E&M Lecture 2

Find out:

• What actually IS ‘electric flux’?

• What happens if you stand in a metal cage then
zap the cage with electricity?
• Why can’t you get a phone signal in a lift?
• How does a Van De Graaff generator actually
accumulate charge?
• Why do you get sparking from a Van De Graaf

E.A.
generator?
• Can insulators conduct charge?
 Quiz
1 q1
1. Write the equation for electric field E = r̂
4⇡✏0 r2
2. If we place a charge inside a charged insulating shell will it feel a force and move? No

3. If we place a charge inside a charged conducting shell will it feel a force and move?
Yes (only after the electrons in the shell have moved)

4. Describe the meaning of electric field in words The force per unit (positive) charge at a specified point

5. Is electric field a scalar or vector? Vector

6. Do field lines point in the direction a positive or negative charge would go? Positive

7. In systems with net charge zero what can you say about the field lines?
All field lines will begin on a positive charge and end on a negative charge

8. How do you work out the total electric field from two charges? Add together (in vector form)

9. How do you work out the total electric field from a charged volume?
Work out the E-field from one tiny chunk of volume, then integrate.

10. If we have a volume V which has charge density ρ=ρ(x,y,z), what is the charge in dV? dq = ρ dV

11. If we have a wire in the x direction with charge density λ, what is the charge on dx? dq = λ dx
 Puzzle
Which direction is net E at
point P?

A. +x
B. -x The push to the right from the
top half of the wire is cancelled
C. +y by the push to the left from the
bottom half → x components
D. -y cancel
 Puzzle
Which direction is net E at
point P?

A. +x
B. -x The pull to the left from
the top half of the wire is
C. +y cancelled by the push to
the right from the bottom
D. -y half → x components
cancel
 Exercise
Exercise 2
A charge Q is uniformly distributed over a disk of radius R and axis Oz. Determine
the electric field at a point P on the z axis.

θ θ
d E
Ez

r
φ O Ex

Ez = |E| cos ✓
See Video
 Q
Charge density on disk: =
⇡R2
Charge on one ring: dq = 2⇡r dr
p
Distance of the ring from P: d = r2 + z 2
z z
And cos ✓ = = p
d r2 + z 2

Electric field at point P due to

one very thin ring:
2⇡r dr z z r dr
dEz = 2 2
p =
4⇡✏0 (r + z ) r2 + z 2 2✏0 (r2 + z 2 ) 32
Z R
z r dr z h iR
<latexit sha1_base64="7cPqw5lTcn7utgp9EZ5rBCOa93Y=">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</latexit>

1
2 2
Ez = 3 = (z + r ) 2

0 2✏0 (r + z ) 2
2 2 2✏0 0 See Video
 ✓ ◆
z 1 1
Putting in the limits gives us: Ez = p
2✏0 z z 2 + R2
Q
To put in terms of Q substitute in: =
⇡R2
✓ ◆
Qz 1 1
To give: Ez = p
2⇡✏0 R2 z z 2 + R2

Interesting limits: What do you think Ez will A. Zero

i) z >> R approximate to? B. A point charge
C. A plane
D. Something else

✓ ◆ 1
✓ ◆
1 1 1 R 2 2
1 1R 2
p = q = 1+ 2 ⇡ 1 + ...
z 2 + R2 z 1+ R2 z z z 2z 2
z2 See Video
 ✓ 2
◆
Q
<latexit sha1_base64="W0/FUcWwhQXspGB8FLc+dUwogjc=">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</latexit>

Qz 1 1 11R The same as for

Ez = + =
2⇡✏0 R2 z z z 2 z2 4⇡✏0 z 2 a point charge

iI) R >> z What do you think Ez A. Zero

will approximate to? B. A point charge
C. A plane
D. Something else
As z→0, the first term in Ez dominates:

✓ ◆
Qz 1 Q
Ez ⇡ =
2⇡✏0 R2 z ⇡R2

Ez = The same as for

2✏0 a charged plane
See Video
 Electric flux P
qenclosed
Remember – point charge: Electric flux =
Corresponds to the ✏0
1 q1 total number of field
E= 2
r̂ lines penetrating a
4⇡✏0 r
surface <latexit sha1_base64="PYEV/Ax6vrT0FsoTN7fCh2vwieo=">AAAB7nicdVDLSgNBEOyNrxhfUY9eBoPgKcwEMclBCIiQYwTzgGQJs5PZZMjsg5lZISz5CC8eFPHq93jzb5xNIqhoQUNR1U13lxdLoQ3GH05ubX1jcyu/XdjZ3ds/KB4edXSUKMbbLJKR6nlUcylC3jbCSN6LFaeBJ3nXm15nfveeKy2i8M7MYu4GdBwKXzBqrNQdtCbi6oYOiyVcxhgTQlBGSPUSW1Kv1yqkhkhmWZRghdaw+D4YRSwJeGiYpFr3CY6Nm1JlBJN8XhgkmseUTemY9y0NacC1my7OnaMzq4yQHylboUEL9ftESgOtZ4FnOwNqJvq3l4l/ef3E+DU3FWGcGB6y5SI/kchEKPsdjYTizMiZJZQpYW9FbEIVZcYmVLAhfH2K/iedSpngMrm9KDWaqzjycAKncA4EqtCAJrSgDQym8ABP8OzEzqPz4rwuW3POauYYfsB5+wT9oY9c</latexit>
= Ea
For a surface
E∝ No. of field lines per unit area perpendicular to E
ɸ∝ No. of field lines
n (Effectively
= E · n̂ a Reduces E to

Equate for Gauss’s law

<latexit sha1_base64="tVb0JYHUYyf91I9BI5UO1+riE7s=">AAACInicbVDLSsNAFJ3UV62vqks3g0VwVRIRfIBQEMFlBVuFppTJ5NYMnUzCzI1QQr7Fjb/ixoWirgQ/xukD8XVg4HDOfcw9QSqFQdd9d0ozs3PzC+XFytLyyupadX2jbZJMc2jxRCb6OmAGpFDQQoESrlMNLA4kXAWD05F/dQvaiERd4jCFbsxulOgLztBKveqR34wEPaF+pkLQoyn5WeHzMMFvih8xzFVRUB8joUzKOFDWq9bcujsG/SLeb1IjUzR71Vc/THgWg0IumTEdz02xmzONgksoKn5mwI4esBvoWKpYDKabj08s6I5VQtpPtH0K6Vj93pGz2JhhHNjKmGFkfnsj8T+vk2H/sJsLlWYIik8W9TNJMaGjvGgoNHCUQ0sY18L+lfKIacbRplqxIfw5+S9p79U9t+5d7Ncax9M4ymSLbJNd4pED0iDnpElahJM78kCeyLNz7zw6L87bpLTkTHs2yQ84H5/VdaUS</latexit>

give accurate Φ)
Z
= E · n̂ da
<latexit sha1_base64="D0IQprXZZdQI542vGhz1Z58KtQI=">AAACKXicbVDLSsNAFJ3UV62vqks3g0VwVRIRFEEoiOCyolWhKWUyuTVDJ5MwcyOUkN9x46+4UVDUrT/itBap1QMDh3PuY+4JUikMuu67U5qZnZtfKC9WlpZXVteq6xtXJsk0hxZPZKJvAmZACgUtFCjhJtXA4kDCddA/GfrXd6CNSNQlDlLoxOxWiZ7gDK3UrTb8ZiToMfWFwu6Fn6kQ9HBWflr4PExwQvEjhrkqCupjJJRJGQcasm615tbdEegP8aZJjYzR7Faf/TDhWQwKuWTGtD03xU7ONAouoaj4mQE7u89uoW2pYjGYTj66tKA7VglpL9H2KaQjdbIjZ7ExgziwlTHDyEx7Q/E/r51h77CTC5VmCIp/L+plkmJCh7HRUGjgKAeWMK6F/SvlEdOMow23YkP4c/JfcrVX99y6d75faxyN4yiTLbJNdolHDkiDnJEmaRFO7skjeSGvzoPz5Lw5H9+lJWfcs0l+wfn8AqJhqBU=</latexit>
S
Z
Define:
Make this neater:
[da = n̂ da] = E · da
S
 Test yourself
Person A explain to person B:

How do you get from electric field to electric flux when the electric field is
perpendicular to the surface?

<latexit sha1_base64="PYEV/Ax6vrT0FsoTN7fCh2vwieo=">AAAB7nicdVDLSgNBEOyNrxhfUY9eBoPgKcwEMclBCIiQYwTzgGQJs5PZZMjsg5lZISz5CC8eFPHq93jzb5xNIqhoQUNR1U13lxdLoQ3GH05ubX1jcyu/XdjZ3ds/KB4edXSUKMbbLJKR6nlUcylC3jbCSN6LFaeBJ3nXm15nfveeKy2i8M7MYu4GdBwKXzBqrNQdtCbi6oYOiyVcxhgTQlBGSPUSW1Kv1yqkhkhmWZRghdaw+D4YRSwJeGiYpFr3CY6Nm1JlBJN8XhgkmseUTemY9y0NacC1my7OnaMzq4yQHylboUEL9ftESgOtZ4FnOwNqJvq3l4l/ef3E+DU3FWGcGB6y5SI/kchEKPsdjYTizMiZJZQpYW9FbEIVZcYmVLAhfH2K/iedSpngMrm9KDWaqzjycAKncA4EqtCAJrSgDQym8ABP8OzEzqPz4rwuW3POauYYfsB5+wT9oY9c</latexit>
= Ea

Person B explain to person A:

Why do you have to make an amendment to the flux equation if the electric
field is not perpendicular to the surface?

You have to take the dot product of E and n otherwise you will calculate a
value for the flux which is too high
 Puzzle
What is the net flux through the surface?

+ -
(You count +1 for each line
going out, and -1 for each
line coming in)
A. 0
B. 1
A surface with net zero charge
C. 2-10 enclosed will have net zero flux
going through it.
D. 11-100
 Puzzle

Is the net flux through the surface…

Flux is not net zero

in this case

All the lines going from

the +2q to the -1q have
net zero flux.

Only the ‘spare’ flux

A. The same as if there lines contribute to the
was a single +1 charge net flux, as these only
go out – they don’t
B. Not the same as that come back in.
 Show Gauss’s law works
when E ⟂ to surface Z
Q internal
i.e. show net = E · da =
S ✏0
Symmetrical surface with charge at centre (special case – not a complete derivation):
da Z Z Z
E = E · da = E da = E da
net
R S S S
+ E is parallel to da at all E is constant at all
Q Net flux out points on surface so dot points on surface so
of the surface product results in just can be taken out of
the magnitudes integration
1 Q 2
E= 2
S.A. = 4⇡R
4⇡✏0 R
Z
1 Q 1 Q 2 Q
net = 2
da = 2
4⇡R =
4⇡✏0 R S 4⇡✏0 R ✏0
Detour: solid angle
Definition:

da
<latexit sha1_base64="Z0eAY8peMAhhhdHqmn7uGteWFKA=">AAACAHicbVDLSgMxFM3UV62vURcu3ASL4GpIq2OrIBTcuLOCfUCnlkwm04ZmHiQZoQyz8VfcuFDErZ/hzr8xfSBqPXDhcM693HuPG3MmFUKfRm5hcWl5Jb9aWFvf2Nwyt3eaMkoEoQ0S8Ui0XSwpZyFtKKY4bceC4sDltOUOL8d+654KyaLwVo1i2g1wP2Q+I1hpqWfuec51QPsYXji+wCT1cJaKu3LWM4vIQlX7uGJDZJXPkF1GsGShCb5JEcxQ75kfjheRJKChIhxL2SmhWHVTLBQjnGYFJ5E0xmSI+7SjaYgDKrvp5IEMHmrFg34kdIUKTtSfEykOpBwFru4MsBrIv95Y/M/rJMqvdlMWxomiIZku8hMOVQTHaUCPCUoUH2mCiWD6VkgGWAehdGYFHcLcy/OkWbZKp5Z9c1Ksnc/iyIN9cACOQAlUQA1cgTpoAAIy8AiewYvxYDwZr8bbtDVnzGZ2wS8Y71+sT5Z3</latexit>

A
<latexit sha1_base64="b5TEB9fbCpqJhLl9PcKgbBC8n+w=">AAAB/nicbVDLSgMxFM34rPVVFVdugkVwNWRGa6sgVNy4s4J9QFtLJs20oZnMkGSEMgz4K25cKOLW73Dn35g+ELUeuHA4517uvceLOFMaoU9rbn5hcWk5s5JdXVvf2MxtbddUGEtCqyTkoWx4WFHOBK1qpjltRJLiwOO07g0uR379nkrFQnGrhxFtB7gnmM8I1kbq5HZb1wHtYXje8iUmyUWayDs37eTyyEalwlGxAJHtnqKCi6BjozG+SR5MUenkPlrdkMQBFZpwrFTTQZFuJ1hqRjhNs61Y0QiTAe7RpqECB1S1k/H5KTwwShf6oTQlNByrPycSHCg1DDzTGWDdV3+9kfif14y1X2onTESxpoJMFvkxhzqEoyxgl0lKNB8agolk5lZI+tjkoE1iWRPCzMuzpObazolduDnOl8+mcWTAHtgHh8ABRVAGV6ACqoCABDyCZ/BiPVhP1qv1Nmmds6YzO+AXrPcv8RCVew==</latexit>

⌦= 2 or d⌦ = 2
r r
Z
<latexit sha1_base64="H0wb4A90Tr7DzqfpqUjejudDFlM=">AAAB/HicbVDLSgMxFM3UV62v0S7dBIvgasjUjq2CUHDjzgr2AZ2hZDJpG5p5kGSEMtRfceNCEbd+iDv/xvSBqPVA4HDOvdyT4yecSYXQp5FbWV1b38hvFra2d3b3zP2DloxTQWiTxDwWHR9LyllEm4opTjuJoDj0OW37o6up376nQrI4ulPjhHohHkSszwhWWuqZRZdFCgbuTUgHGF5WoJuwnllCFqo5p1UHIqt8jpwygraFZvgmJbBAo2d+uEFM0pBGinAsZddGifIyLBQjnE4KbippgskID2hX0wiHVHrZLPwEHmslgP1Y6KejzNSfGxkOpRyHvp4MsRrKv95U/M/rpqpf8zIWJamiEZkf6qccqhhOm4ABE5QoPtYEE8F0VkiGWGCidF8FXcLSl5dJq2zZZ5ZzWynVLxZ15MEhOAInwAZVUAfXoAGagIAxeATP4MV4MJ6MV+NtPpozFjtF8AvG+xdeVJPw</latexit>

d⌦ = 4⇡
Ie. total solid angle Ω in sphere = 4π
steradians (sr)
 But what if E NOT ⟂ to
surface?
da0 = da cos ✓
<latexit sha1_base64="e5zi4sT5nj4GhpgyhzKMLPr9sXw=">AAAB+3icbVDJSgNBEO2JW4zbGI9eGoPoKUzEDUEIePEYwSyQGUJNT0/SpGehu0YMQ37FiwdFvPoj3vwbZ5Igmvig4PFeFVX13FgKjZb1ZRSWlldW14rrpY3Nre0dc7fc0lGiGG+ySEaq44LmUoS8iQIl78SKQ+BK3naHN7nffuBKiyi8x1HMnQD6ofAFA8yknln24OjaA2qzSNs44AilnlmxqtYE9IfU5kmFzNDomZ+2F7Ek4CEyCVp3a1aMTgoKBZN8XLITzWNgQ+jzbkZDCLh20sntY3qYKR71I5VViHSi/p5IIdB6FLhZZwA40PNeLv7ndRP0L51UhHGCPGTTRX4iKUY0D4J6QnGGcpQRYEpkt1I2AAUMs7jyEBZeXiStk2rtvHp2d1qpX83iKJJ9ckCOSY1ckDq5JQ3SJIw8kifyQl6NsfFsvBnv09aCMZvZI39gfHwDrEyTjQ==</latexit>

da
<latexit sha1_base64="jnYM4hO4LV1X4kA3myJCoDqa7g8=">AAAB6nicbVBNS8NAEJ3Ur1q/qh69LBbBU0nELzwVvHisaG2hDWWy2bRLN5uwuxFK6U/w4kERr/4ib/4bN20RbX0w8Hhvhpl5QSq4Nq775RSWlldW14rrpY3Nre2d8u7eg04yRVmDJiJRrQA1E1yyhuFGsFaqGMaBYM1gcJ37zUemNE/kvRmmzI+xJ3nEKRor3YVY6pYrbtWdgPwQb55UYIZ6t/zZCROaxUwaKlDrtuemxh+hMpwKNi51Ms1SpAPssbalEmOm/dHk1DE5skpIokTZkoZM1N8TI4y1HsaB7YzR9PW8l4v/ee3MRJf+iMs0M0zS6aIoE8QkJP+bhFwxasTQEqSK21sJ7aNCamw6eQgLLy+Sh5Oqd149uz2t1K5mcRThAA7hGDy4gBrcQB0aQKEHT/ACr45wnp03533aWnBmM/vwB87HN7ddjWo=</latexit>

r
<latexit sha1_base64="WUbBZeBVhoFdUQ2DsAqiZNTJ73c=">AAAB6HicbVDJSgNBEK2JW4xb1KOXxiB4CjPihqeAF48JmAWSIfR0apI2PT1Dd48QhnyBFw+KePWTvPk3dhZEEx8UPN6roqpekAiujet+ObmV1bX1jfxmYWt7Z3evuH/Q0HGqGNZZLGLVCqhGwSXWDTcCW4lCGgUCm8HwduI3H1FpHst7M0rQj2hf8pAzaqxUU91iyS27U5Af4i2SEsxR7RY/O72YpRFKwwTVuu25ifEzqgxnAseFTqoxoWxI+9i2VNIItZ9NDx2TE6v0SBgrW9KQqfp7IqOR1qMosJ0RNQO96E3E/7x2asJrP+MySQ1KNlsUpoKYmEy+Jj2ukBkxsoQyxe2thA2ooszYbAo2hKWXl0njrOxdli9q56XKzTyOPBzBMZyCB1dQgTuoQh0YIDzBC7w6D86z8+a8z1pzznzmEP7A+fgG32eM+Q==</latexit>

r̂
<latexit sha1_base64="cxL2sETldXmMfJYMCgfv95baH+w=">AAAB/XicbVDLSsNAFJ34rPUVHzs3g0VwVVLxhauCG5cV7AOaUCaTm3boZBJmJkINwV9x40IRt/6HO//GSVtEWw8MHM65h3vn+AlnSjvOl7WwuLS8slpaK69vbG5t2zu7LRWnkkKTxjyWHZ8o4ExAUzPNoZNIIJHPoe0Prwu/fQ9SsVjc6VECXkT6goWMEm2knr3vpiIAWcQzd0B0JvO83LMrTtUZA/+Q2iypoCkaPfvTDWKaRiA05USpbs1JtJcRqRnlkJfdVEFC6JD0oWuoIBEoLxtfn+MjowQ4jKV5QuOx+juRkUipUeSbyYjogZr1CvE/r5vq8NLLmEhSDYJOFoUpxzrGRRU4YBKo5iNDCJXM3IrpgEhCtSmsKGHuy/OkdVKtnVfPbk8r9atpHSV0gA7RMaqhC1RHN6iBmoiiB/SEXtCr9Wg9W2/W+2R0wZpm9tAfWB/fFGKVnQ==</latexit>

E
<latexit sha1_base64="MdQLGqobatVE6qGeoEKTzJZwHSM=">AAAB9XicbVDLSsNAFL3xWeur6tJNsAiuSiK+cFUQwWUF+4A2lsnkph06mYSZiVJC/8ONC0Xc+i/u/BsnbRFtPTBwOOce7p3jJ5wp7Thf1sLi0vLKamGtuL6xubVd2tltqDiVFOs05rFs+UQhZwLrmmmOrUQiiXyOTX9wlfvNB5SKxeJODxP0ItITLGSUaCPdd1IRoMzD2fWo2C2VnYozhv1D3FlShilq3dJnJ4hpGqHQlBOl2q6TaC8jUjPKcVTspAoTQgekh21DBYlQedn46pF9aJTADmNpntD2WP2dyEik1DDyzWREdF/Nern4n9dOdXjhZUwkqUZBJ4vClNs6tvMK7IBJpJoPDSFUMnOrTftEEqpNUXkJc1+eJ43jintWOb09KVcvp3UUYB8O4AhcOIcq3EAN6kBBwhO8wKv1aD1bb9b7ZHTBmmb24A+sj29sDJJy</latexit>

d⌦
<latexit sha1_base64="emrzCox5qeFS20ksD+FklMeUtlc=">AAAB73icbVDLSgNBEOyNrxhfUY9eBoPgKeyKLzwFvHgzgnlAsoTZ2dlkyMzsOjMrhCU/4cWDIl79HW/+jbNJEE0saCiquunuChLOtHHdL6ewtLyyulZcL21sbm3vlHf3mjpOFaENEvNYtQOsKWeSNgwznLYTRbEIOG0Fw+vcbz1SpVks780oob7AfckiRrCxUjvs3grax6VeueJW3QnQD/HmSQVmqPfKn90wJqmg0hCOte54bmL8DCvDCKfjUjfVNMFkiPu0Y6nEgmo/m9w7RkdWCVEUK1vSoIn6eyLDQuuRCGynwGag571c/M/rpCa69DMmk9RQSaaLopQjE6P8eRQyRYnhI0swUczeisgAK0yMjSgPYeHlRdI8qXrn1bO700rtahZHEQ7gEI7BgwuowQ3UoQEEODzBC7w6D86z8+a8T1sLzmxmH/7A+fgGVx2PgA==</latexit>

Q ✓
<latexit sha1_base64="V3pUL8WRyFGV2rj+mOHWGfjhREI=">AAAB7nicbVDLSgNBEOyNrxhfUY9eBoPgKeyKLzwFvHiMYB6QLGF2MpsMmZ1dZnqFsOQjvHhQxKvf482/cTYJookFDUVVN91dQSKFQdf9cgorq2vrG8XN0tb2zu5eef+gaeJUM95gsYx1O6CGS6F4AwVK3k40p1EgeSsY3eZ+65FrI2L1gOOE+xEdKBEKRtFKrS4OOdJSr1xxq+4U5Id4i6QCc9R75c9uP2ZpxBUySY3peG6CfkY1Cib5pNRNDU8oG9EB71iqaMSNn03PnZATq/RJGGtbCslU/T2R0ciYcRTYzoji0Cx6ufif10kxvPYzoZIUuWKzRWEqCcYk/530heYM5dgSyrSwtxI2pJoytAnlISy9vEyaZ1Xvsnpxf16p3czjKMIRHMMpeHAFNbiDOjSAwQie4AVencR5dt6c91lrwZnPHMIfOB/f3MWPPw==</latexit>

n̂
<latexit sha1_base64="h6WHSGw2Hbp2jZl8CG5hqXjmYT0=">AAAB/XicbVDLSsNAFJ34rPUVHzs3g0VwVVLxhauCG5cV7AOaUCaTm3boZBJmJkINwV9x40IRt/6HO//GSVtEWw8MHM65h3vn+AlnSjvOl7WwuLS8slpaK69vbG5t2zu7LRWnkkKTxjyWHZ8o4ExAUzPNoZNIIJHPoe0Prwu/fQ9SsVjc6VECXkT6goWMEm2knr3vpiIAWcQzd0B0JvK83LMrTtUZA/+Q2iypoCkaPfvTDWKaRiA05USpbs1JtJcRqRnlkJfdVEFC6JD0oWuoIBEoLxtfn+MjowQ4jKV5QuOx+juRkUipUeSbyYjogZr1CvE/r5vq8NLLmEhSDYJOFoUpxzrGRRU4YBKo5iNDCJXM3IrpgEhCtSmsKGHuy/OkdVKtnVfPbk8r9atpHSV0gA7RMaqhC1RHN6iBmoiiB/SEXtCr9Wg9W2/W+2R0wZpm9tAfWB/fDkaVmQ==</latexit>

da
<latexit sha1_base64="nppVA2doOgAa8jcfi2azDn7vUZc=">AAAB+HicbVDLSsNAFL2pr1ofjbp0M1gEVyUVX7gquHFZwT6gDWUymbRDJ5MwD6GGfokbF4q49VPc+TdO2iLaemDgcM493DsnSDlT2vO+nMLK6tr6RnGztLW9s1t29/ZbKjGS0CZJeCI7AVaUM0GbmmlOO6mkOA44bQejm9xvP1CpWCLu9TilfowHgkWMYG2lvlsOe0aEVOb5DE9KfbfiVb0p0A+pLZIKzNHou5+9MCEmpkITjpXq1rxU+xmWmhFOJ6WeUTTFZIQHtGupwDFVfjY9fIKOrRKiKJH2CY2m6u9EhmOlxnFgJ2Osh2rRy8X/vK7R0ZWfMZEaTQWZLYoMRzpBeQsoZJISzceWYCKZvRWRIZaYaNtVXsLSl5dJ67Rau6ie351V6tfzOopwCEdwAjW4hDrcQgOaQMDAE7zAq/PoPDtvzvtstODMMwfwB87HN9B+ky0=</latexit>

0
da cos ✓ r̂ · n̂ da r̂ · da
<latexit sha1_base64="py+v6+XCBeaKFDxUU3rI2h5JfJw=">AAACAXicbVDLSsNAFJ3UV62vqBvBzWARXZWk+EIQCm7cWcE+oIllMpm0Q2eSMDMRSogbf8WNC0Xc+hfu/BsnbRFtPXDhcM693HuPFzMqlWV9GYW5+YXFpeJyaWV1bX3D3NxqyigRmDRwxCLR9pAkjIakoahipB0LgrjHSMsbXOZ+654ISaPwVg1j4nLUC2lAMVJa6po7vnPNSQ9dOIFAOPXRQZaKu2pW6pplq2KNAH+IPU3KYIJ61/x0/AgnnIQKMyRlx7Zi5aZIKIoZyUpOIkmM8AD1SEfTEHEi3XT0QQb3teLDIBK6QgVH6u+JFHEph9zTnRypvpz2cvE/r5Oo4MxNaRgnioR4vChIGFQRzOOAPhUEKzbUBGFB9a0Q95GOQunQ8hBmXp4lzWrFPqkc3xyVa+eTOIpgF+yBQ2CDU1ADV6AOGgCDB/AEXsCr8Wg8G2/G+7i1YExmtsEfGB/fsuuWZA==</latexit>

da
<latexit sha1_base64="dwa164TlWxKNuPmdR9/m4xFojmg=">AAACBHicbVDLSsNAFJ3UV62vqMtuBovgqiTFF4JQcOOygn1AE8tkMmmHTh7M3AgldOHGX3HjQhG3foQ7/8ZJW0RbD1w4nHMv997jJYIrsKwvo7C0vLK6VlwvbWxube+Yu3stFaeSsiaNRSw7HlFM8Ig1gYNgnUQyEnqCtb3hVe6375lUPI5uYZQwNyT9iAecEtBSzyxfOoEkNPMJdmisHBgwIONM3tXGpZ5ZsarWBPiH2POkgmZo9MxPx49pGrIIqCBKdW0rATcjEjgVbFxyUsUSQoekz7qaRiRkys0mT4zxoVZ8HMRSVwR4ov6eyEio1Cj0dGdIYKDmvVz8z+umEJy7GY+SFFhEp4uCVGCIcZ4I9rlkFMRIE0Il17diOiA6FNC55SEsvLxIWrWqfVo9uTmu1C9mcRRRGR2gI2SjM1RH16iBmoiiB/SEXtCr8Wg8G2/G+7S1YMxm9tEfGB/fWfOX5Q==</latexit> <latexit sha1_base64="fyKxvxDLErOkD/ayt8nnxvcwczY=">AAACMHicbVDLSsNAFJ34tr6qLt0MFsFVScUXgiC40KWCtYWmlsnkxg5OJmHmRighn+TGT9GNgiJu/QonbRFtPTBwOOc+5h4/kcKg6746E5NT0zOzc/OlhcWl5ZXy6tq1iVPNoc5jGeumzwxIoaCOAiU0Ew0s8iU0/LvTwm/cgzYiVlfYS6AdsVslQsEZWqlTPjv2Qs145qUqAF1Mybwuw0znuceDGOmooayBXaFMwjjQgOWZvtnJS51yxa26fdAfUhslFTLERaf85AUxTyNQyCUzplVzE2xnTKPgEvKSlxqwK+7YLbQsVSwC0876B+d0yyoBDWNtn0LaV393ZCwyphf5tjJi2DWjXiH+57VSDA/bmVBJiqD4YFGYSooxLdKjgdDAUfYsYVwL+1fKu8wGiDbjIoSxk8fJ9U61tl/du9ytnBwN45gjG2STbJMaOSAn5JxckDrh5IE8kzfy7jw6L86H8zkonXCGPevkD5yvbxkMrAE=</latexit> <latexit sha1_base64="tMZRbPNDQeFsLh2RHK7o8yy1LYc=">AAACH3icbVDLSgMxFM34rPVVdekmWARXZVq0iiAU3LisYB/QqSWTybShmcyQ3BHKMH/ixl9x40IRcde/MdMWqa0HLhzOuTe597iR4Bpse2ytrK6tb2zmtvLbO7t7+4WDw6YOY0VZg4YiVG2XaCa4ZA3gIFg7UowErmAtd3ib+a0npjQP5QOMItYNSF9yn1MCRuoVqjeOrwhNnFh6TGWvJM6AQKLS1KFeCNibc0ia4kQ9VtJ8r1C0S/YE+JeUF0kRzVDvFb4dL6RxwCRQQbTulO0IuglRwKlgad6JNYsIHZI+6xgqScB0N5ncl+JTo3jYD5UpCXiizk8kJNB6FLimMyAw0IteJv7ndWLwr7oJl1EMTNLpR34sMIQ4Cwt7XDEKYmQIoYqbXTEdEJMXmEizEJZOXibNSqlcLV3cnxdr17M4cugYnaAzVEaXqIbuUB01EEXP6BW9ow/rxXqzPq2vaeuKNZs5Qn9gjX8AJWKkPQ==</latexit>

d⌦ = 2 = 2
= 2
=
r r r r2
 Derivation of Gauss’s law
P
qenclosed
( i.e. show = )
✏0
Non-symmetrical surface with charge inside:
n̂
<latexit sha1_base64="h6WHSGw2Hbp2jZl8CG5hqXjmYT0=">AAAB/XicbVDLSsNAFJ34rPUVHzs3g0VwVVLxhauCG5cV7AOaUCaTm3boZBJmJkINwV9x40IRt/6HO//GSVtEWw8MHM65h3vn+AlnSjvOl7WwuLS8slpaK69vbG5t2zu7LRWnkkKTxjyWHZ8o4ExAUzPNoZNIIJHPoe0Prwu/fQ9SsVjc6VECXkT6goWMEm2knr3vpiIAWcQzd0B0JvK83LMrTtUZA/+Q2iypoCkaPfvTDWKaRiA05USpbs1JtJcRqRnlkJfdVEFC6JD0oWuoIBEoLxtfn+MjowQ4jKV5QuOx+juRkUipUeSbyYjogZr1CvE/r5vq8NLLmEhSDYJOFoUpxzrGRRU4YBKo5iNDCJXM3IrpgEhCtSmsKGHuy/OkdVKtnVfPbk8r9atpHSV0gA7RMaqhC1RHN6iBmoiiB/SEXtCr9Wg9W2/W+2R0wZpm9tAfWB/fDkaVmQ==</latexit>

<latexit sha1_base64="MdQLGqobatVE6qGeoEKTzJZwHSM=">AAAB9XicbVDLSsNAFL3xWeur6tJNsAiuSiK+cFUQwWUF+4A2lsnkph06mYSZiVJC/8ONC0Xc+i/u/BsnbRFtPTBwOOce7p3jJ5wp7Thf1sLi0vLKamGtuL6xubVd2tltqDiVFOs05rFs+UQhZwLrmmmOrUQiiXyOTX9wlfvNB5SKxeJODxP0ItITLGSUaCPdd1IRoMzD2fWo2C2VnYozhv1D3FlShilq3dJnJ4hpGqHQlBOl2q6TaC8jUjPKcVTspAoTQgekh21DBYlQedn46pF9aJTADmNpntD2WP2dyEik1DDyzWREdF/Nern4n9dOdXjhZUwkqUZBJ4vClNs6tvMK7IBJpJoPDSFUMnOrTftEEqpNUXkJc1+eJ43jintWOb09KVcvp3UUYB8O4AhcOIcq3EAN6kBBwhO8wKv1aD1bb9b7ZHTBmmb24A+sj29sDJJy</latexit>

E <latexit sha1_base64="5SkZAn3OYBKKFP+VAmHmlpCzud0=">AAACNnicbVDLSsNAFJ34tr6qLt0MFsFVScUXgiBIwY1Q0arQlDCZ3Nqhk0mYuRFKyFe58TvcdeNCEbd+gpNaxdeFgcM559479wSJFAZdd+CMjU9MTk3PzJbm5hcWl8rLK5cmTjWHJo9lrK8DZkAKBU0UKOE60cCiQMJV0Dsu9Ktb0EbE6gL7CbQjdqNER3CGlvLLp16jK/xMAeb0kHpCoX/upSoEXUzM6rnHwxgpDb+RLC99WusedoUyCeNAQ1byyxW36g6LfoHab1Aho2r45QcvjHkagUIumTGtmptgO2MaBZeQl7zUgB3eYzfQslCxCEw7G56d0w3LhLQTa/sU0iH7vSNjkTH9KLDOiGHX/NYK8j+tlWJnv50JlaQIin8s6qSSYkyLDGkoNHCUfQsY18L+lfIu04yjTboI4c/Jf8HlVrW2W905264cHYzimCFrZJ1skhrZI0fkhDRIk3ByRwbkiTw7986j8+K8fljHnFHPKvlRzts7RlysNA==</latexit>

Z Z
da
<latexit sha1_base64="jnYM4hO4LV1X4kA3myJCoDqa7g8=">AAAB6nicbVBNS8NAEJ3Ur1q/qh69LBbBU0nELzwVvHisaG2hDWWy2bRLN5uwuxFK6U/w4kERr/4ib/4bN20RbX0w8Hhvhpl5QSq4Nq775RSWlldW14rrpY3Nre2d8u7eg04yRVmDJiJRrQA1E1yyhuFGsFaqGMaBYM1gcJ37zUemNE/kvRmmzI+xJ3nEKRor3YVY6pYrbtWdgPwQb55UYIZ6t/zZCROaxUwaKlDrtuemxh+hMpwKNi51Ms1SpAPssbalEmOm/dHk1DE5skpIokTZkoZM1N8TI4y1HsaB7YzR9PW8l4v/ee3MRJf+iMs0M0zS6aIoE8QkJP+bhFwxasTQEqSK21sJ7aNCamw6eQgLLy+Sh5Oqd149uz2t1K5mcRThAA7hGDy4gBrcQB0aQKEHT/ACr45wnp03533aWnBmM/vwB87HN7ddjWo=</latexit>

✓
<latexit sha1_base64="V3pUL8WRyFGV2rj+mOHWGfjhREI=">AAAB7nicbVDLSgNBEOyNrxhfUY9eBoPgKeyKLzwFvHiMYB6QLGF2MpsMmZ1dZnqFsOQjvHhQxKvf482/cTYJookFDUVVN91dQSKFQdf9cgorq2vrG8XN0tb2zu5eef+gaeJUM95gsYx1O6CGS6F4AwVK3k40p1EgeSsY3eZ+65FrI2L1gOOE+xEdKBEKRtFKrS4OOdJSr1xxq+4U5Id4i6QCc9R75c9uP2ZpxBUySY3peG6CfkY1Cib5pNRNDU8oG9EB71iqaMSNn03PnZATq/RJGGtbCslU/T2R0ciYcRTYzoji0Cx6ufif10kxvPYzoZIUuWKzRWEqCcYk/530heYM5dgSyrSwtxI2pJoytAnlISy9vEyaZ1Xvsnpxf16p3czjKMIRHMMpeHAFNbiDOjSAwQie4AVencR5dt6c91lrwZnPHMIfOB/f3MWPPw==</latexit>

net = E · da = E da
S S
+
Q E is NOT parallel to da at
all points on surface so
can’t just remove dot
product
r̂ · da
<latexit sha1_base64="S0Sy5g4LjhbfItWE3PJtxOioxfs=">AAACJnicdZBNSxxBEIZ7NH5kjbqaYy6Ni5DTMitqgiAIXrzFQPYDdtalpqdmt7GnZ+iuEZZhfo0X/4oXD4qE3PJT0qMjrBILGl6et6q76w0zJS35/h9vYfHD0vLK6sfG2qf1jc3m1nbPprkR2BWpSs0gBItKauySJIWDzCAkocJ+eHla+f0rNFam+hfNMhwlMNEylgLIoXHzOAp+JDiB4yA2IIog1xGa6rIimAIVpiwDEaXEozkHyrIwF3slb4ybLb994FfF/bb/ImrSqUmL1XU+bt4HUSryBDUJBdYOO35GowIMSaGwbAS5xQzEJUxw6KSGBO2oeFqz5LuORDxOjTua+BOdnyggsXaWhK4zAZrat14F/+cNc4q/jwqps5xQi+eH4lxxSnmVGY+kQUFq5gQII91fuZiCy4tcslUIL5vy90Vvr905bB/83G+dHNVxrLIvbId9ZR32jZ2wM3bOukywa3bL7tmDd+PdeY/e7+fWBa+e+cxelff3H9nypzU=</latexit>

1 Q
<latexit sha1_base64="fJFwe3Yt3pbYsUul561HAKGBIaY=">AAACMnicdVDLSgMxFM34tr6qLt0Ei+CqzIgvBEEQQXctWBU6tWTSOzaYyQxJRigh3+TGLxFc6EIRt36EGTuCih4IHM65h5t7oowzpX3/0RsZHRufmJyarszMzs0vVBeXzlSaSwotmvJUXkREAWcCWpppDheZBJJEHM6j68PCP78BqVgqTvUgg05CrgSLGSXaSd3qSZiLHsgibo7sfhhLQk1gzWaYsRAyxbib8i0eGk1r5OWG/ZYJ+0QbaS2udKs1v77lF8B+3f8ipRKUSg2VaHSr92EvpXkCQlNOlGoHfqY7hkjNKAdbCXMFGaHX5ArajgqSgOqYz5MtXnNKD8epdE9o/Kl+TxiSKDVIIjeZEN1Xv71C/Mtr5zre7RgmslyDoMNFcc6xTnHRH+4xCVTzgSOESub+immfuHK0a7ko4etS/D8526gH2/Wt5mbtYK+sYwqtoFW0jgK0gw7QMWqgFqLoFj2gZ/Ti3XlP3qv3Nhwd8crMMvoB7/0DrnKsNg==</latexit>

E= r̂ d⌦ =
4⇡✏0 r2 r2
Z Z
1 r̂ · da 1
<latexit sha1_base64="8rj39KtIiIl66uE6xdhVo8hpdA8=">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</latexit>

<latexit sha1_base64="4rlQGSRC/OyS0N9NoBbxM3M41a0=">AAACC3icbVDLSsNAFJ3UV62vqEs3Q4vgqiRSHwhCwY3LFuwDmlAm00k7dDIZZiZCCdm78VfcuFDErT/gzr9x0hbR1gMXDufcy733BIJRpR3nyyqsrK6tbxQ3S1vbO7t79v5BW8WJxKSFYxbLboAUYZSTlqaaka6QBEUBI51gfJP7nXsiFY35nZ4I4kdoyGlIMdJG6tvla+iFEuHUzdIa9AT1iFCUGcvJmrBmhFLfrjhVZwr4Q9xFUgFzNPr2pzeIcRIRrjFDSvVcR2g/RVJTzEhW8hJFBMJjNCQ9QzmKiPLT6S8ZPDbKAIaxNMU1nKq/J1IUKTWJAtMZIT1Si14u/uf1Eh1e+inlItGE49miMGFQxzAPBg6oJFiziSEIS2puhXiETDTaxJeHsPTyMmmfVt3z6lmzVqlfzeMogiNQBifABRegDm5BA7QABg/gCbyAV+vRerberPdZa8GazxyCP7A+vgEUUJnK</latexit>

1 Q
<latexit sha1_base64="KSwIUEnRoMmmpHcFIWbbgFzEvcA=">AAACH3icbVBNS8NAEN3U7/pV9ehlsQieSiJaRRAEL96saLXQlLLZTtrFzSbsToQS+k+8+Fe8eFBEvPXfuKlFtPXBwOO9GWbmBYkUBl136BRmZufmFxaXissrq2vrpY3NWxOnmkOdxzLWjYAZkEJBHQVKaCQaWBRIuAvuz3P/7gG0EbG6wX4CrYh1lQgFZ2ildql6Sv1QM555g+yA+onwITFCWssdXPlCYfvax55QJmEcaMe/jKDLisV2qexW3BHoD/EmSZmMUWuXPv1OzNMIFHLJjGl6boKtjGkUXMKg6KcG7Ip71oWmpYpFYFrZ6L8B3bVKh4axtqWQjtTfExmLjOlHge2MGPbMpJeL/3nNFMPjViZUkiIo/r0oTCXFmOZh0Y7QwFH2LWFcC3sr5T1m40IbaR7C1MvT5Ha/4lUrh1cH5bOTcRyLZJvskD3ikSNyRi5IjdQJJ4/kmbySN+fJeXHenY/v1oIzntkif+AMvwADV6JQ</latexit>

net = Q 2
= Q d⌦ = Q4⇡ =
4⇡✏0 S r 4⇡✏0 S 4⇡✏0 ✏0
 + q3
Non-symmetrical surface containing multiple charges: +
X n q1
Can apply principle of +q
superposition to electric fields:
E= Ei 2

1
Z XZ
X qi Z rˆi · da
<latexit sha1_base64="cZqZAQ9k6rSZWZ0pDzn5zu2WUuI=">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</latexit>

<latexit sha1_base64="zIIikxfhzH4OF1yA6B7Hl2g5lrs=">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</latexit>

E · da = Ei · da = 2
S i S
i
4⇡✏ 0 S r i
X qi Z X qi
<latexit sha1_base64="f+Sh8uf2vruZUSFY+Mj7px+7leU=">AAACHnicbVDLSgMxFM34rPU16tJNsAiuylRaFUEouHFnRfuAThky6Z0ammTGJCOUoV/ixl9x40IRwZX+jekD8XUgcDjnXG7uCRPOtPG8D2dmdm5+YTG3lF9eWV1bdzc2GzpOFYU6jXmsWiHRwJmEumGGQytRQETIoRn2T0d+8xaUZrG8MoMEOoL0JIsYJcZKgVs5wb5ORcD8SBGa3QRsmJWxnzAfEs24jXhDn0kTXOKufy6gRwKWzwduwSt6Y+AvUvpNCmiKWuC++d2YpgKkoZxo3S55ielkRBlGOQzzfqohIbRPetC2VBIBupONzxviXat0cRQr+6TBY/X7REaE1gMR2qQg5lr/9kbif147NdFRJ2MySQ1IOlkUpRybGI+6wl2mgBo+sIRQxexfMb0mtidjGx2V8Ofkv6SxXywdFCsX5UL1eFpHDm2jHbSHSugQVdEZqqE6ougOPaAn9OzcO4/Oi/M6ic4405kt9APO+yekUaIj</latexit>

<latexit sha1_base64="6aOKSzM83rGBhMeraoUfAOmYKIw=">AAACCHicbVDLSsNAFL3xWesr6tKFg0VwVVLxhSAU3LisYB/QhDCZTtqhM0mcmQglZOnGX3HjQhG3foI7/8bpA9HWAxcO59zLvfcECWdKO86XNTe/sLi0XFgprq6tb2zaW9sNFaeS0DqJeSxbAVaUs4jWNdOcthJJsQg4bQb9q6HfvKdSsTi61YOEegJ3IxYygrWRfHvvErkqFT5Dbigxye58lmcuTRTjxnZy3y45ZWcE9EMq06QEE9R8+9PtxCQVNNKEY6XaFSfRXoalZoTTvOimiiaY9HGXtg2NsKDKy0aP5OjAKB0UxtJUpNFI/T2RYaHUQASmU2DdU9PeUPzPa6c6PPcyFiWpphEZLwpTjnSMhqmgDpOUaD4wBBPJzK2I9LAJRJvsiiaEmZdnSeOoXDktn9wcl6oXkzgKsAv7cAgVOIMqXEMN6kDgAZ7gBV6tR+vZerPex61z1mRmB/7A+vgG2eqZ4A==</latexit>

= d⌦i =
4⇡✏0 S i
✏0
i

Z
Qinternal
<latexit sha1_base64="aFr197ptlK0DH1Nq+n0wDgRWTpU=">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</latexit>

E · da =
S ✏0
 Using Gauss’s law
Z
Qinternal Valid for all surfaces and all charge
net = E · da = distributions (ie. doesn’t matter where
S ✏0 the charges are)

Independent of distance from

charge (R), and of surface shape

In the derivation we Not practical to Replace complicated surface

showed finding the solve problems with imaginary simple
flux by integration like this – maths ‘Gaussian surface’ (as flux
over a complicated too tricky through each is the same)
surface
flux
Z
1 Q 1 Q 2
net = da = 4⇡R
R
4⇡✏0 R2 S 4⇡✏0 R2
+
Have replaced some And also Q
So they cancel – surface
horrible area with 4πR2 here shape/size does not matter
 Test yourself
Person A explain to B:
Why Gauss’s law is valid for all surfaces and charge distributions (can
use diagrams we just drew to help explain)

The net flux through a surface doesn’t change with the surface shape
or with where the charges are placed inside the surface

Person B explain to A:
Why is Gauss’s law independent of the distance from the charge we
draw the imaginary Gaussian surface (R)

The same net number of flux lines go through the surface no matter how
far away we draw it (unlike electric field which decreases with distance)
 Consequences of Gauss’s Law

• In a solid conductor OR a hollow conductor (not containing other charges)

E=0 inside a Φ=0 through a Gauss’s law
Net Qinternal=0
conductor (at Gaussian surface
equilibrium) inside the conductor

• Solid or hollow conductor in an external field:

Charges move in They create an This exactly cancels
response to opposing electric the external field
external field field so E=0 inside.
E
- E
- -
- - -
- - - -
-
- - -
- -
Consequences of Gauss’s Law

- -
- -
-
- -
-
 Quiz
1. What is the difference between electric field and electric flux
in terms of field lines? E∝
No. of field lines per unit area, ɸ∝ No. of field lines

2. Is flux affected by the surface you draw around a

charge/charges? No
Z
Qinternal
3. Write down Gauss’s law net = E · da =
✏0
S

4. What is Gauss’s law used for? To find E from Qint or vice versa

5. Where do the free electrons go in a conductor at equilibrium?

To the outside edge
 Gauss – charged sphere
4 3
a) Uniformly charged solid sphere with charge density ρ and total charge: Q = ⇡a ⇢
r≥a
Gaussian 3
surface Gauss R.H.S:
Gauss L.H.S:
r
Z Z
2 Q
a net = E · da = E da = E 4⇡r =
S S ✏0
1 Q Charge inside Gaussian
E= 2
r≥a surface for r>a is always
4⇡✏0 r total charge, Q
r<a
Gauss L.H.S. same: Gauss
Z R.H.S:
r a
2
⇢ ⇢ 4 3
net = E 4⇡r = dV = ⇡r
V ✏0 ✏0 3
Gaussian ⇢r Charge inside Gaussian
surface E= r<a
3✏0 surface changes with r

See Video
 Gauss – charged sphere
b) Hollow sphere with negligible thickness, radius a, charge per unit area σ and
total charge Q

Gaussian
r≥a surface

r 1 Q Same as for a point

a E= r≥a charge or solid sphere
4⇡✏0 r2

r<a
Qinternal is zero so R.H.S. of
r a E=0 r<a Gauss’s law is zero, so there is
no net flux through Gaussian
surface
Gaussian
surface
See Video
 Gauss – charged line
Constant Negligible
charge thickness Gauss L.H.S.:
Z Z
per unit
+
length λ
+ net = E · da = E da = E2⇡rl
E S S

da For the cylinder ends So there is only net

l E·da=0 as Ecos(90)da=0 flux passing through
the sides of the
+ cylinder

Gauss R.H.S.:
Q l Equate R.H.S l
= and L.H.S. E2⇡rl = E=
✏0 ✏0 ✏0 2⇡✏0 r

Note: field is not affected by Note: the field falls off

the length l we have chosen as 1/distance from line
for the Gaussian surface See Video
 Gauss – charged plane
(Electric field comes
out of both ends of
the cylinder)
Gauss L.H.S.:
A
Z Z
+
+ + net = E · da = E da = E2⇡r2
E + E S S
+
+ + Gauss R.H.S.:
+
No 2 here as we are
Infinite plane
Q A ⇡r2 talking about the area of
= = the plane which is
Negligible thickness ✏0 ✏0 ✏0 enclosed by the cylinder
Charge per unit area σ (above we were talking
about the surface area of
Equate R.H.S the cylinder)
and L.H.S.
E=
2✏0

Note: field strength is constant – it does not

depend on the distance from the infinite sheet See Video
 Van de Graaff generator
1. Lower roller steals 2. -ve lower roller
electrons from the belt induces +ve
through friction charge in lower
(triboelectric effect) brush tips

3. Electric field between lower roller and lower brush

ionises the air in between making :

+ve ions (pulled up towards roller, some will attach to

insulating belt) .

–ve ions collected by discharge mesh and spread out

over discharge wand.
 Van de Graaff generator
Q. Why do we get sparking to the discharge wand?
Air is ionised by electric field, then as ions recombine with electrons they
release photons

Q. Why do the pieces of polystyrene in a plastic bowl shoot off, but not from the
metal bowl?
Plastic: +ve charges are conducted through the plastic – the pieces become all
positively charged and repel, shooting off.
Metal: electrons spread out in the bowl, cancelling any field inside the bowl
(conductors have no field inside). With no field the pieces gain no charge and
remain neutral.

Q. Why does only the outer pie tin fly off, and then the next outer pie tin etc.
rather than all at once?
All charges go to the outer edge of conductors - only the top pie tin is on the
‘outside’ and gains positive charge, and is then repelled from the dome. The
others are ‘inside’ the conductor and remain neutral.
 Gauss – differential form
z
Field at point A: E (with components Ex Ey Ez)
dz
dy
A dx B Field at point B:
x ✓ ◆
Ex
y Ex + dEx = Ex + dx
x
Net flux (change in flux) between two end surfaces:
✓ ◆
Ex Ex
Ex + dx dydz Ex dydz = dxdydz
x x
✓Total net flux (including the other
◆ two pairs of surfaces):
Ex Ey Ez Qint ⇢dxdydz
+ + dxdydz = =
x y z ✏0 ✏0
div E ⇢
(or net flux per r·E = Equate to Gauss R.H.S
unit volume) ✏0 See Video
 Puzzle

Is the charge enclosed positive,

negative, or zero?

We have a flux of magnitude 18 going in

A. Positive We have a flux of magnitude 15 going out
So we have net 3 going in.
B. Negative
Field lines go towards a negative charge, so
C. Zero there must be a negative charge in there.
 For next time
If you’re going to do two things:
• Read up until the end of section 2 in handout notes
• Attempt PST 1 Qs before going to your session
If you’re able to do more things:
• Make summary notes of this lecture
• Find out more about anything you weren’t 100% on
(HRW, YouTube, email me, come to my feedback +
consultation hours)
• Test yourself on the summary notes
If you want to ace the module:
• Read more about lecture 3 in Chapters 23 + 24 of HRW
• Do some more questions from HRW Chapter 23 or 24