle, the required number of two digits
even numbers is 2 × 5, i.e., 10.
Example 4
Find the number of different signals that can be generated by arranging at least 2 flags in
order (one below the other) on a vertical staff, if five different flags are available.
Solution
A signal can consist of either 2 flags, 3 flags, 4 flags or 5 flags. Now, let us count the possible
number of signals consisting of 2 flags, 3 flags, 4 flags and 5 flags separately and then add
the respective numbers.
There will be as many 2 flag signals as there are ways of filling in 2 vacant places

in succession by the 5 flags available. By Multiplication rule, the number of ways is 5 × 4 =

20.
Similarly, there will be as many 3 flag signals as there are ways of filling in 3 vacant places

in succession by the 5 flags. The number of ways is 5 × 4 × 3 = 60.

Continuing the same way, we find that The number of 4 flag signals = 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 = 120
and the number of 5 flag signals = 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 = 120 Therefore, the required no of
signals = 20 + 60 + 120 + 120 = 320.

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Exercise 4.2.1. .
1) How many 3-digit numbers can be formed from the digits 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 assuming that
i. repetition of the digits is allowed?
ii. repetition of the digits is not allowed?
2) How many 3-digit even numbers can be formed from the digits 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 if the
digits can be repeated?
3) How many 4-letter code can be formed using the first 10 letters of the English alphabet,
if no letter can be repeated?
4) How many 5-digit telephone numbers can be constructed using the digits 0 to 9 if each
number starts with 67 and no digit appears more than once?
5) A coin is tossed 3 times and the outcomes are recorded. How many possible outcomes
are there?
6) Given 5 flags of different colours, how many different signals can be generated if each
signal requires the use of 2 flags, one below the other?
Permutations
In example 1 of the previous, we are actually counting the different possible arrangements of
the letters such as rose, reos, ..., etc. Here, in this list, each arrangement is different from
other. In other words, the order of writing the letters is important. Each arrangement is called
a permutation of 4 different letters taken all at a time. Now, if we have to determine the
number of 3-letter words, with or without meaning, which can be formed out of the letters of
the word number, where the repetition of the letters is not allowed, we need to count the
arrangements NUM, NMU, MUN, NUB, ..., etc. Here, we are counting the permutations of 6
different letters taken 3 at a time. The required number of words = 6 × 5 × 4 = 120 (by using
multiplication principle).
If the repetition of the letters was allowed, the required number of words would be 6 × 6 × 6
= 216.
Definition A permutation is an arrangement in a definite order of a number of objects taken
some or all at a time. In the following sub Section, we shall obtain the formula needed to
answer these questions immediately.
Permutations when all the objects are distinct
Theorem
The number of permutations of n different objects taken r at a time, where 0 < r ≤n and the
objects do not repeat is n ( n – 1) ( n – 2). . .( n – r + 1),which is denoted by nPr.

189
Proof
There will be as many permutations as there are ways of filling in r vacant

Places by the n objects. The first place can be filled in n ways;

following which, the second place can be filled in (n – 1)
ways, following which the third place can be filled in (n – 2) ways,..., the rth place can be
filled in (n – (r – 1)) ways. Therefore, the number of ways of filling in r vacant places in
succession is n(n – 1) (n – 2) . . . (n – (r – 1)) or n ( n – 1) (n – 2) ... (n – r + 1)
This expression for nPr is cumbersome and we need a notation which will help to reduce the
size of this expression. The symbol n! (read as factorial n or n factorial ) comes to our rescue.
In the following text we will learn what actually n! means.
Factorial notation
The notation n! represents the product of first n natural numbers, i.e., the product 1 × 2 × 3 ×
. . . × (n – 1) × n is denoted as n!. We read this symbol as „n factorial‟.
Thus, 1 × 2 × 3 × 4 . . . × (n – 1) × n = n !
1=1!
1×2=2!
1× 2 × 3 = 3 !
1 × 2 × 3 × 4 = 4 ! and so on.
We define 0 ! = 1
We can write 5 ! = 5 × 4 ! = 5 × 4 × 3 ! = 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 !
= 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1!
Clearly, for a natural number n
n ! = n (n – 1) !
= n (n – 1) (n – 2) ! [provided (n ≥2)]
= n (n – 1) (n – 2) (n – 3)! [Provided (n ≥3)] and so on.
Example 5
Evaluate
(i) 5! (ii) 7! (iii) 7! – 5!
Solution
(i) 5! = 1 × 2 × 3 × 4 × 5 = 120
(ii) 7! = 1 × 2 × 3 × 4 × 5 × 6 ×7 = 5040 and
(iii) 7! – 5! = 5040 – 120 = 4920.

190
Example 6
Compute
7!
(i)
5!
12!
(ii)
10! 2!
Solution
7! 7  6  5!
(i)   7  6  42
5! 5!
12! 12  11  10!
(ii)   6  11  66
10! 2! 10!  2  1
Example 7
n!
Evaluate , when n== 5, r= 2.
r ! n  r  !

Solution
5!
we have to evaluate (since n== 5, r= 2)
2! 5  2 !

5! 5! 45
We have    10
2! 5  2 ! 2! 3! 2

Example 8
1 1 x
If  
8! 9  8! 10  9  8!
Solution
1 1 x
We have  
8! 9  8! 10  9  8!
1 x 10 x
Therefore 1   or 
9 10  9 9 10  9
so x = 100.
Exercise 4.2.2.
1. Evaluate each of the following
a) 8!
b) 4!-3!
10!
c) 7!

191
 5! 12!
d) 6! 9!
2. Is 3! +4! = 7!?
1 1 x
3. If   , find x
6! 7! 8!
n!
4. Evaluate
 n  r !
a) n  6, r  2 b) n  8, r  5 c) n  10, r  2

Derivation of the formula for nPr

n!
n
Pr  , 0rn
 n  r !
Let us now go back to the stage where we had determined the following formula:
n
Pr  n  n – 1  n – 2 . . .  n – r  1

Multiplying numerator and denominator by (n – r) (n – r – 1) . . . 3 × 2 × 1, we get

n  n – 1  n – 2  . . .  n – r  1 n  r  n  r  1 ...3  2  1 n!
n
Pr  
 n  r  n  r  1 ...3  2  1  n  r !
n!
Thus n Pr  , where 0< r  n
 n  r !
This is a much more convenient expression for n Pr than the previous one.

n!
In particular, when r  n, n
Pr   n!
0!
Counting permutations is merely counting the number of ways in which some or
all objects at a time are rearranged. Arranging no object at all is the same as leaving
behind all the objects and we know that there is only one way of doing so. Thus, we
can have
n!
n
P0  1   n! ...(1)
n!
Therefore, the formula (1) is applicable for r = 0 also.
n!
Thus n Pr  , 0  r  n.
 n  r !
Theorem 2

192
The number of permutations of n different objects taken r at a time, where repetition
is allowed, is n r .
Proof is very similar to that of Theorem 1 and is left for the reader to arrive at.
Here, we are solving some of the problems of the pervious Section using the for n Pr
to illustrate its usefulness.
In Example 1, the required number of words = 4 P4  4!  24 . Here repetition is not

allowed. If repetition is allowed, the required number of words would be 44  256 .

The number of 3-letter words which can be formed by the letters of the word
6!
NUMBER = 6
P3  =4  5  6=120. Here, in this case also, the repetition is not
3!
allowed. If the repetition is allowed, the required number of words would be
63  216 .
The number of ways in which a Chairman and a Vice-Chairman can be chosen
from amongst a group of 12 persons assuming that one person cannot hold more than
12!
one position, clearly = 12
P2  =11  12=132.
10!
Permutations when all the objects are not distinct objects
Suppose we have to find the number of ways of rearranging the letters of the word
root. In this case, the letters of the word are not all different. There are 2 Os, which
are of the same kind. Let us treat, temporarily, the 2 Os as different, say, O1 and O2.
The number of permutations of 4-different letters, in this case, taken all at a time is
4!. Consider one of these permutations say, RO1O2TCorresponding to this
permutation, we have 2 ! permutations RO1O2T and RO2O1T which will be exactly
the same permutation if O1 and O2 are not treated as different, i.e., if O1 and O2 are
the same O at both places. Therefore, the required number of permutations =
4!
 3  4  12 .
2!
Permutations when 𝑂1 , 𝑂2 , are different Permutations when 𝑂1 , 𝑂2 , are the same O
RO1 , O2 T ROOT
RO2 , O2 T
𝑇𝑂1 , 𝑂2 𝑅 TOOR
𝑇𝑂2 , 𝑂2 R

193
Let us now find the number of ways of rearranging the letters of the word institute.
In this case there are 9 letters, in which I appears 2 times and T appears 3 times.
Temporarily, let us treat these letters different and name them as I1, I2, T1, T2, T3.
The number of permutations of 9 different letters, in this case, taken all at a time is 9
!. Consider one such permutation, say, I1 NT1 SI2 T2 U E T3. Here if I1, I2 are not
same and T1, T2, T3 are not same, then I1, I2 can be arranged in 2! ways and T1, T2,
T3 can be arranged in 3! ways. Therefore, 2! × 3! permutations will be just the same
permutation corresponding to this chosen permutation I1NT1SI2T2UET3. Hence,
9!
total number of different permutations will be We can state (without proof) the
2!3!
following theorems:
Theorem 3
The number of permutations of n objects, where p objects are of the same kind and
n!
rest are all different =
p!
In fact, we have a more general theorem.
Theorem 4
The number of permutations of n objects, where p1 objects are of one kind, p2 are

of second kind, ..., pk are of kth kind and the rest, if any, are of different kind is

n!
p1 ! p2 !... pk !

194
Example 9
Find the number of permutations of the letters in the word haabhaabad.
Solution
Here, there are 10 objects (letters) of which there are 5A‟s, 2 B‟s and 2 H‟s .
10! 10  9  8  7  6
Therefore, the required number of arrangements =   7560
5!2!2! 22
Example
10 How many 4-digit numbers can be formed by using the digits 1 to 9 if repetition of
digits is not allowed?
Solution
Here order matters for example 1234 and 1324 are two different numbers.
Therefore, there will be as many 4 digit numbers as there are permutations of 9
different digits taken 4 at a time.
9! 9!
Therefore, the required 4 digit numbers = 9
P4  = =9  8  7=3024.
 9  4 ! 5!
Example 11
How many numbers lying between 100 and 1000 can be formed with the digits 0, 1,
2, 3, 4, 5, if the repetition of the digits is not allowed?
Solution
Every number between 100 and 1000 is a 3-digit number. We, first, have to count the
permutations of 6 digits taken 3 at a time. This number would be 6 P3 . But,
these permutations will include those also where 0 is at the 100‟s place. For example,
092, 042, . . ., etc are such numbers which are actually 2-digit numbers and hence the
6
number of such numbers has to be subtracted from P3 to get the required number.
To get the number of such numbers, we fix 0 at the 100‟s place and rearrange the
remaining 5 digits taking 2 at a time. This number is 5 P2 . So

6! 5!
The required number = 6 P3 5 P2  -
3! 3!
= 4 × 5 × 6 – 4 ×5 = 100
Example 12
Find the value of n such that

195
Solution
(i) Given that
n
P5  42n P3
or n (n – 1) (n – 2) (n – 3) (n – 4) = 42 n(n – 1) (n – 2)
Since n > 4 so n(n – 1) (n – 2)  0
Therefore, by dividing both sides by n(n – 1) (n – 2), we get
(n – 3 (n – 4) = 42
or n2 – 7n – 30 = 0
or n2 – 10n + 3n – 30
or (n – 10) (n + 3) = 0
or n – 10 = 0 or n + 3 = 0
or n = 10 or n = – 3
As n cannot be negative, so n = 10.
n
P4 5
(ii) Given that n 1
=
P4 3
Therefore 3n (n – 1) (n – 2) (n – 3) = 5(n – 1) (n – 2) (n – 3) (n – 4) or 3n = 5 (n –
4) [as (n – 1) (n – 2) (n – 3) ≠ 0, n > 4] or n = 10.
Example 13
Find the number of different 8-letter arrangements that can be made from the letters
of the word DAUGHTER so that
(i) all vowels occur together (ii) all vowels do not occur together.
Solution
(i) There are 8 different letters in the word DAUGHTER, in which there are 3
vowels, namely, A, U and E. Since the vowels have to occur together, we can for the
time being, assume them as a single object (AUE). This single object together with 5
remaining letters (objects) will be counted as 6 objects. Then we count permutations
of these 6 objects taken all at a time. This number would be 6P6 = 6!. Corresponding
to each of these permutations, we shall have 3! permutations of the three vowels A,
U, E taken all at a time . Hence, by the multiplication principle the required number
of permutations = 6 ! × 3 ! = 4320.
(ii) If we have to count those permutations in which all vowels are never together,
we first have to find all possible arrangments of 8 letters taken all at a time, which

196
can be done in 8! ways. Then, we have to subtract from this number, the number of
permutations in which the vowels are always together.
Therefore, the required number 8! – 6! × 3! = 6! (7×8 – 6)
= 2 × 6! (28 – 3)
= 50 × 6! = 50 × 720 = 36000
Example 14
In how many ways can 4 red, 3 yellow and 2 green discs be arranged in
a row if the discs of the same colour are indistinguishable ?
Solution
Total number of discs are 4 + 3 + 2 = 9. Out of 9 discs, 4 are of the first kind (red), 3
are of the second kind (yellow) and 2 are of the third kind (green).
9!
Therefore, the number of arrangements  1260.
4!3!2!
Example 15
Find the number of arrangements of the letters of the word
Independence. In how many of these arrangements,
(i) do the words start with P
(ii) do all the vowels always occur together
(iii) do the vowels never occur together
(iv) do the words begin with I and end in P?
Solution
There are 12 letters, of which N appears 3 times, E appears 4 times and D appears 2
times and the rest are all different. Therefore
12!
The required number of arrangements =  1663200.
3!4!2!
(i) Let us fix P at the extreme left position, we, then, count the arrangements of the
remaining 11 letters. Therefore, the required number of words starting with P are(i)
Let us fix P at the extreme left position, we, then, count the arrangements of the
remaining 11 letters. Therefore, the required number of words starting with P are
11!
 138600.
3!2!4!
(ii) There are 5 vowels in the given word, which are 4 Es and 1 I. Since, they have to
always occur together, we treat them as a single object EEEEI for the time being.

197
This single object together with 7 remaining objects will account for 8 objects. These
8 objects, in which there are 3Ns and 2 Ds, can be rearranged in
8!
ways. Corresponding to each of these arrangements, the 5 vowels E, E, E,
3!2!
5!
E and I can be rearranged in ways. Therefore, by multiplication principle the
4!
required number of arrangements
8! 5!
  16800.
3!2! 4!
(iii) The required number of arrangements
= the total number of arrangements (without any restriction) – the number of
arrangements where all the vowels occur together.
= 1663200 – 16800 = 1646400
(iv) Let us fix I and P at the extreme ends (I at the left end and P at the right end).
We are left with 10 letters.
Hence, the required number of arrangements
10!
  12600.
3!2!4!
Exercise 4.2.2.
1. How many 3-digit numbers can be formed by using the digits 1 to 9 if no digit
is repeated?
2. How many 4-digit numbers are there with no digit repeated?
3. How many 3-digit even numbers can be made using the digits 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7,
if no digit is repeated?
4. Find the number of 4-digit numbers that can be formed using the digits 1, 2, 3,
4, 5 if no digit is repeated. How many of these will be even?
5. From a committee of 8 persons, in how many ways can we choose a chairman
and a vice chairman assuming one person cannot hold more than one
position?
n 1
6. Find n if P3 :n P4  1: 9.

7. Find r if (i) 5 Pr  26 Pr 1 (ii) 5 Pr 6 Pr 1

8. How many words, with or without meaning, can be formed using all the
letters of the word EQUATION, using each letter exactly once?

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 9. How many words, with or without meaning can be made from the letters of
the word MONDAY, assuming that no letter is repeated, if.
(i) 4 letters are used at a time, (ii) all letters are used at a time,
(iii) all letters are used but first letter is a vowel?
10. In how many of the distinct permutations of the letters in MISSISSIPPI do the
four I‟s not come together?
11. In how many ways can the letters of the word PERMUTATIONS be arranged
if the
(i) words start with P and end with S, (ii) vowels are all together,
(iii) there are always 4 letters between P and S?

Combinations
Let us now assume that there is a group of 3 lawn tennis players X, Y, Z. A team
consisting of 2 players is to be formed. In how many ways can we do so? Is the team
of X and Y different from the team of Y and X ? Here, order is not important.
In fact, there are only 3 possible ways in which the team could be constructed.

These are XY, YZ and ZX (Figure above).

Here, each selection is called a combination of 3 different objects taken 2 at a time.

In a combination, the order is not important.
Now consider some more illustrations.
Twelve persons meet in a room and each shakes hand with all the others. How do we
determine the number of hand-shake. X shaking hands with Y and Y with X will not
be two different handshakes. Here, order is not important. There will be as many
handshakes as there are combinations of 12 different things taken 2 at a time.
Seven points lie on a circle. How many chords can be drawn by joining these points
pair-wise? There will be as many chords as there are combinations of 7 different
things taken 2 at a time. Now, we obtain the formula for finding the number of
combinations of n different objects taken r at a time, denoted by n Cr .. Suppose we

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have 4 different objects A, B, C and D. Taking 2 at a time, if we have to make
combinations, these will be AB, AC, AD, BC, BD, CD. Here, AB and BA are
the same combination as order does not alter the combination. This is why we have
not included BA, CA, DA, CB, DB and DC in this list. There are as many as 6
combinations of 4 different objects taken 2 at a time, i.e., 4 C2  6 .
Corresponding to each combination in the list, we can arrive at 2! permutations as
2 objects in each combination can be rearranged in 2! ways. Hence, the number of
permutations = 4 C2  2!
On the other hand, the number of permutations of 4 different things taken 2 at a time
= 4 P2 .

4!
Therefore 4 P2 4 C2  2! or = 4 C2
 4  2 !2!
Now, let us suppose that we have 5 different objects A, B, C, D, E. Taking 3 at a
time, if we have to make combinations, these will be ABC, ABD, ABE, BCD, BCE,
CDE, ACE, ACD, ADE, BDE. Corresponding to each of these 5C3 combinations,
there are 3! permutations, because, the three objects in each combination can be
rearranged in 3 ! ways. Therefore, the total of permutations = 5 C3  3!

5!
Therefore 5 P3 5 C3  3! or =5 C3
 5  3!3!
These examples suggest the following theorem showing relationship between
permutation and combination:
Theorem 5
n
Pr n Cr  r ! 0 < r  n
Proof
Corresponding to each combination of n Cr we have r ! permutations, because
r objects in every combination can be rearranged in r ! ways.
Hence, the total number of permutations of n different things taken r at a time is
n
Cr  r ! .On the other hand, it is n Pr .Thus n Pr n Cr  r ! 0 < r  n
Remarks
n! n!
1. From above n Cr  r ! i.e.n Cr  .
 n  r ! r ! n  r !

200
 n!
In particular, if r = n , n Cn  1
n !0!
2. We define n C0  1 , i.e., the number of combinations of n different things taken
nothing at all is considered to be 1. Counting combinations is merely counting the
number of ways in which some or all objects at a time are selected. Selecting nothing
at all is the same as leaving behind all the objects and we know that there is only one
way of doing so. This way we define n C0  1 .

n! n!
3. As  1 n C0  1, the formula n
Cr  is applicable for r = 0
0! n  r ! r ! n  r !

also.
n!
Hence n Cr  ,0<rn
r ! n  r !

n! n!
4. n Cnr  = =n C
 n  r ! n   n  r  !  n  r  ! r !

i.e., selecting r objects out of n objects is same as rejecting (n – r) objects.

5. n Ca n Cb  a  b or a  n  b o i.e., n  a  b

Theorem6
n
Cr + nCr-1 =
n+1
Cr
Proof
𝑛! 𝑛!
+
We have nCr + nCr-1 = 𝑟!(𝑛−𝑟)! 𝑟−1 !(𝑛−𝑟)!

𝑛! 𝑛!
= +
𝑟 × 𝑟−1 !(𝑛−𝑟)! 𝑟−1 ! 𝑛−𝑟+1 (𝑛−𝑟)!
𝑛! 1 1
= + 𝑟 + 𝑛 −𝑟+1
𝑟 −1 !(𝑛−𝑟)!
𝑛! 𝑛−𝑟+1+𝑟
= 𝑟!(𝑛−𝑟)! + 𝑟(𝑛−𝑟+1)
(𝑛 +1)!
= 𝑟!(𝑛+1−𝑟)!

= n+1Cr
Example 1
If n C9 n C8 , find n C17 .

Solution
We have n C9 n C8

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 n! n!
i.e., =
9! n  9 !  n  8!8!
1 1
Or 9 = 𝑛−8 or n-8 = 9 or n = 17

Therefore nC17 = 17C17 = 1

Example 2
A committee of 3 persons is to be constituted from a group of 2 men and 3 women. In
how many ways can this be done? How many of these committees would consist of 1
man and 2 women?

Solution
Here, order does not matter. Therefore, we need to count combinations.
There will be as many committees as there are combinations of 5 different persons
5! 4  5
taken 3 at a time. Hence, the required number of ways = 5 C3  = =10
3!2! 2
Now, 1 man can be selected from 2 men in 2 C1 ways and 2 women can be selected

from 3 women in 3 C2 ways. Therefore, the required number of committees

2! 3!
2
C1 3 C2   6
1!1! 2!1!
Example 3
What is the number of ways of choosing 4 cards from a pack of 52 playing cards? In
how many of these
(i) four cards are of the same suit,
(ii) four cards belong to four different suits,
(iii) are face cards,
(iv) two are red cards and two are black cards,
(v) cards are of the same colour?
Solution
There will be as many ways of choosing 4 cards from 52 cards as there are
combinations of 52 different things, taken 4 at a time. Therefore
52! 49  50  51  52
The required number of ways = 52
C4  = =270725
4!48! 2  3 4
(i) There are four suits: diamond, club, spade, heart and there are 13 cards of each
13
suit. Therefore, there are C4 ways of choosing 4 diamonds. Similarly, there are

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13 13 13
C4 ways of choosing 4 clubs, C4 ways of choosing 4 spades and C4 ways of
choosing 4 hearts. Therefore
The required number of ways = 13 C4 + 13 C4 + 13 C4 + 13 C4

13!
 4  2860
4!9!
(ii) There are13 cards in each suit.
13
Therefore, there are C1 ways of choosing 1 card from 13 cards of diamond,
13 13
C1 ways of choosing 1 card from 13 cards of hearts, C1 ways of choosing 1 card
13
from 13 cards of clubs, C1 ways of choosing 1 card from 13 cards of spades.
Hence, by multiplication principle, the required number of ways
=13C1 13 C1 13 C1 13 C1  134
(iii) There are 12 face cards and 4 are to be selected out of these 12 cards. This can be
12!
done in 12
C4 ways. Therefore, the required number of ways = 12 C4  =495
4!8!
(iv) There are 26 red cards and 26 black cards. Therefore, the required number of
ways = 26
C2 26 C2

 26! 
    325  105625
2

 2!24! 

26
(v) 4 red cards can be selected out of 26 red cards in C4 ways.
26
4 black cards can be selected out of 26 black cards in C4 ways.

Therefore, the required number of ways = 26

C4  26 C4
26!
 2  29900
4!22!
Exercise 4.2.3.
1. If n C8 n C2 , find n C2 .
2. Determine n if
(i) 2n
C3 :n C3  12 :1 (ii) 2n
C3 :n C3  1  11:1
3. How many chords can be drawn through 21 points on a circle?
4. In how many ways can a team of 3 boys and 3 girls be selected from 5 boys
and 4 girls?

203
 5. Find the number of ways of selecting 9 balls from 6 red balls, 5 white balls
and 5 blue balls if each selection consists of 3 balls of each colour.
6. Determine the number of 5 card combinations out of a deck of 52 cards if ther
is exactly one ace in each combination.
7. In how many ways can one select a cricket team of eleven from 17 players I
which only 5 players can bowl if each cricket team of 11 must include exactly
4 bowlers?
8. A bag contains 5 black and 6 red balls. Determine the number of ways in
which 2 black and 3 red balls can be selected.
9. In how many ways can a student choose a programme of 5 courses if 9
courses are available and 2 specific courses are compulsory for every student?

4.2. Random Experiments and Their Outcomes

4.3.1 Introduction
At the beginning of this section, you saw the basic definitions of experiment, event
and sample space. In this section, you will use these terms again and also see
additional concepts.
Definition
A random experiment is an experiment (activity) which produces some well defined
results. If the experiment is repeated under identical conditions it does not
necessarily produce the same results.

Example 1
Give the outcome for each of the following experiments
a) Tossing a coin c) Rolling a dice
b) Tossing a pair of coins d) Rolling a pair of dice
Solution
a) (H, T)
b) (HH, HT, TH, TT)
c) (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6)
d) (1, 1) (1, 2) (1, 3) (1, 4) (1, 5) (1, 6)
(2, 1) (2, 2) (2, 3) (2, 4) (2, 5) (2, 6)
(3, 1) (3, 2) (3, 3) (3, 4) (3, 5) (3, 6)
(4, 1) (4, 2) (4, 3) (4, 4) (4, 5) (4, 6)

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 (5, 1) (5, 2) (5, 3) (5, 4) (5, 5) (5, 6)
(6, 1) (6, 2) (6, 3) (6, 4) (6, 5) (6, 6)
Example 2 If a fair die is thrown, any one of the outcomes 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 has an
equal chance of appearing at the top. Therefore, they are considered as equally likely.

Example 3
a) A fair die is thrown. How many favorable outcomes are there for getting an
even number?
b) In picking a playing card from a pack of 52 cards, what is the number of
favorable outcomes to getting a picture card?
Solution:
a) There are 3 favorable outcomes. These are 2, 4 and 6.
b) There are 12 favorable outcomes - 4 Jacks, 4 Queens and 4 Kings.

Events
Recall that any subset of a sample space is called an event and is usually denoted by
E. An event is a collection of sample points.
Example 4
The four faces of a regular tetrahedron are numbered 1, 2, 3 and 4. If it is thrown and
the number on the bottom face (on which it stands) is registered, then list the events
of this experiment.
Solution
The sample space = {1, 2, 3, 4}.
The possible events are {1}, {2}, {3} and {4}.

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ACTIVITY
List some events of the following experiments.
a. Tossing a coin three times.
b. Inspecting produced items.
c. Selecting a number at random from integers 1 through to 12.
d. Drawing a ball from a bag containing 4 red and 6 white balls.
e. A married couple expecting a child.

Types of events
1. Simple Event (Elementary Event: is an event containing exactly one sample
point.
For example: In a toss of one coin, the occurrence of tail is a simple event.
2. Compound Event: When two or more events occur simultaneously, their joint
occurrence is known as a compound event, an event that has more than one
sample point.
Example 6
When a die is rolled, if you are interested in the event "getting even number", then the
event will be a compound event, i.e. { 2, 4, 6}. We can determine the possible
number of events that can be associated with an experiment whose sample space is S.
As events are subsets of a sample space, and any set with m elements has 2m subsets,
the number of events associated with a sample space with m elements is 2m.
(Sometimes this is called the exhaustive number of events).
Example 7
Suppose our experiment is tossing a fair coin. The sample space for this experiment is
S = {H, T}. Thus, this sample space has a total of four possible events that are subsets
of S. The list of the possible events is { }, {H}, {T}, and {H, T}.

Occurrence or Non-occurrence of an event

During a certain experiment, there are two possibilities associated with an event,
namely, occurrence or non-occurrence of the event.
Example 8
If a die is thrown, then S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}. Let E be the event of getting odd
number, then E = {1, 3, 5}. When we throw the die, if the outcome is 3, as 3ÎE, then

206
we say that E has occurred. If in another trial, the outcome is 4, then as 4ÏE, we say
that E has not occurred (not E).
3. Complement of an Event: E, denoted by E ' (not E) consists of all events in the
sample space that are not in E.
Example 9
Let a die be rolled once. Let E be the event of a prime number appearing at the top
i.e. E = {2, 3, 5}. Give the complement of the event.
Solution:
E ' = {1, 4, 6}.

ACTIVITY (ALGEBRA OF EVENTS)

Discuss the following:
a. Union and intersection of two events:
b. State properties of union and intersection.
c. What are exhaustive and mutually exclusive events?
d. When are two events called independent?

Exhaustive Events:
Are events where at least one of them must necessarily occur every time the
experiment is performed?
Example 10:
If a die is thrown give instances of exhaustive events. Solution: The sample space is
S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}. From this, the events {1}, {2}, {3}, {4}, {5}, {6} are
exhaustive events. The events {1, 2}, {3, 4}, {4, 5, 6} are also exhaustive events for
this experiment. More generally, events E1, E2 , …, En form a set of exhaustive events
of a sample space S where E1, E2,,..., En are subsets of S and E1∪E2∪...En = S.
Mutually Exclusive Events: are events that cannot happen at the same

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Example 11:
Say whether or not the following are mutually exclusive events.
I. When a coin is tossed once, the events {H} and {T}.
II. When a die is rolled, E1 = getting an even number
E2 = getting a prime number

Solution:
I. Either we get head or tail but we cannot get both at the same time. Thus, {H}
and {T} are mutually exclusive events.

II. E1 and E2 are not mutually exclusive because 2 is even and prime at the same
time.
Exhaustive and Mutually Exclusive Events: If S is a sample space associated with
a random experiment and if E1, E2, ..., En are subsets of S such that

Example 12:
If a die is thrown, the events {1}, {2}, {3}, {4}, {5}, {6} are mutually exclusive and
exhaustive events. But, the events {1, 2}, {3, 4}, {4, 5, 6} are not because {3, 4}
∩{4, 5, 6} ≠ ∅.
Independent Events: Two events are said to be independent, if the occurrence or
non occurrence of one event does not affect the occurrence or non-occurrence of the
other.

208
Example 13 In a simultaneous throw of two coins, the event of getting a tail on the
first coin and the event of getting a tail on the second coin are independent.
Example 14
If a card is drawn from a well shuffled pack of cards and is replaced before drawing
a second card, then the result from drawing the second card is independent of the
result of the first drawn card.
Dependent Events Two events: are said to be dependent, if the occurrence or non
occurrence of one event affects the occurrence or non-occurrence of the other.
Example 14
If a card is drawn from a well shuffled pack of cards and the card is not replaced,
then the result of drawing a second card is dependent on the first draw.

Probability of an Event
In form three, you dealt with an experimental approach to probability. You also
discussed the definition of theoretical probability of an event. Probability can be
measured by three different approaches.
a. The classical (mathematical) approach.
b. The empirical (relative frequency) approach.
c. The axiomatic approach.
d. The classical approach
This is the kind of probability that you discussed in form three. In the classical
approach to probability, if all the outcomes of a random experiment are equally likely
and mutually exclusive, then the probability of an event E is

The empirical approach

This approach is based on the relative frequency of an event (or outcome) when an
experiment is repeated a large number of times. Here, the probability of an event E is

209
the proportion of outcomes favourable to E in the experiment. Thus,

Example 16
If records show that 60 out of 100, 000 bulbs produced are defective (D), then the
probability of a newly produced bulb being defective is given by
fD 60
P(D) = = = 0.0006
N 100,000

The axiomatic approach

In this approach, the probability of an event is given as a function that satisfies the
following definition:
Let S be the sample space of a random experiment. With each event E we associate a
real number called the probability of E, denoted by P(E), that satisfies the following
properties called axioms (or postulates) of probability.

Example 17:
A box contains 6 red balls. One ball is drawn at random. Find the probability of
getting
i. a red ball
ii. a white ball
Solution
i. the box contains all red balls. Hence we are sure that red will occur. Then the
𝑛(𝑅) 6
probability of getting a red is one. That is P(R) = 𝑛 = =1
𝑆 6

210
ii. The box contains no white balls. The chance of getting white ball is impossible,
n(W ) 0
and the probability is zero. That is, P(W) = = =0
n(S) 6

Example 18
A bag contains 3 red, 5 black, and 4 white marbles. One marble is drawn at random.
What is the probability that the marble is:
a) Black
b) Not black
Solution
5
a) P(B) = 12

b) P( not black) = 1-P(black) ……. Complementary events.

5
= 1 − 12
7
= 12
5 7 12
Therefore, P(B) +P(not black) = + 12 = =1
12 12

Odds in favour of and odds against an event

If m and n are probabilities of the occurrence and non-occurrence of an event
respectively, then the ratio m: n is called the odds in favour of the event. The ratio n:
m is called the odds against the event.

211
Rules of probability
In the last section, you have seen different types of events and approaches to
probability. We will now discuss some essential rules for probability and probabilities
of the different types of events.
ACTIVITY
For two events E1 and E2 discuss what conditions apply to the following rules.
a. P (E1 ∪ E2) = P (E1) + P (E2) – P (E1 ∩ E2)
b. P (E1 ∪ E2) = P (E1) + P (E2)
c. Illustrate each of the above by using a Venn diagram
In your previous discussions, you saw how to determine probabilities of events.
Example 22
Find the probability of obtaining a 6 or 4 in one roll of a die.
Solution
In one roll of a die, the sample space is S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}.
Obtaining 6 or 4 gives the event E = {4, 6}.

Trying to calculate probabilities by listing all outcomes and favourable outcomes may
not always be convenient. For more complex situations, there are rules we can use to
help us calculate probabilities.

Addition rule of probability

From previous discussions, recall that, if E1 . . . E2, En form a set of exhaustive events
of a sample space S, then E1 ∪ E2 ∪ . . . ∪ En = S. Moreover, the probability of an
event E, i.e. P (E) is given by

P(E) =
212
 number of outcomes favoring E n(E)
P(E) = total =
number of outcomes in the sample space n(S)

With these we can easily calculate probabilities of compound events by making use
of the addition rule stated below.
Addition rule

If 𝐸1 and 𝐸2 are any two events, then,

P(𝐸1 ∪ 𝐸2 ) = P(𝐸1 ) + P(𝐸2 ) – P(𝐸1 ∩ 𝐸2 ) and
If the events are mutually exclusive, (i.e 𝐸1 ∩ 𝐸2 = ∅) then P(𝐸1 ∩ 𝐸2 ) =0, so, that
P(𝐸1 ∪ 𝐸2 ) = P(𝐸1 ) + P(𝐸2 ).

Example 23
a. Find the probability of obtaining a 6 or 4 in one roll of a die.
b. Find the probability of getting Head or Tail in tossing a coin once.
c. A die is rolled once. Find the probability that it is even or it is divisible by 3.
Solution
a) Let 𝐸1 be event of getting 6. 𝐸2 be event of getting 4. Then 𝐸1 and 𝐸2 are
mutually exclusive events.
1 1 2 1
Thus, P(𝐸1 ∪ 𝐸2 ) = P(𝐸1 ) + P(𝐸2 ) = 6 + 6 = 6 = 3

b) The even are mutually exclusive.

1 1 2
Thus, P(H or T)= P(H) +P(T) = 2 + 2 = 2 = 1

c) S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
Let 𝐸1 = getting even = {2, 4, 6}
𝐸2 = getting a number a divisible by 3 = {3, 6}.
Then 𝐸1 and 𝐸2 are not mutually exclusive, because P(𝐸1 ∩ 𝐸2 )= {6}
Thus, P( even or divisible by 3) = P(even) +P(divisible by 3) – P(even and
divisible by 3).
3 2 1 1 1 1 2
=6+6−6=2+3−6=3

This shows the addition rule of probability with two events. What do you think the
rule will be for three or more events? The rule can be extended for a finite number of
events, but becomes increasingly complicated. For example, for three events it
becomes:

213
Multiplication rule of probability
This rule is useful for determining the probability of the joint occurrence of events. It
is based on the concepts of independence or dependence of events, discussed earlier.
Let us take a brief revision of independent and dependent events. When the
occurrence of the first event affects the occurrence of the second event in such a way
that the probability is changed, the events are said to be dependent.
Example 24
A bag contains 3 black and 2 white balls. We draw two balls one after the other with
replacement (the second is draw after the first is replacement). Find the probability
that the first ball is black and the second ball is also black.
Solution
Let event A be the first ball is black.
Let event B the second ball is black.
3 3
Then P(A) = and P(B) = 5(since the ball is replaced, the sample space is not
5

affected.
Example 25
Suppose we repeat the experiment in the example 23, but this time the first ball is not
replaced. This time:
3
P(A) = P(first ball is black) =
5
2
If the first ball is black P(B) = 4 (one black ball has been removed).
3
If the first ball was not black P(B) = 4

Recognizing dependence or independence is of paramount importance in using the

multiplication rule of probability. When occurrence of one event depends on the
occurrence of another event, we say the second event is conditioned by the first event.
This leads into what is called conditional probability.

Conditional probability
If E1 and E2 are two events, the probability that E2 occurs given that E1 has already
occurred is denoted by P (E2 | E1) and is called the conditional probability of E2 given

214
that E1 has already occurred. If the occurrence or non occurrence of E1 does not
affect the probability of E2, or if E1 and E2 are independent, then P (E2 | E1) = P (E2).
This is often called the multiplication rule of probability.
Multiplication rule of probability
If 𝐸1 and 𝐸2 are any two events, the probability that both events occur, denoted by
P(𝐸1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐸2 ) = P(𝐸1 ∩ 𝐸2 )= P(𝐸1 𝐸2 )is given by P(𝐸1 ∩ 𝐸2 ) = P(𝐸1 ) ×P(E2 | E1 ).
Wherever P(E2) ≠0

Example 26
a) A box contains 3 red and 2 black balls. One ball is drawn at random, is not
replaced, and a second ball is drawn. Find the probability that the first ball is red
and the second is black.
b) A die is rolled and a coin is tossed. Find the probability of getting 3 on the die
and a tail in the coin.
c) A bag contains 3 red, 4 blue and 3 white balls. Three balls are drawn one after
the other. Find the probability of getting a red ball on the first draw, a blue ball
on the second draw and a white ball on the third draw if
i. Each ball is drawn, but then is replaced back before the next draw.
ii. The balls are drawn without replacement.
Solution
a. Let E1 = getting red in the first draw.
E2 = getting black in the second draw.
3 2 6 3
P (E1∩E2) = P (E1) × P (E1| E2) =   
5 4 20 10
b. Let E1 = getting 3 on the die and E2 = getting tail on the coin. Since the two
events are independent,
1 1 1
P (E1∩E2) = P (E1) × P (E2) =  
6 2 12
c. Let E1 = getting red, in the first draw, E2 = getting blue in the second draw, E3 =
getting white in the third draw.
i. The balls are replaced after each draw. The events are independent.

215
 3 4 3 36 9
P (E1 ∩ E2 ∩ E3) = P(E1) × P(E2) × P(E3) =    
10 10 10 1000 250
ii. The balls are not replaced, so events are dependent
3 4 1
P (E1∩ E2 ∩ E3) = P (E1) × P(E2 | E1) × P(E3 | E1 and E2) =  
10 9 20
Exercise 4.3.A.
1. A die is rolled. What is the probability of scoring
a. 4?
b. 3 or 5?
2. In throwing a die, consider the following events.
E1 = the number that shows up is even
E2 = the number that shows up is prime
E3 = the number that shows up is more than 3
a. Determine the event E2 ∩E3
b. Determine the number of elements in E1 ∩E2
c. Determine the number of elements in P(E1 ∩E2 ∩E3)
d. Determine the P(E1 ∩E2 )
e. Determine the P(E1 ∪E2 )
f. Determine P(E1 ∪E2 ∪E3)
3. From a pack of 52 playing cards, one card is drawn. Find the probability that it is
a. either a King or a Jack; b either
b. Queen or red.
4. A die is thrown twice. What is the probability of scoring a 3, followed by a 4?
5. A red ball and 4 white balls are in a box. If two balls are drawn without
replacement, what is the probability of
a. getting a red ball on the first draw and a white ball on the second?
b. getting two white balls?
6. Two cards are drawn from a pack of 52 cards. What is the probability that the first
is an Ace and the second is a King,
c. if the first card was replaced before the second was drawn? B
d. if the cards were drawn without replacement?
7. A box contains 24 pens, 10 of which are red. A pen is picked at random. What is
the probability that the pen is not red?
8. The following table gives assignments of probabilities for outcomes from a sample

216
9. space

a. Which of the probabilities are invalid assignments? Why?

b. Why is (b) a valid assignment of probabilities.
10. In throwing a die what is the probability of getting even or prime number?
11. Two students are selected from a class of 28 girls and 22 boys one after the
other. What is the probability that the second student selected is a boy given that the
first was a girl?
Tree diagram probability
You have seen how to determine probability by using either of the product rules (for
independent or dependent events). It is also possible to show joint events using tree
diagrams and tables, and calculate probabilities from these.
Example 27
A fair coin is tossed twice. Find the probability that both outcomes will be Heads.
Solution:
1 1 1
From the multiplication rule, P (HH) = P (H) × P (H) =  
2 2 4
You can use a tree diagram and/or table to portray the possible outcomes.

217
 1
Therefore, the probability that both outcomes are heads is
4
Example 28
Suppose that a group of 10 students contain eight boys (B) and two girls (G). If two
students are chosen randomly without replacement, find the probability that the two
students chosen are both boys.

Example 29
A bag contains 5 red balls, 4 blue balls, and 3 white balls. Two balls are drawn one
after the other, without replacement.
a. Find the probability that both are red.
b. Draw tree diagram representing the experiment.

218
Example 30
Two dice are thrown simultaneously. Find the probability that the sum of the numbers
scored is
a. 7
b. greater than 9
c. less than 4

Exercise 4.3.4.
1. A box contains 5 red and 6 white balls. If one ball is drawn at random, find
the probability that it will be
a. red or white?
b. not red?
c. yellow?
2. From a pack of 52 playing cards, three cards are drawn one after the other.
What is the probability that all are Kings if
a. drawing is made with replacement?
b. drawing is made without replacement?
3. Use the table in Example 45, to find the probability that
a. the sum of the top numbers is 12.
b. the sum of the top numbers is 13.
c. the sum of the numbers is greater than 10.

219
4. There are 4 black, 2 red and 4 white balls in a box. If three balls are selected
at random what is the probability that
a. all the balls selected are black?
b. at least one ball is white?
c. all the balls are of different colour?
5. Two lamps are to be chosen from a pack of 12 lamps where four are defective
and the rest are non defective. What is the probability that
a. both are defective?
b. One is defective?
c. at most one is defective?

4.3.5. COMBINATIONATORIAL PROBABILITY

Permutations and combinations can sometimes be used to find probabilities of
various events particularly when large sample sizes occur.It is useful to remember
that:

For example, if we select at random a team of 4 boys and 3 girls from a squad of 8
boys and 7 girls, the total number of unrestricted possibilities is 15C7 since we want
any 7 of the 15 available for selection. The number with the required property of „4
boys and 3 girls‟ is 8C4 × 7C3 as from the 8 boys we want any 4 of them and from
the girls we want any 3 of them.

The biggest hurdle in probability problems involving permutations or combinations

seems to be in sorting out which to use.
Remember:
 permutations involve orderings of objects or things, whereas
 Combinations involve selections (such as committees or teams).
Example 31
From a squad of 13 which includes 4 brothers, a team of 7 is randomly selected by
drawing names from a hat. Determine the probability that the team contains
a. all the brothers
b. at least 2 of the brothers.

220
Solution
There are 13C7 different teams of 7 that can be chosen from 13.
a. Of these teams contain all 4 brothers and any 3 others.
C4 9 C3
 p  contains all the brothers  4
 0.04895
13 C7

b. P[at least 2 brothers]=P[2 brothers or 3 brothers or 4 brothers

C2 9 C5 4 C3 9 C4 4 C4 9 C3
 4
   0.7832
13 C7 13 C7 13 C7

Example 32
5 letters U, S, T, I, N are placed at random in a row. What is the probability that the
word UNITS is spelled out?
Solution

Exercise 4.3.5
1. A committee of 4 is chosen from 11 people by random selection. What is the
chance that sisters X and Y are on the committee?
2. 4 alphabet blocks; D, A, I and S are placed at random in a row. What is the
likelihood that they spell out either AIDS or SAID?
3. A team of 7 is randomly chosen from a squad of 12. Determine the probability that
both the captain and vice-captain are chosen.
4. 4 people are killed in an air crash and 3 professional golfers were aboard.
Determine the chance that none of the golfers was killed if 22 people were aboard.
5. 5 boys sit at random on 5 seats in a row. Determine the probability that two of
them (Kayse and Ahmed, say)
a. sit at the ends of the row
b. Sit together.

221
4.3 BINOMIAL PROPABABILITY

BINOMIAL EXPANSIONS
The sum a + b is called a binomial as it contains two terms.
Any expression of the form (a + b) n is called a power of a binomial.

All binomials raised to a power can be expanded using the same general principles. In
this chapter, therefore, we consider the expansion of the general expression (a + b) n
where 𝑛 ∈ 𝑁.
Consider the following algebraic expansions:

2
The binomial expansion of 𝑎 + 𝑏 is a2+2ab+b2.
3
The binomial expansion of 𝑎 + 𝑏 is a3+3a2b+3ab2+b3.

Notice that:
 As we look from left to right across the expansion, the powers of a decrease
by 1, while the powers of b increase by 1.
 The sum of the powers of a and b in each term of the expansion is 4.
 The number of terms in the expansion is 4 +1 = 5.
 The coefficients of the terms are row 4 of Pascal‟s triangle.

In the following examples we see how the general binomial expansion (a + b) n may
be put to use.

222
Exercise 4.3
1. Use the binomial expansion of (a+b)3 to expand and simplify :
3 3 1 3
a) 𝑝+𝑞 d) 2𝑥 − 3
g) 3𝑥 + 3
3 3
b) 𝑥+1 e) 2𝑥 − 1 3
h) 2𝑥 + 5
3 3
c) 2𝑥 − 3 f) 2𝑎 − 𝑏 3
i) 3𝑥 + 7
4
2. Use 𝑎 + 𝑏 = a4+4ab3+6a2b2+4a3b+b4 to expand and simplify:
4 4 4
a) 1+𝑥 c) 3−𝑥 e) 𝑝−𝑞
4 4 4
b) 2𝑧 + 𝑏 d) 1 + 2𝑥 f) 5𝑥 + 𝑦
3. Expand and simplify

223
 5 8 5
a) 𝑥+2 c) 2𝑥 + 𝑦 e) 2𝑝 + 1
6 5 6
b) 𝑥 − 2𝑦 d) 𝑎+𝑏 f) 2𝑥 − 1
n
The binomial coefficient  
r 
The numbers in the Pascal‟s triangle are called binomial confidents because of their
importance in the binomial expansion.
To calculate the other binomial coefficients we can use a formula. It involves the
product of consecutive positive integers, so to keep it simple we introduce factorial
notation.

Factorial notation

Example 3
What integer is equal to each of the following:
a) 4! 5!
c) 3!
b) 8! 7!
d) 4! ×3!

Solutions
a) 4! = 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 = 24
b) 8! = 8 × 7 × 6 × 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 = 40320
5! 5×4×3×2×1 120
c) = = = 20
3! 3×2×1 6
7! 7×6×5×4×3×2×1
d) = 4×3×2×1×3×2×1 = 35
4! ×3!

224
THE BINOMIAL COEFFICIENT
The binomial coefficient is defined by

The binomial coefficient is sometimes written: rnC or Crn

Example 4
Use the formula to evaluate:
5 11
a) b)
2 7
Solutions
5 5! 5×4×3×2×1
a) = 2! 5−2 ! = 2×1×3×2×1 = 10
2
11 11! 11×10×9×8×7×6×5×4×3×2×1
b) = 7!(11−7)! 7×6×5×4×3×2×1×4×3×2×1 = 330
7

225
Binomial probability
Suppose that a trail is repeated a number of times, say 3, and that in each trail there are two
possible outcomes A and B. if P (A) = a and P (B) = b.
And the outcome of each trail is independent of the previous trails, the tree diagram would be:

The probability of obtaining outcome B on each occasion = P (BBB) = b3

Or of obtaining outcome A exactly twice = P(AAB) + P(ABA) + P(BAA)= 3a3b
Clearly for more trails, say 5, the tree diagram would become very large and so an alternative
method is needed. If the trails are carried out five times the various outcomes would be:
5 A‟s, 4 A‟s, 1B 3A‟s, 2 B‟s 2A‟s, 3 B‟s 1A, 4 B‟s 5 B‟s

Thus the probabilities of the various combinations of A‟s and B,s would be
5
C5 a5 5
C4 a 4 b 5
C3 a 3b 2 5
C2 a 2 b3 5
C1ab 4 5
C0 b5
or
1a5 5a 4 b 10a 3b 2 10a 2 b3 5ab 4 1b5
Notice that these numbers could also be obtained from the sixth row of Pascal‟s Triangle :
Similarly the seventh row would give the coefficients for trails and son on.

226
Example
2 1
Acoin is biased so that P(head )  and P(tail )  . If the coin is tossed 6 times find the
3 3
probability of obtaining
a) 6 heads
b) Exactly 5 heads
c) At least 5 heads
d) At least 1 tail
e) 3 heads and a tail with the heads occurring on successive tosses of the coin.
Solution
2 1
First list the various combinations of probabilities with h  P(head )  , and t  P(tail )  .
3 3
These are
6
C6 h6 6
C5 h5 t 6
C4 h 4 t 2 6
C3 h3t 3 6
C2 h 2 t 4 6
C1ht 5 6
C0 t 6
or
1h6 6h5 t 15h 4 t 2 21h3t 3 15h 2 t 4 6ht 5 1t 6
6
2 64
a) P(6head )  1h =    6

3 729
5
 2   1  64
b) P(5head )  6h t = 6     
5 1

 3   3  243
c) P  at least 5 heads   P  exactly 5 heads   P 5 heads 

64 64 256
  =
243 729 729
d) P  at least 1 tail   1  P  no tails  =1-P  6heads 
64 665
= 1- 
729 729
3 3
 2 1 23
e) P  HHHTTT      = 6
 3  3 3
4!
However, there are ways of arranging 3 heads and 3 tails with the three heads keeping
3!
together

227
HHHTTT, THHHTT, TTHHHT, TTTHHH.
23 32
Thus the required probability is 2  =
36 729
Exercise 4.6
1. There are only 2 boys in a group of 6 Pupils. A group of 6 pupils is to selected. Find the
probability that both boys are in the group
2. A bag contains 10 discs of which 3 red and 7 are blue. If 6 discs are selected at random, find
the probability that all red discs are selected?
3. Five unbiased coins are tossed.
a. Find the probability of getting three heads and two tails
b. The five coins are tossed eight times. Find the probability of getting three heads and two tails
exactly four times. Give your answer correct to three decimal places.
4. In a large consignment of trails, 8% are defective. Show that the probability of a random
sample of 10 articles containing at least two defectives is approximately 0.19?
5. Four letters are to be chosen from a, b, c, d e, f. find the probability that both vowels are in the
group chosen.
6. There are 5b green, 4 yellow and 3 blue discs in a bag. from which 4 discs are chosen at
random. Find the probability that 4 discs selected will contain
a) Exactly 3 blue discs
b) Exactly 3 yellow discs
c) At least one green disc

228
CHAPTER 5: COMPLEX NUMBERS
Objectives: By the end of this chapter students should be able to
 define the complex numbers
 Show that the real and complex number is a field.
 Know that the complex number is not an order field.
 display different parts of complex numbers
 to add, subtract, multiply and divide complex numbers in rectangular form
 to simplify complex numbers
 To solve quadratic equations using the quadratic formula especially imaginary
roots
 To change complex numbers from rectangular to polar form and vice versa
 To find product and quotient of complex number in polar form
 To prove de moivres theorem
 To find powers and roots of complex numbers in polar form using de moivres
theorem


5.1 Introductory Remark
The Pythagoreans (500-275 B.C) found that the simple equation
𝑥 2 + 2 ......................................................................................................................(1)
has no real numbers as its solutions . If equation (1) were to have a solution, then a new kind of
numbers had to be invented called irrational numbers.
The irrational numbers ± 2 are both solutions to equation (1).
Irrational numbers were not put on a firm mathematical foundation until the nineteenth century.
The rational and irrational numbers together constitute the real number system.
Is there any need to consider another number system? Yes.
If we want to solve the simple quadratic equation𝑥 2 +1= 0 there is no solution because there no
real number x that can be squared to produce (-1). Once again a new number must be invented.
It was not until the nineteenth century that the irrational numbers were placed on a firm
mathematical foundation.

229
5.2 Complex Number System

DEFİNİTİON:
A complex number is a number of the form a +bi (standard form) where a and b are real numbers
and 𝒊 is called the imaginary unit.
Names for particular kinds of Complex numbers include:
𝑖 Imaginary unıt
𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖 Complex number (where a and b are real number)
𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖 = 𝑏𝑖 , 𝑏 ≠ 0 Pure imagınary number
𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖 = 𝑎 Real number
𝑎 − 𝑏 𝑖 Conjugate of 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖
Equality of complex numbers

5.3 Operation of Complex numbers in Rectangular form.

Operations with complex numbers

Example l
1. 𝑖 27
2, 3 + 4𝑖 + 5 + 2𝑖
3.(8 + 10𝑖) − (6 + 4𝑖)
4. 2 + 3𝑖 4 + 5𝑖

230
 2+7𝑖
5.
4+3𝑖

Solution
1. 𝑖 27 = 𝑖 24 . 𝑖 3 = 𝑖 4 6
𝑖 3 16 . 𝑖 3 = 𝑖 .
2. 3 + 4𝑖 + 5 + 2𝑖 = 8 + 6𝑖
3. 8 + 10𝑖 − 6 + 4𝑖 = 8 + 10𝑖 + −6 − 4𝑖 = 2 + 6𝑖
4. 2 + 3𝑖 4 + 5𝑖
= (8-15) + 10 + 12 𝑖
=−7 + 22𝑖

2+7𝑖 8+21 + 28−6 𝑖

5. ==
4+3𝑖 16+9
29+22𝑖
= =
25
29 22
=25 + 𝑖
25

Example 2
Simplify
1) 3 − 2𝑖 4 + 3𝑖
4+3𝑖
2)
12+5𝑖

Solution
1) 3 − 2𝑖 4 + 3𝑖
= 12 + 6 + 9 − 8 𝑖
= 18 + 𝑖
4−3𝑖
2) 12+5𝑖
48−15 + 20−36 𝑖
= 12 2 + 52
33−56𝑖
= 169
33 56
= 169 - 169 𝑖

Again we use in(2) the conjugate of 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖 is 𝑎 − 𝑏𝑖 and multiply the conjugate

4−3𝑖 12−5𝑖
. 12−5𝑖
12+5𝑖

231
 (48−15) + −20−36 𝑖
=
12 2 + 52
33−5𝑖
= 13𝑥13
33 56
= 169 -- 169 𝑖

They are similar.

Example 3
Write in standard form
1 5−3𝑖
(1) 3+4𝑖 (2) 2+𝑖

Solution:
1.Multiply numerator and denominator or by the conjugate of denominator
1 3−4𝑖
. 3−4𝑖
3+4𝑖
3−4𝑖
=
32 + 4 2
3−4𝑖
= 25
3 4
=25 − 𝑖
25

checking: multiply ( 3 + 4𝑖) by the answer

3 4
3 + 4𝑖 (25 − 𝑖)
25
9 16 12 12
= + + 25 𝑖 − 25 𝑖
25 25
25
=25 = 1
5+3𝑖 2−𝑖
2. 2+𝑖 . 2−𝑖
10−3 + −5−6 𝑖 7−11𝑖
= 4+1 5
7 11
= − 𝑖
5 5

Check:

232
 7 11
2+𝑖 ( − 𝑖)
5 5
14 11 7 22 25 15
= + + − 𝑖 = − 𝑖 = 5 − 3𝑖
5 5 5 5 5 5

Exercise 1
1) Simplify the following complex numbers then write in standard form.
2
a) 2 + 4𝑖 −3 2 + 4𝑖 + 15
4−5𝑖
b) 3𝑖
1
c) 1 − −9

2) Simplify the following

a) 𝑖 15 + 𝑖 25
b) 1) 8 + 3𝑖 − 1 − 6𝑖
2
c) 𝑖−6
1+𝑖
d) 2+2𝑖

e) 4 + 5𝑖 + 3 + 2𝑖
f) 4 + 3𝑖 2 − 𝑖
g) (−3 − 10𝑖)(1 + 5 3𝑖
h) 6 + 4𝑖 −3 − 4𝑖
3−𝑖
i) 2+𝑖
2+4𝑖
j) 3−2𝑖

233
5.4 Solving Quadratic Equations.

Example 5
Solve the following equations
a)𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 13 = 0
b)𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 4 = 0
c) 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 5 = 0
Solution
a)𝑥 2 + 9 = 0 → 𝑥 2 − 9𝑖 2 = 0 Factarize
= (𝑥 + 3𝑖)(𝑥 − 3𝑖)
𝑥 = −3𝑖 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = 3𝑖
−𝑏± 𝑏 2 −4𝑎𝑐
b) 𝑥 = 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑡𝑒
2𝑎

−4± 16−4 1 (13) −4 ± 36𝑖

= =
2.1 2𝑎
4 ±6
= 𝑖
2

𝑥 = 2 + 3𝑖 𝑜𝑟 2 − 3𝑖
2± 4−4 1 (5)
c) 𝑥 = 10
2± −16
= 10
2±4𝑖 1 2 1 2
= = 5 + 5 𝑖 𝑜𝑟 −5𝑖
10 5

Example 6
Find the value of x and y that make the statement true
(a)3𝑥 − 5𝑦𝑖 = 12 − 20𝑖
(b) 𝑥 + 𝑦𝑖 2𝑥 + 𝑦𝑖 = −7 + 9𝑖
Solution
(a) 3𝑥 = 12 and −5𝑦 = 20
𝑥=4 𝑦 = −4
(b) 𝑥 + 𝑦𝑖 2𝑥 + 𝑦𝑖 = −7 + 9𝑖
2𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 + 3𝑥𝑦𝑖 = −7 + 9𝑖 then
3 2
2𝑥 2 − = −7
𝑥
9
2𝑥 2 − = −7
𝑥2

234
2𝑥 4 − 9 = −7𝑥 2
2𝑥 4 + 7𝑥 2 − 9 = 0
2𝑥 4 − 2𝑥 2 + 9𝑥 2 − 9 = 0
2𝑥 2 𝑥 2 − 1 + 9 𝑥 2 − 1
2𝑥 2 + 9 𝑥 2 = 0
𝑥 2 = 1 ↔ 𝑥 = ±1
Or
2𝑥 2 + 9 = 0
2𝑥 2 = −9 Imaginary…
The value x=±1
3
When x=1 → 𝑦=1 =3
3
When x=-1 → 𝑦 = −1 = −3

𝑥 = ±1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 = ±3

Exercise 2
1. Solve each equation.
a) 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 1 = 0
b) 𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 29 = 0
2. Find the value of x and y that make each sentence true
a) 3𝑥 − 5𝑦𝑖 = 15 − 20𝑖
b) 3𝑥 + 7𝑦𝑖 = 6 − 2𝑖
c) 𝑥 − 𝑦 + 2𝑥 + 𝑦 𝑖 = −3 + 9𝑖
d) 2𝑥 − 𝑦 + 𝑥 + 𝑦 𝑖 = −4 − 5𝑖

Rectangular form of Complex number:

The Complex number can expressed in the form +𝑏𝑖 , where a and b the real numbers, the
complex number is said to be in rectangular form of the complex number sometimes the
rectangular form is written as ordered pair (𝑎, 𝑏).

235
To graph the complex number is rectangular form, the horizontal axis is real axis and the
vertical axis is the imaginary axis. The point P on the graph at the right is the graph of the
complex number 3 + 4𝑖

Definition
The absolute value (length of the hypotenuse) of the complex number
𝑧 = 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖 is 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖 = 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2
Example 6
Find the length (r) of complex number 𝑧 = −2 + 5𝑖 and plot.
𝑟 = 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2
𝑟= (−2)2 + (5)2
𝑟 = 4 + 25
𝑟 = 29

5.5 Complex Numbers in a Polar form.

The polar form of complex number 𝑧 = 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖

236
 𝑏
Is 𝑧 = 𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃 where, 𝑎 = 𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 , 𝑏 = 𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑟 = 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 and 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 = 𝑎 .or
𝑎
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 = the number 𝑟 𝑖𝑠 the modulus of 𝑧 and 𝜃 is called argument of 𝑧
𝑎 2 +𝑏 2

Example 7:
Convert 𝑍 = 2 + 2𝑖 in polar form,
Solution
𝑟 = 22 + 22 = 8 = 2 2
𝑥 2 1 2
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = = = =
𝑟 2 2 2 2
𝜋
Since the points is the first quadrant 𝜃 = 4 , the polar form is

𝑍 = 𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
Then the complex number written in polar form is.
𝜋 𝜋
Z=2 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛
4 4

Example 8
Convert 2 3 − 2𝑖 in to polar form.
Solution
𝑟= 𝑥2 + 𝑦2

𝑟= (2 3)2 + (2)2

𝑟= 4(3) + 4

𝑟 = 16 𝑟 = 4
2 3 3
𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃 = =
4 2
𝜋 𝜋
𝜃= sin fourth quadrant this 𝜃 = 2𝜋 − 3
3
5𝜋
𝜃= 3

𝑧 = 𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
5𝜋 5𝜋
𝑧 = 𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛
3 3

Example 9
Convert 𝑧 = 10 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜋 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜋 into a rectangular form
Solution
we want to find the coordinate 𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦
𝑥 = 𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 → 𝑥 = 10 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜋 = 10

237
𝑦 = 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 → 𝑦 = 10 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜋 = 0 , then the complex number written in rectangular form is .
𝑧 = 10 + 0𝑖
𝑧 = 10
Example 10
Write the complex number Ƶ = −2 − 2 3 in polar form.
Solution
2
𝑟 = −2 − 2 3 𝑖 = −2 2 + 2 3

𝑟 = 4 + 12
𝑟 = 16
𝑟=4
−2
cos 𝜃 =
4
−1 𝜋
cos 𝜃 = ,𝜃 =
2 3
And Ƶ = −2 − 2 3 𝑖 Lies in the third quadrant
𝜋
You choose 𝜃 𝑡𝑜 𝑏𝑒 𝜃 = 𝜋 + 3 ⁡
4𝜋
𝜃 = 3

so, the polar form is

Ƶ = r[cosθ + i sin θ ]
4𝜋 4𝜋
Ƶ = 4 𝑐𝑜𝑠 + 𝑖 sin
3 3
Example 11
−𝜋 −𝜋
Write the complex 𝑧 = 8 𝑐𝑜𝑠 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 in rectanglur form. (standard form)
3 3

Solution
−𝜋 −𝜋
𝑧 = 8 𝑐𝑜𝑠 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛
3 3
1 − 3
= 8 +𝑖
2 2

1 − 3
=2 2 + 𝑖
2 2

= 2− 3 2𝑖
= 2− 6𝑖

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5.6 Product and Quotient of Complex numbers in a Polar form.

When two complex numbers are written in polar form, the product or quotient can easily be
computed.
Let 𝑍1 = 𝑟1 (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃1 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃1 ) and
𝑍2 = 𝑟2 (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃2 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃2 )
𝑍1 . 𝑍2 = 𝑟1 (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃1 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃1 ) . 𝑟2 (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃2 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃2 )
= 𝑟1 𝑟2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃2 + 𝑖𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃1 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃2 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃2−𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃2
= 𝑟1 𝑟2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃2 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃2 + 𝑖 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃2 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃2
= cos⁡
(𝜃1 + 𝜃2 + 𝑖 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃2 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃2
= 𝑟1 𝑟2 cos 𝜃1 + 𝜃2 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃1 + 𝜃2

Example12: Find the product of the two complex number 𝑍1 . 𝑍2

2𝜋 2𝜋 11𝜋 11𝜋
𝑍1 = 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑍2 = 8 𝑐𝑜𝑠 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛
3 3 6 6
Solution
2𝜋 2𝜋 11𝜋 11𝜋
𝑍1 . 𝑍2 = 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 8 𝑐𝑜𝑠 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛
3 3 6 6
2𝜋 11𝜋 2𝜋 11𝜋
= 16 𝑐𝑜𝑠 + + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 +
3 6 3 6
15𝜋 15𝜋
= 16 𝑐𝑜𝑠 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛
6 6
5𝜋 5𝜋
= 16 𝑐𝑜𝑠 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛
3 3
𝜋 𝜋
= 16 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2

= 16 0 + 𝑖 (1)
= 16𝑖
Checking
If we write 𝑍1 and 𝑍2 in standard form.
𝑍1 = −1 + 3𝑖 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑍2 = 4 3 − 4𝑖

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Thais multiplying algebraically we get
𝑍1 . 𝑍2 = −1 + 3𝑖 4 3 − 4𝑖

= −4 3𝑖 + 4 3𝑖 + 4𝑖 + 12𝑖
= 16𝑖
The quotient of two complex numbers
Let 𝑍1 = 𝑟1 (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃1 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃1 )
𝑍2 = 𝑟2 (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃2 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃2 )
𝑍1 𝑟1 (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃1 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃1 )
=
𝑍2 𝑟2 (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃2 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃2 )
Rationalizing the denominator we get
𝑟1 (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃1 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃1 ) (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃1 − 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃1 )
.
𝑟2 (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃2 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃2 ) (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃2 − 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃2 )
𝑍1 𝑟1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃2 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃2 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃2 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃2
=
𝑍2 𝑟2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃2 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃2
𝑍1 𝑟1
= cos 𝜃1 − 𝜃2 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃1 − 𝜃2
𝑍2 𝑟2

𝑟1
cos 𝜃1 − 𝜃2 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃1 − 𝜃2
𝑟2

Example 13
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
𝑍1 = 4 𝑐𝑜𝑠 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑍2 = 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛
6 6 3 3
𝑍1
Find 𝑍2

Solution:

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 𝑍1 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
= 𝑐𝑜𝑠 − + 𝑖 sin −
𝑍2 6 3 6 3
−𝜋 −𝜋
= 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 + 𝑖 sin
6 6
𝜋 𝜋
= 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 − 𝑖 sin
6 6
3 1
=2 − 𝑖
2 2

= 3−𝑖
Example 14
𝑍1 = 24 𝑐𝑜𝑠3000 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛3000 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑍2 = 8 𝑐𝑜𝑠750 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛750
𝑍1
Find 𝑍2

Solution
𝑍1 24
= cos 3000 − 750 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 3000 − 750
𝑍2 8
= 3 cos 2250 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛2250
− 2 2
=3 − 𝑖
2 2
−3 2 3 2
= − 𝑖
2 2
Exercise 3
Q2 find each product or quotient. Then write the result in rectangular form.
a) 3(𝑐𝑜𝑠30° + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛30° . 2(𝑐𝑜𝑠60° +𝑖𝑠ı𝑛 60° )
3𝜋 3𝜋 2𝜋 2𝜋
b)2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛 ÷ 2 (𝑐𝑜𝑠 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛 )
4 4 3 3
𝜋 𝜋 2𝜋 2𝜋
c)6 𝑐𝑜𝑠 6 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛 6 . 2(𝑐𝑜𝑠 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛 )
3 3
7𝜋 7𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
d)3 𝑐𝑜𝑠 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛 ÷ 6(𝑐𝑜𝑠 6 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛 6 )
6 6
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
e)3 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 4 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛 4 ÷ 2 (𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛 2 )
𝜋 𝜋
f)3 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜋 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜋 ÷ 2(𝑐𝑜𝑠 6 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛 6 )
3𝜋 3𝜋 4 𝜋 𝜋
g)8 𝑐𝑜𝑠 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛 ÷ (𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛 2 )
2 2 5

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5.7 De moivers theorem
Abraham Demoivre (1667 − 1754) was a mathematician. He worked the study of
probability, also worked extensively in number theory and finding power of a complex
number written in polar form. Which bears his name, in this lesson.

Proof
Let𝑍 = 𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑍 2 = 𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝜃 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 . 𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝜃 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑟 2 𝑐𝑜𝑛2𝜃 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃 we have seen in product of two complex numbers.
𝑍 3 = 𝑍 2 . 𝑍 = 𝑟 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃 . 𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
= 𝑟 3 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑛𝜃 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 + 𝑖 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
=𝑟 3 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝜃 + 𝜃 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝜃 + 𝜃
=𝑟 3 𝑐𝑜𝑠3𝜃 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛3𝜃
Similarly
𝑍 4 = 𝑟 4 𝑐𝑜𝑠4𝜃 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛4𝜃
Then:
𝑍 𝑛 = 𝑟 𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑟𝜃 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑛𝜃 , for n is any positive integer

5.8 Powers and Roots of Complex numbers.

Power and roots of complex numbers by using the De moivre‟s theorem
Example15:
𝑍 = 1−𝑖 find 𝑍 4 in
a) rectangular form b) polar form
Solution
a. rectangular
𝑍 4 = (1 − 𝑖)((1 − 𝑖)((1 − 𝑖)((1 − 𝑖)if we multiple
𝑍 2 = (1 − 𝑖)( 1 − 𝑖
= 1 − 1 − 2𝑖
= −2𝑖
𝑍4 = 𝑍2 . 𝑍2

242
 = (−2𝑖)(−2𝑖)
= −4
b. polar form
𝑟= (1)2 + (−1)2
𝑟= 2
1
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 =
2
2
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 =
2
𝜋
𝜃 = 4 in the 4𝑡𝑕 quadrant.
𝜋
𝜃 = 2𝜋 −
4
7𝜋
=
4
7𝜋 7𝜋
𝑍 = 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛
4 4
4 (4) 7𝜋 (4) 7𝜋
𝑍4 = 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛
4 4
𝑍 4 = 4 𝑐𝑜𝑠7𝜋 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛7𝜋
In rectangular from
𝑍 4 = 4 𝑐𝑜𝑠7𝜋 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛7𝜋
𝑍 4 = 4 −1 + 0
𝑍 4 = −4

Example 16
Let Z= (−2 + 2 3𝑖 ) find 𝑍 6 ?
Solution
Rectangular from is difficult because we multiple 6 times the complex number (−2 + 2 3𝑖 ).
We use in polar form

𝑟= (−2)2 + (2 3)2

𝑟 = 4 + 12
𝑟=4
−2 −1
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = =
4 2

243
 𝜋
𝜃 = 3 in second quadrant that means
𝜋
𝜃=𝜋−
3
2𝜋
𝜃=
3
The polar form is
2𝜋 2𝜋
𝑍 = 4 𝑐𝑜𝑠 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛
3 3
2𝜋 2𝜋
𝑍 6 = 46 𝑐𝑜𝑠 6. + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 6.
3 3
= 4096 cos 4𝜋 + 𝑖 sin⁡
(4𝜋)
= 4096 (1) + 𝑖 0
= 4096
Roots of a complex number

𝑛𝑡𝑕 Roots of a complex number for a positive integer n, the complex number
𝑍 = 𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃 has a exactly a distinct 𝑛𝑡𝑕 roots given by
1 𝜃 + 2𝜋𝑘 𝜃 + 2𝜋𝑘
𝑍 𝑛 = 𝑠𝑜𝑐 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛
𝑛 𝑛
Where 𝑘 = 0,1,2,3,4,5, … … … … … , , 𝑛 − 1

Example 1
Let 𝑍 = 2 − 2 3𝑖 find square root of Z?
Solution
𝑧 2 = 2 − 2 3𝑖In rectangular from
𝑍 = 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖
𝑍 2 = 𝑎2 − 𝑏 2 + 2𝑎𝑏𝑖
𝑎 − 𝑏 + 2𝑎𝑏𝑖 = 2 − 2 3𝑖Equationof complex number
𝑎2 − 𝑏 2 = 2 … … … … … … … (1)
2𝑎𝑏 = −2 3 … … … … … … . . (2)
Solving (b) in equation (2)
− 3
𝑏=
𝑎
Substitution the value of b in equation (1)

244
 2
− 3
𝑎2 − =2
𝑎

3
𝑎2 − =2
𝑎2
𝑎4 − 2𝑎2 − 3 = 0
𝑎2 + 1 𝑎2 − 3 = 0
𝑎2 + 1 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑎2 − 3 = 0
𝑎2 = −1 𝑜𝑟 𝑎2 = 3
𝑎 = −1 𝑜𝑟 𝑎 = ± 3
Since 𝑎 is real number we take 𝑎 = ± 3
− 3
When 𝑎 = 3 ⇉ 𝑏= =1
3

− 3
𝑎=− 3 ⇉ 𝑏= =1
− 3
The square of (𝑍 − 2 3𝑖) is
𝑍1 = 3 − 𝑖 𝑜𝑟 𝑍2 = − 3 + 𝑖
The simplest way is in a polar form.
The above Example find square root by using in polar form.
if 𝑍 = 2 − 2 3𝑖
1
𝑍2 = ?
2
𝑟= (2)2 + −2 3

= 4 + 12
=4
1 1 𝜃 + 2𝜋𝑘 𝜃 + 2𝜋𝑘
𝑍 2 = 𝑟 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛
2 2
𝑟= 4
=2
1
𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1
2
𝜋
= 3 Infourth quadrant.
𝜋
𝜃 = 2𝜋 −
3

245
 5𝜋
=
3
5𝜋 5𝜋
+ 2𝜋𝑘 + 2𝜋𝑘
𝑍 = 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 3
2 2

Where 𝑘 = 0 , 1
5𝜋 5𝜋 11𝜋 11𝜋
𝑍1 = 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑟 𝑍2 = 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛
6 6 6 6
3 1 1 3
=2 − + =2 − 𝑖
2 2 2 2

= − 3+𝑖 =1− 3𝑖
It‟s similar to the first.
Example 17:
Find the cube root of −8
Solution
𝑍 = −8 + 0𝑖
1
𝑍2 = ?
𝑟=8
𝑟3 = 8
⇉𝑟=2
−8
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = = −1
8
= cos −1
=𝜋
1 𝜋 + 2𝜋𝑘 𝜋 + 2𝜋𝑘
𝑍 3 = 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 + 𝑖 sin
3 3
Where 𝑘 = 0 , 1 ,2
𝜋 𝜋 5𝜋 5𝜋
𝑍1 = 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 + 𝑖 sin , 𝑍2 = 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜋 + 𝑖 sin 𝜋 , 𝑍3 = 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 + 𝑖 sin
3 3 3 3
= 1 + 3 = −2 = 1− 3𝑖
Exercise 4
𝑏 𝑐
1. if si and s2 roots of a quadratic equation ax2+bx+c=0 then s1+s2=− 𝑎 and s1.s2=𝑎 verify
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
that 4 2 (𝑐𝑜𝑠 4 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛 4 ) and 4 2 {(cos − 4 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛 − 4 } are the polar form of

the roots of 𝑥 2 − 8𝑥 + 32 = 0.

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2. Find each power Express the vesult is rectangular form.
8
a) 2 + 2𝑖
4
b) −1 + 𝑖
3
c) −2 − 2 3
d) ( 3 − 𝑖)7

3. Solve each quation then

a) 𝑥 3 + 1 = 0
b) 𝑥 3 + 8 = 0
c) 𝑥 3 − 8 = 0
4. find each power roots Express the form 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖.
4
a) − 3+𝑖
6
1 3
b) −2 + 2
4
c) −1 + 𝑖
8
1 3
d) −2 − 𝑖
2
4
e) cos 40 + 𝑖 sin 40
6
f) 1−𝑖
6
g) 3−𝑖
20
3+𝑖
h) − 2
8
i) 1−𝑖 3
3. Find the roots of Z. write the answer in form a+bi
a) Z3 = 8
b) Z4 = 1
c) Z4 = -16
d) Z5 = -i
e) Z6

247
 REFERENCE LISTS
Sandler, A.J. & Thorning, D.W.(2004).Understanding pure mathematics. Uk:Oxford

university press.

Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, Ministry of Education (2010). Mathematics student

textbook(grades). ADDIS ABABA, ETHIOPIA: Star educational books distributors‟

pvt. Ltd.

Urban. P, Owen. J. , Martin, D., Haese, R. Haese, S. & Bruce, M.(2004). Mathematics for

the international student Mathematics HL (Core). International Baccalaureate

Diploma Programme. Australia: Haese & Harris Publications

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