15

Suggested time allotment: 5 hours

UNIT 2
PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS AND THEORIES IN
TRANSLATION

TARGET GOALS FOR THE UNIT

 Demonstrate understanding of the concepts by answering the questions in the
assessment section. (U); and
 Make a powerpoint presentation discussing the 10 translation problems with
their corresponding solutions. (Cr)

VALUES DESIRED: Obedience and Accuracy

Lesson 1. Translation Problems and Solutions

I. LEARNING OUTCOMES
* Enumerate some translation problems. (R)
* Explain each of the translation problems and its solution. (U)
* Share an experience wherein correct translation or mistranslation was
encountered. (Ap)

II. INPUT
Just as in every field, there are several translation problems in the translation
industry; some are faced by the translators, and some by the clients; while others may
be considered structural problems because they pose a problem for translation itself.
Below are some of the problems translators encounter during the translation
process. These problems as well are coupled with their respective possible solutions.

1. Structure of the Language

The structure of sentences in English and other languages may be different. This
is considered to be one of the main structural problems in translation.
The culture practiced by the speakers of each language may also be vastly
different. In many languages, certain terms may be completely absent. This is one of
the most common challenges faced by a translator on his/her daily translation activity.
Hence, this is also one of the main reasons why translation is difficult.
For example, in English the adjective is placed before the noun, but in French the
adjective comes after the noun. In Arabic and some other languages, the subject
pronoun is part of the verb, and that determines the subject gender and the voice of the
sentence.
Moreover, to pluralize most nouns in English, one just adds –s/-es at the end
part of the word (e.g. boy becomes boys, box becomes boxes, etc.), while in Indonesia
nouns are pluralized by repeating the word itself [e.g. urang (monkey) becomes urang-
urang (monkeys), sepatu (shoe) becomes sepatu-sepatu (shoes), bunga (flower)
becomes bunga-bunga (flowers), botol (bottle) becomes botol-botol (bottles), pohon
(tree) becomes pohon-pohon (trees), etc.]
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Therefore, the translator has to know the exact structure of each language, and
use the appropriate structure. They have to ensure that the translation is performed
without changing the meaning of the original text as well.

Solution: Limit your Expertise.

Gain expertise only in a couple of languages that you are already well-versed
with. Make use of grammar checkers, translation memory tools and other techniques to
ensure that you have maintained the structure in the target language without changing
the meaning or sense of the source document.

2. Cultural Differences
The culture practiced by the speakers of each language may also be vastly
different. Often, colloquialism is woven into formal language, making the translator’s
task very difficult indeed.
The larger the region where the language is spoken, the more the dialects there
are likely to be, and the more colloquial words you are likely to find – except in technical
documents translations, legal document translations, or translations of medical
transcripts.
For example, the British are famous for their dry, biting sarcasm, which is their
brand of humor. However, this kind of sarcasm may not be appreciated in not just a
country speaking a different language, but even another country where they speak
English.
Then the problem arises as to how to translate accurately without hurting
sentiments or angering the target audience. Culture is also considered to be a structural
translation problem.

Solution: Research and Investigate

Scan the internet to learn the most popular colloquialisms used in that language,
and familiarize yourself with the most commonly used dialects. This can give you a fair
idea when you need to translate.
Soak in the culture as much as you can through movies, TV shows, magazines
and books in that language. Movies and TV shows will be especially helpful in
recognizing local culture and dialects.

3. Compound Words
A compound word is a combination of two or three nouns and adjectives. They
could be closed of three forms – closed form, like notebook; hyphenated like long-
distance, or open form like fighter pilot. Some compound words are pretty
straightforward, and mean exactly what they say – like afternoon; some mean only half
of the term, like say bellboy, and some mean nothing of their original words – for
example deadline. In such cases, it can get very tricky for the translator. This is tricky
because such words cannot be translated word for word; otherwise it will change the
meaning of the word.

Examples:
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hotdog - You cannot translate this word in Bisaya/Cebuano

by
saying init iro. There is no such word as this in the
Cebuano language. Besides, hotdog has no exact
equivalent word in Cebuano.

deadline - You cannot translate this word in Cebuano by saying

patay linya.

In this case, you really have to study the language you want to use in your
translation. You have to strive in finding the equivalent words of those terms that you
want to translate. Sometimes, if those words (like hotdog) don’t really have the exact
equivalent in the target language that’s the time translators will use the borrowing
technique.

Solution: Focus your Knowledge

Any translator needs to choose their niche. You should not try to be jack of all
trades; select one or two subjects, and become expert in them.
Familiarize yourself with the compound words most commonly used in your
subject area, and learn the translations. Use translation memory and other software to
make your job easier.

4. Verbs Made up of Two Words

In English there are several verbs that are made up of two words – usually, a
combination of a verb and a preposition. For example: break up, break down, break
into, break in, break off, break apart, break away; these all mean different things, though
the common verb is break.
Here the preposition which follows immediately after the verb gives it a
completely different meaning. It is highly unlikely that translating the two words into the
target language will give you the same meaning!

Example:
break up - You cannot translate this word in Bisaya/Cebuano
by
saying buak sa taas. There is such expression as
this in Cebuano but the meaning is different from
the
original words. So, you have to find the appropriate
equivalent of the expression. You can say nagbulag
or ang panagbulag depending on how break up is
used in the source text.

Solution: Avoid Literal Translation

Think of finding an appropriate word in the target language for the phrase or the
verb in its entirety rather than attempting a literal translation.
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5. Missing Terms
Missing terms are very common translation issues. In some languages, certain
terms may be completely absent – this has also to do with culture, as those objects may
not be used by the people, or those actions or activities may not be permitted or simply
not performed.
This is a potentially difficult situation for the translator, and poses another
important structural problem worth of discussion. Let’s suppose the term child adoption
has no related word in another language, because such a thing just doesn’t take place
in that area!

Examples of words without equivalents in other language/s like Cebuano

1. airplane
2. satellite
3. hotdog
4. computer
5. cell phone, etc.

Solution: It is best to confer with the Client

In such cases it is best to confer with the client and then come to a decision as to
the best course to take. They may suggest retaining the word of the source document,
or they may suggest a new term themselves, or may even ask you to come up with a
newly coined term that gets as close to the actual meaning as possible.

6. Words With Several Meanings

There are several words in the English language that have different meanings
based on the way they are used in the sentence. Words are sometimes spelled alike
and pronounced alike, but have different meanings, like break (a plate) or take a coffee
break. Words that have the same spellings but different pronunciations like to lead a
conference, or a lead pencil.
There are also words that have different spelling but have the same
pronunciation, like break and brake, grate and great, and so on. There are hundreds of
such words in English, and also idioms, metaphors, similes and so on. However, those
words may be different in other languages.

More examples of words with the same spelling and pronunciation but with
different meanings:

1. drawer (a person who draws) - drawer (a part of a cabinet)

2. box (a container) - box (to punch)
3. can (a container) - can (a verb)
4. saw (a cutting device) - saw (a verb, past tense of see)
5. bark (exterior covering of a wood) - bark (a loud cry of a dog)

More examples of words with different pronunciation and meanings but with the
same spelling:
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1. bass (pronounced as bass; meaning a kind of fish)

bass (pronounced as base; meaning voice)

2. desert (pronounced as di zErt; meaning to abandon)

desert (pronounced as dI zert; meaning arid place/region)

Solution: Read very carefully

The translator has to be very vigilant, and must carefully read the source text to
fully grasp the meaning. Only after that should they begin the work of translation;
otherwise, it can lead to embarrassing mistakes, i.e., translation problem.

7. Lack of Technical Knowledge

Regarding technical knowledge, translators are first and foremost, linguists;
though they do have good knowledge of certain subjects, they are usually not the top
experts in the field. In fact, it’s very rare that you find a doctor, who is also an expert
linguist. Translators usually specialize in certain niches, and gain subject matter
expertise.
But sometimes that may not be enough for some types of specialized translation;
some documents may be full of technical jargon, or talk about specific procedures or
activities in detail. This can pose a problem for translators.

Solution: Ask experts for help

If the matter is very technical you may need a lot of time – more than usual, to
complete the task. You could contact the client for some pointers if you’re stuck, or
consult a local expert you know well, and ask them for help.
You would also need to read up and educate yourself to gain deeper knowledge,
or to keep in step with the new developments happening in that field.

8. Limited Time
Limited time is the most common problem that translators face every single day,
because most clients need the translated work quickly; they have no time to lose. If it is
a straightforward document, then you may be able to finish it within the deadline. But
when it is a technical or legal document full of technical terms or if there is a lot of
dialect and colloquialism involved, it could take longer.
This can be very stressful for you as a translator, when your client is breathing
down your back to get the translated documents.

Solution: Technology is your friend

Use as many technologies as you can – translation memory software, computer
aided translation software and more, to speed up the process as much as possible.
These are the 10 Online Translation Tools Recommended by Translators. Other than
that, the only thing you could do is put in a request for more time, right at the outset.

9. Personal Challenges
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Personal challenges, as opposed to linguistic challenges, are those that arise

because of the environment around the translator. All the challenges we discussed
above are linguistic challenges.
Apart from those, a translator faces several other challenges in their line of work.
These include but are not limited to: proper internet access, competition from other
translators, competition from machine translation, and the dilemma of pricing your
services appropriately.

Solution: Know yourself

There is no one- size-fits-all translation solution for these problems. Know
yourself, dissect the problems of translation that we stated in this article and face them
one by one.
For each one will need to figure out how to get around these problems and do your best
to minimize them. Remember that you can always ask someone for help!

10. Quality vs Expense

This is the most common translation problem faced by clients who need
translation services. The biggest challenge for the client when facing a translation is to
strike a balance between cost and quality. It is especially important in the case of
translations of technical or medical manuals, or legal documents. You can barely afford
to have any mistakes or near mistakes in such documents, as it could lead to
misinterpretation by the readers and wrong usage – and that could result in damage to
the equipment, or harm to the user; which could in turn have even further ramifications,
like loss of reputation for the manufacturer, legal hassles and so on. Ergo, you want a
very precise translation.
This could lead to serious translation problems, and solutions must be found
cautiously. However, the persons with expertise in such translations may be busy
professionals who are much sought after, and they may charge high rates for these
documents.
In certain cases, the person or company in need of the translation may not have
a very high budget for the same. This is a classic dilemma faced by the customer, so
make sure you know how to evaluate the quality of a work of translation.

Solution: Aim to be the Best Translator

There is no easy answer to this problem! Translating is a hard job, but remember
there are also a lot of benefits of being a translator. Here are some things you can try,
though: Do a comprehensive search online, and shortlist a few providers. Get quotes
from all of them and compare rates, experience and previous customer reviews. Strike a
balance between the two, and come to a decision. Another thing you could do is to use
the same provider for all your translation work, so that you have more bargaining power.

PRACTICE EXERCISE
Directions: Accomplish the given tasks. Do not include this part in the
submission of your assessment outputs.

1. What are the 10 translation problems that translators likely to encounter?

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2. Explain each of the translation problems and its solution.

3. Share an experience wherein correct translation or mistranslation was encountered.

Suggested time allotment: 5 hours

Lesson 2. Contemporary Translation Theories

I. LEARNING OUTCOMES
* Enumerate the six contemporary translation theories. (R)
* Explain each of the contemporary translation theory. (U)
* Compare sociolinguistic approach from the linguistic approach. (U)
* Compare communicative approach from hermeneutic approach. (U)

II. INPUT

6 Contemporary Translation Theories

The six main translation theories are: sociological, communicational,
hermeneutic, linguistic, literary and semiotic.

1. The Sociolinguistic Approach

According to the sociolinguistic approach to translation, the social context defines
what is and what is not translatable and what is or what is not acceptable through
selection, filtering and even censorship. According to this perspective, a translator is
necessarily be the product of his or her society: our own sociocultural background is
present in everything we translate. This approach was developed by the School of Tel
Aviv and by linguists and professors such as Annie Brisset, Itamar Even-Zohar, and
Gideon Toury.

Further explanation:
This approach means that as translators we have to be well-versed, and
well-educated of our own culture. How can we translate effectively a source text
written in a foreign language into our own language if we ourselves have not
mastered our native tongue? That is why others who really want to produce a
very satisfactory translation outcomes have to immerse themselves with their
own cultures.

2. The Communicative Approach

This theory is referred to as interpretive. Scholars Danica Seleskovitch and
Marianne Lederer developed what they called the “theory of sense,” based chiefly on
the experience of conference interpreting. According to this perspective, meaning must
be translated, not language. Language is nothing more than a vehicle for the message
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and can even be an obstacle to understanding. This explains why it is always better to
deverbalize (instead of transcoding) when we translate.

Further explanation:
This approach simply explains that in translation we have to consider the
“sense” or “gist” or “heart” of the source text before translating it into the target
language. In other words, we have to stick to the intended meaning of the source
text. Read the typical scenario below.

Mother (early in the morning shouted): “Hoy day! Naunsa man ka diha?!
Udto na! (Hey girl! What’s up?! It’s
already noon!)
Girl (still lying on her bed): Wakes up suddenly and fixes her bed.

In the above scenario, the second actor (Girl) suddenly wakes up when
she hears her mother shouting “Udto na!”. This is a very concrete example of
getting the meaning, the sense, the gist, or the heart of the message. The
expression “udto na” is far away different from the words “wake up” but because
the girl gets the message she is able to translate the source text (“udto na”)
appropriately into the intended meaning (which is really asking her to wake up).

3. The Hermeneutic Approach

The hermeneutic approach is mainly based on George Steiner’s research.
Steiner believed of any human communication as a translation. His book After Babel
shows that translation is not a science but rather an “exact art”: a true translator should
be capable of becoming a writer in order to capture what the author of the original text
“means to say.”

Further explanation:
Hermeneutics is actually the study of the methodological principles of
interpretation. According to this approach, every human communication needs
interpretation or translation for that communication to be understood by the
recipient. So, every day of our lives, we are doing translation or interpretation.
One reason why people do not respond to a message or
misinterpret/mistranslate a message is they are not familiar with the language
used or they are confused on the construction of the message.

Situations:

a) Communications such as “Nak, panghugas na ug plato (Son, wash the

dishes)”;
“Students, please study your lessons for our assessment tomorrow”; Guys,
magsuot po kayo ng face mask and face shield”, etc. are typical messages we
hear in our daily conversation. If you respond to these communications by
washing the dishes, studying your lessons and wearing your face mask and
face
shield, this means that you understand the language used or you are not
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confused of the construction of the message. Because of this, you are able to
translate/interpret the source text (messages) correctly and appropriately in an
action.

b) If a foreigner tells you this expression (i) aku mencintaimu or (ii) ich liebe dich
or (iii) Je vous aime and you cannot respond to him/her, it means that you do
not understand the language used. Because you are not able to give your
response, there is no translation/interpretation at all. All 3 expressions when
translated in English mean I love you (Indonesian, German, and French
respectively).

4. The Linguistic Approach

Linguists such as Vinay, Darbelnet, Austin, Vegliante, or Mounin, interested in
language text, structuralism, and pragmatics, also examined the process of translating.
From this perspective, any translation –whether it is a marketing translation, a medical
translation, a legal translation or another type of text– should be considered from the
point of view of its fundamental units, that is the word, the syntax, and the sentence.

Further explanation:
This approach explains that all translations conducted in business,
medicine, literature, research, etc. should always consider the function of
morphemes (letter and word), syntax (word structure/formation), and sentences
both in the source text and the target text. Consider the examples given below.

a) Morpheme
In English, when you pluralize a noun, all you need to do is to add an –s/-
es at the end part of the word. However, in Tagalog and Cebuano languages,
a noun is not added with –s/-es, instead another word which is mga is added
as a separate word right before the noun.

Example:
dog (singular)

English (plural) Tagalog/Cebuano (plural)

dogs mga aso/mga iro

When you translate this sentence The dogs are barking in Tagalog or
Cebuano, you do not say Ang asos ay tumatahol or Ang iros kay ning-usig,
adding –s at the end of the word aso and iro just to make them plural, but you
have to add another word which is mga to make the words aso and iro plural.
Therefore, if you translate the above mentioned sentence example this way,
Ang mga aso ay tumatahol or Ang mga iro kay ning-usig, then you are
correct.
Hence, based on the principle of the linguistic approach, if you want to
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translate a source text into another language you have to study the
morphemes
of both languages for you to be able to come up with a correct translation.

b) Syntax
In an English class, if your teacher asks you to determine the
grammatically
correct sentence from among the set…

1) the plants watered the boy (O – V – S)

2) watered the boy the plants (V – S – O)
3) watered the plants the boy (V – O – S)
4) the boy watered the plants (S – V – O)
5) the plants the boy watered (O – S – V)
6) the boy the plants watered (S – O – V)

(Note: S – stands for Subject; V – stands for Verb; O – stands for Object)

… your answer will obviously be No. 4 because it’s the only sentence that
follows the sentence structure (syntax), S – V – O pattern. However, if you
go to Japan and Ireland, the pattern S-V-O becomes unacceptable or
ungrammatical.

Japan – follows the pattern S – O – V. Therefore, the sentence The boy

the plants watered is correct.

Ireland – follows the pattern V – S – O. Therefore, the sentence Watered

the boy the plants is correct.

Philippines – follows the patterns S – V – O, V – O – S and V – S – O. If

the
sentence will be translated in Tagalog and Cebuano, the
following would be…

S – V – O – Ang bata ay nagdilig ng mga halaman.

S V O

V – O – S – Nagdilig ng mga halaman ang bata.

V O S

V – S – O – Nagdilig ang bata ng mga halaman.

V S O

So, as a translator, you have to be careful with the syntax of both

the source text and the target text, especially if you will be dealing with two
different languages.
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5. The Literary Approach

The literary approach does not consider that a translation is a linguistic endeavor
but instead a literary one. Language has an “energy” revealed through words that the
result of experiencing a culture. This charge is what gives it strength and ultimately,
meaning: this is what the translation-writer should translate.

Further explanation:
The literary approach believes that translation is not really the work of
linguistics but of literature. Literature always go hand in hand with culture.
Therefore, translation is best achieved when translators are immersed into the
culture where the source texts and the target texts come from.

6. The Semiotic Approach

Semiotics is the study of signs and signification. A meaning is the result of a
collaboration between a sign, an object, and an interpreter. Thus, from the perspective
of semiotics, translation is thought of as a way of interpreting texts in which
encyclopedic content varies and each sociocultural context is unique.

Further explanation:
The semiotic approach explains that communicative meaning can be
understood through signs, objects and interpreters. Consider the example below.

The figure presented above stands for the sign. This sign signals an object
which is not to allow any driver to park his vehicle where the sign is posted. The
interpreter is somebody who notices the sign, be he the driver or just a passer-
by. If a driver who sees the sign still parks his car near the sign, it means that
there is a misinterpretation or mistranslation of the sign. The reason could be the
driver does not know what the sign stands for or it could be that he knows it but
he just intentionally violates the caution.
Sometimes, misinterpretation/mistranslation of signs would lead to an
undesirable consequence. If the driver is caught by a traffic officer, he would be
asked to pay a penalty or worse his license would be confiscated.
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ASSESSMENT # 2
PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS AND THEORIES IN TRANSLATION

Name: ___________________________ Program/Year: ______________________

Subject: ___CLIT 108__ Student’s Contact Number: ___________
Name of the Instructor: Angelie L. Mamites

A. Directions: Fill in each blank with a correct information based on the topics under
Lesson 1.

1. The biggest___________ for the client when facing a translation

is________________
Between______________.

2. If it is a _________________, then you may be able to finish it

__________________.

3. In ______________, certain terms may be ________________.

4. They have ____________ that the translation is performed _____________ the

meaning of the ______________ as well.

5. ______________ is also considered to be a __________________.

6. This is a _________________ for the translator, and poses another important

__________________ worth of discussion.

7. There are __________________ that have ____________________ but have the

____________________.

8. ____________ usually specialize in _____________, and gain

_______________.

9. This could lead to ________________, and solutions must be ______________.

10. Familiarize yourself with the _________________ most commonly used in your
_______________, and _________________.

B. Directions: Each statement below describes the six contemporary translation

theories found in Lesson 2. Match those lettered descriptors with
those given statements by writing the letter on the space provided
before each item.

A – The Sociolinguistic Approach

 27

B – The Communicative Approach

C – The Hermeneutic Approach
D – The Linguistic Approach
E – The Literary Approach
F – The Semiotic Approach

_____ 1. the study of signs and signification

_____ 2. any human communication as a translation
_____ 3. an “energy” revealed through words
_____ 4. morphemic and syntactic structure
_____ 5. referred to as interpretive
_____ 6. collaboration of culture and literature
_____ 7. not language, but meaning to be translated
_____ 8. translator as the product of his own society
_____ 9. has to view translation from a language’s fundamental unit
_____ 10. confused on the construction of the message

C. Directions: Do the tasks below.

1. Explain in your own understanding the following problems in translation. Give 3

examples each. Do not copy the examples given above.

a) Structure of the language (5 pts.)

b) Cultural differences (5 pts.)

c) Compound words (5 pts.)

d) Verbs made up of two words (5 pts.)

e) Missing terms (5 pts.)

f) Words with several meanings (5 pts.)

2. Compare the following translation theories.

a) sociolinguistic approach from linguistic approach (5 pts.)

b) communicative approach from hermeneutic approach (5 pts.)

 28

c) literary approach from semiotic approach (5 pts.)

3. Make a powerpoint presentation discussing the 10 translation problems with their

corresponding solutions (25 pts.).

Rubric (Powerpoint Presentation)

Criteria Excellent Very Good Good Fair Poor

(5) (4) (3) (2) (1)
Projection All the texts in 1 line in the 2 lines in the 3 lines in the 4 or more lines
the ppt are slide was not slide were not slide were not in the slide
legible. The clear because clear because clear because were not clear
background the color of the the color of the the color of the because the
color contrasts background background background color of the
the color of the and the color and the color and the color background
text. of the text are of the text are of the text are and the color
not not not of the text are
contrasting. contrasting. contrasting. not
contrasting.
Completeness All the needed 1 important 2 important 3 important 4 or more
of the Details details were detail was details were details were important
presented. missing. missing. missing. details were
missing.
Presence of The The The The The
Interactive presentation presentation presentation presentation presentation
Activities was was interactive was was fairly was not
extensively to some extent moderately interactive interactive
interactive because of the interactive because of the because of the
because of the presence of 3 because of the presence of absence of
presence of 4 activities that presence of 2 only one activities.
or more encouraged activities that activity that
activities that students to encouraged encouraged
encouraged participate. students to only few
students to participate. students to
participate. participate.
Absence of All the 1 information 2 pieces of 3 pieces of 4 or more
Errors information or detail was information or information or pieces of
and details are incorrectly details were details were information or
presented presented. incorrectly incorrectly details were
correctly. presented. presented. incorrectly
presented.
Originality of The output 1 detail in the 2 details in the 3 details in the 4 or more
the Work including its output was output were output were details in the
content was copied from a copied from copied from output were
personally source. different different copied from
made by the sources. sources. different
student. sources.

4. Write a reflection paper expressing the lessons/insights you learned from this lesson
(10 pts.).