Block – 4 (Current & Static Electricity) Total No.

of Lectures: 9

Applicable Syllabus

UNIT. COGNITIVE
SPECIFIC LEARNING OBJECTIVES (TOPICS)
NO. LEVEL

4 Current and Static Electricity

4.1 Define electric current, emf, potential difference etc. K

4.2 Define Ohm’s law its application & limitations. K

4.3 State and Explain Kirchhoff’s Current Law and Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law. K

4.4 Explain static electricity and state its hazards. U

Explain the heating effect of electric current and its applications

4.5 U
(geysers, electric bulbs etc).
Explain self and mutual induction, series and parallel combination of
4.6 U
inductors (no derivations).

Cognitive Levels: K – Knowledge; U – Understanding; Ap – Application

Introduction:
Current Electricity:
• Definition: Rate of flow of electrons in a conductor. The SI Unit of electric current is the Ampere.
• Cause: Created by a potential difference (voltage) between two points.
• Circuit: Requires a closed loop or circuit, which includes a power source (like a battery) and a
conductive path.
• Effects: Produces heat, light, magnetic fields, and mechanical work.
• Applications: Powering electronic devices, lighting, and motors.
• Types:
o Direct Current (DC): Flows in one direction (e.g., from batteries).
o Alternating Current (AC): Changes direction periodically (e.g., household electricity).

Static Electricity:
• Definition: It is the build-up of electric charge on the surface of an object due to friction, resulting
in an imbalance of positive and negative charges.
• Characteristics: The charges remain at rest until they are discharged, usually through contact
with a conductor.
• Formation: This occurs when two materials come into contact and electrons are transferred from
one to the other, creating a charge imbalance.
• Effects: Can cause sparks or shocks when discharged (e.g., rubbing a balloon on hair or touching
a metal doorknob).
• Applications: Photocopiers, air filters, and paint sprayers use static electricity for operation.
Block – 4 (Current & Static Electricity) Total No. of Lectures: 9

Some Important Definitions:

1. Electric Current: The flow of electric charges through a conductor constitutes an electric
current.
The electric current in a conductor across an area held perpendicular to the direction of the flow
of charges is defined as the amount of charge flowing across that area per unit of time.
𝑑𝑞
I= 𝑆𝐼 𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡: 𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒 (𝐴)
𝑑𝑡
2. Electric Potential: Potential at any point in an electric field is defined as the amount of work
done in bringing a unit positive charge from infinity to that point against the electrostatic force.
𝑆𝐼 𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙: 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡 (𝑉)
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝐷𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑊
Electric Potential = OR V=
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑄
3. Potential Difference: The difference in the Electric potential between two points in an electric
field is known as the potential difference.
The potential difference between two points in an electric circuit is defined as the amount of work
done in moving a unit charge from one point to another. Potential difference is commonly called
Voltage. 𝑆𝐼 𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡: 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 (𝑉)
V = VA - VB
4. Electromotive Force 𝜺 (EMF): The potential difference between two terminals of a cell in an
open circuit (means when no current is drawn from the cell), is called emf of the cell. Due to its
emf, a cell drives the charge around the circuit.
For a closed circuit, emf is defined as energy supplied by the cell to drive a unit charge around
the complete circuit. 𝑆𝐼 𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡: 𝐽/𝐶 𝑜𝑟 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡 (𝑉)
𝑊
𝜀= 𝑄
Note: The word ‘force’ in electromotive force is a misnomer. Emf is not at all a force. It is the
energy supplied by the cell to drive charges around the circuit.
5. Magnetomotive force (MMF): It is defined as the work done in moving a unit magnetic pole
once around the magnetic circuit. It is a magnetic pressure that tends to set up magnetic flux in a
magnetic circuit.
Mathematically, the mmf is the product of the current and the number of turns of a coil.
MMF = 𝑁𝐼 SI Unit of MMF = Ampere − Turns (or AT)
6. Electric Energy: The total work done (or Energy supplied) by the source of emf in maintaining
the electric current in the circuit for a given time is called Electrical Energy consumed in the circuit.
7. Electric Power: The rate at which work is done by the source of emf in maintaining the electric
current in a circuit is called the Electric power of the circuit.
𝑊
P= = V*I = I2R 𝑆𝐼 𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡: J/𝑠 𝑜𝑟 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡 (𝑊)
𝑡
8. Practical Units of Electrical Energy: The SI Unit of electrical Energy is Joule. But another
unit called Watt-hour is commonly used.
As 𝑊 = 𝑃 × 𝑡, that is; 𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 × 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
1 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡−ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟 = 1 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡 × 1 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟
9. Definition of 1 Wh: Energy dissipated or consumed in an electric circuit is called 1Wh if a
device of electric power of 1 Watt is used for 1 hour.
10. Commercial Unit of Electrical Energy: kWh (or 1 unit):
The energy dissipated or consumed in an electric circuit is called 1𝑘𝑊ℎ if a device of electric
power of 1 𝑘𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡 is used for 1 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟.
𝑘𝑊ℎ is the ‘𝒖𝒏𝒊𝒕’ of electrical energy for which we pay to the electricity supply department.
Block – 4 (Current & Static Electricity) Total No. of Lectures: 9

OHM’S LAW:
A basic law regarding the flow of currents was discovered by G.S. Ohm in 1828, long before the physical
mechanism responsible for the flow of currents was discovered. Imagine a conductor through which a
current I is flowing and let V be the potential difference between the ends of the conductor.
Then Ohm’s law states that, 𝑉∝𝐼 𝑜𝑟 𝑉 = 𝑅𝐼

Then Ohm’s law states that, 𝑉∝𝐼

𝑜𝑟 𝑉 = 𝑅𝐼
where the constant of proportionality 𝑅 is called the
resistance of the conductor. The SI unit of resistance is
ohm and is denoted by the symbol Ω.
The resistance R not only depends on the material of the
conductor but also on the dimensions of the conductor.

APPLICATIONS OF OHM’S LAW:

i. Ohm’s Law statement is experimentally derived. It has several applications in all linear electrical
and electronic circuits.
ii. Ohm’s law is useful in calculating the resistance by simply knowing the values of current and
voltage, or by knowing any two parameters one can get the third one in a circuit.
iii. Ohm’s Law makes power calculation a lot simpler. For example, when we know the value of the
resistance for a particular circuit element, we need not know both the current and the voltage to
calculate the power dissipation.
P=VXI = I2R = V2/R
LIMITATIONS OF OHM’S LAW:
i. Ohm’s law is not applicable to non-metallic conductors.
V ceases to be proportional to I (Refer given figure)
The dashed line represents the linear Ohm’s law. The
solid line is the voltage V versus current I for a good
conductor.
Example: For silicon carbide, the relationship is given by
V = k * In,
where k and n are constants. This relation is not linear.
ii. Ohm’s law cannot be applied to unilateral networks.

A unilateral network has unilateral elements like

diodes, transistors, etc., which do not have the
same voltage-current relation for both directions
of current.
The relation between V and I depends on the
sign of V. if I is the current for a certain V, then
reversing the direction of V keeping its
magnitude fixed, does not produce a current of
the same magnitude as I in the opposite
direction. (Below Fig.). This happens, for
example, in a diode.
Block – 4 (Current & Static Electricity) Total No. of Lectures: 9

iii. The relation between V and I is not unique.

Figure: Variation of current versus voltage for
GaAs.
There is more than one value of V for the same
current I (Below fig.). A material exhibiting such
behaviour is GaAs.
Materials and devices not obeying Ohm’s law in
the form of 𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅 are widely used in electronic
circuits.

Few more limitations:

i. Ohm’s law is valid only if the physical conditions like temperature and pressure remain
constant.
ii. Since the resistance also depends on the length and area of the cross-section of the conductor,
for the application of Ohm’s law the dimensions of the conductor should remain constant.
iii. Ohm's law is also not applicable to non–linear elements. Non-linear elements are those which
do not have current exactly proportional to the applied voltage, which means the resistance value
of those elements changes for different values of voltage and current. Examples of non–linear
elements are thyristors, electric arcs, etc.

Kirchhoff's Law:
Gustav Robert Kirchhoff, a German physicist, was born
on March 12, 1824, in Konigsberg, Prussia. His first
research topic was the conduction of electricity. This
research led to Kirchhoff formulating the Laws of Closed
Electric Circuits in 1845.
These laws were eventually named after Kirchhoff and
are now known as Kirchhoff’s Voltage and Current Laws.
Since these laws apply to all electric circuits,
understanding their fundamentals is paramount in
understanding how an electronic circuit functions.
Although these laws have immortalised Kirchhoff in
Electrical Engineering, he has additional discoveries.
He was the first person to verify that an electrical impulse
travelled at the speed of light. Furthermore, Kirchhoff
made a major contribution to the study of spectroscopy,
and he advanced the research into blackbody radiation.
Gustav Robert Kirchhoff
Awards:
Born: 12 March 1824
• Rumford Medal (1862),
• Davy Medal (1877), Died: 17 October 1887
• Matteucci Medal (1877),
• Janssen Medal (1887)
Block – 4 (Current & Static Electricity) Total No. of Lectures: 9

Kirchhoff's Laws quantify how current flows through a circuit and how voltage varies around a
loop in a circuit. By using this law, we can solve a typical circuit.
Kirchhoff's Current Law (KCL): 1st Law is based on the conservation of electric charges.
KCL states that in any network of conductors, the algebraic sum of currents meeting at a point (node/
junction) is zero
OR
The total current entering a junction equals the total current leaving the junction.

“n” is the total no of branches

with currents flowing towards
or away from the node.

Kirchhoff's Voltage Law (KVL): 2nd Law is based on conservation of energy.

KVL states that the algebraic sum of all I*R drops and EMFs in any closed loop (or mesh) of a network
is zero.
It is essential to maintain the direction throughout the loop either in
OR, ∑ 𝑰𝑹 = ∑ 𝑬𝑴𝑭 = 𝟎 the clockwise direction or anticlockwise direction.

Nodes, Branches and Loops:

A network is an interconnection of elements or devices, circuit is a network providing one or more closed
paths.

• A Branch represents a single element such as a voltage source or a resistor.

• A node/junction is the point of connection between two or more branches (circuit element).
• A Loop is any closed path in a circuit.
A network with ‘b’ branches, ‘l’ loops and ‘n’ nodes/ junction should satisfy the theorem of n/w topology.
b=l+n–1
Block – 4 (Current & Static Electricity) Total No. of Lectures: 9

Determination of Algebraic Sum:

A rise (or increase) in voltage would be considered positive and given a +ve sign and a fall (or decrease)
in voltage would be considered negative and hence given a -ve sign.
Let us see how we will apply this convention
(i) Firstly, to battery EMFs or voltage sources
(ii) Secondly, IR drops across various branch resistors.

Battery EMF:
While going ground loop (in a direction of our own choice) if we go from the negative terminal of a
battery to its positive terminal, there is a rise in potential, hence this EMF should be given a positive
sign. If, on the other hand, we go from its positive terminal to its negative terminal, there is a fall in
potential, hence this battery emf should be given a negative sign.
It is important to note that the algebraic sign of battery EMF is independent of the direction of current
flow (whether clockwise or anticlockwise) through the branch to which the battery is connected.

IR drops on Resistors:
If we go through a register in the same direction as its current, then there is a fall or decrease in
potential for the simple reason that the current always flows from a higher to a lower potential. Hence,
this IR drop should be taken -v. However, if we go around the loop in a direction opposite to that of
the current, i.e. if we go upstream, there is a rise in voltage. Hence, this IR drop should be taken as
positive.
It is clear from above that the algebraic sign of IR drop across a resistor depends on the direction of
the current that resistor.

Example:
Consider the closed-loop ABCDA of the given figure.
Starting from point A if we go around this mesh in a clockwise direction, then different EMFs and IR drops
will have the following values and signs:

I1R1 is -ve (fall in potential)

I2R2 is +ve (rise in potential)
E2 is -ve (fall in potential)
I3R3 is -ve (fall in potential)
E1 is +ve (rise in potential)
I4R4 is -ve (fall in potential)

Hence, according to KVL,

-I1R1 + I2R2 – E2 – I3R3 + E1 – I4R4 = 0
➔ E1 – E2 = I1R1 - I2R2 + I3R3 + I4R4
Block – 4 (Current & Static Electricity) Total No. of Lectures: 9

Numerical based on Kirchoff’s Law:

Example 1:

If R1 = 2Ω, R2 = 4Ω & R3 = 6Ω,

determine the electric current
that flows in the given circuit.

Based on assumed direction, E1 - I R2 - I R3 – E2 – I R1 = 0

 10V – 5V = I R2 + I R3 + I R1
 5 = 12 I
 I = 5/12 = 0.416 Amp

Example 2:

Calculate the values of current

(I) –

I1, i2, and i3

By applying Kirchoff’s 1st law; I3 = I1 + I2 after applying this value in loops 1, 2 and 3 we will get;

From loop 1: From loop 2: From loop 3:

V1 – I1 R1 – I3 R3 = 0 V2 – I2 R2 – I3 R3 = 0 V1 – I1 R1 + I2 R2 – V2= 0
➔10 = 10 I1 + 40 I3 ➔20 = 20 I2 + 40 I3 ➔- 10 = 10 I1 - 20 I2
➔ 1 = I1 + 4 I3 ➔1 = I2 + 2 I3 ➔ 1 = - I1 + 2 I2
➔ 1 = I1 + 4 (I1 + I2) ➔ 1 = I2 + 2 (I1 + I2)
➔ 1 = 5 I1 + 4 I2 ➔ 1 = 2 I1 + 3 I2
𝟏
After solving the final equation from loops 1 & 2 we will get; 𝑰𝟏 = − 𝑰𝟐
𝟑
➔ I1 = 0.143 A; ➔ I2 = 0.429 A; ➔ I3 = 0.286 A
Block – 4 (Current & Static Electricity) Total No. of Lectures: 9

Example 3:

Using Kirchoff’s laws, calculate the

branch currents in the given
network.
Find I1 and I2

(i) Loop ABEFA

Starting from point A and going clockwise around the loop, we have
➔ - 4 I1 – 8 (I1 + I2) + 12 = 0
➔ 3 I1 + 2 I2 = 3 ----------------------------------------- (i)
(ii) Loop BCDEB
Starting from point B and again going clockwise around the loop, we get
➔ 2 I2 – 10 + 8 (I1 + I2) = 0
➔ 4 I1 + 5 I2 = 5 ----------------------------------------- (ii)
After solving equations (i) and (ii), we will get; I1 = 5/7 A and I2 = 3/7 A
Example 4:

If R1 = 2Ω, R2 = 4Ω, and R3 = 6Ω,

determine the electric current flows in
the circuit below.

Using Kirchoff’s Voltage Law (in the clockwise direction):

➔ – I R1 + E1 – I R2 – I R3 – E2 = 0 ➔ – 2I + 9 – 4I – 6I – 3 = 0
➔ – 12I = – 6 ➔ I = 0.5 A

Example 5:
Using KVL in the clockwise
Determine the direction:
electric current ➔ – 20 – 5I – 5I – 12 – 10 I = 0

that flows in ➔ – 20 I = 32 ➔ I = – 32/ 20

the circuit as ➔ I = – 1.6 A

shown in the Since the answer is negative,
it means that the direction of
given figure.
the current is anticlockwise.
Block – 4 (Current & Static Electricity) Total No. of Lectures: 9

Example 6:

An electric circuit consists of four resistors, R1 = 12

Ohm, R2 = 12 Ohm, R3 = 3 Ohm and R4 = 6 Ohm, and
are connected with a source of emf E1 = 6 Volt, E2 =
12 Volt.
Determine the electric current flows in the circuit as
shown in the given figure.

As, the resistance R1 & R2 are connected in parallel, their equivalent resistance (R12) = 6 Ω
The given direction of the current is as same as our assumption (clockwise):
➔ – I R12 – E1 – I R3 – I R4 + E2 = 0 ➔ – 6 I – 6 – 3 I – 6 I + 12 = 0 ➔ I = 2/5 A

Example 7:

Calculate the current that flows in the

1 Ω resistor in the following circuit.

Loop AEFDA – Let, Clockwise Dirn. Loop EBCFE – Let, anticlockwise Dirn.
➔ – 6 – I2 + 3 (I1 – I2) = 0 ➔ – I2 – 3 I 1 + 9 – 2 I 1 = 0
➔ 3 I 1 – 3 I 2 – I2 = 6 ➔ – I2 – 5 I 1 = – 9
➔ 3 I 1 – 4 I2 = 6 ------------------ (i) ➔ 5 I1 + I2 = 9 ------------------- (ii)

After solving equations (i) and (ii), I1 = 1.83 A and, I2 = – 0.13 A

The negative sign implies that the current in the 1 Ω resistor flows from F to E.

Example 8:
Block – 4 (Current & Static Electricity) Total No. of Lectures: 9

From the above circuit diagram.

➔ 6 I + 3 (I + I2) = E ➔ 9 I + 3 I2 = E
➔ 3 (3 – I) + 6 (3 – I – I2) = E ➔ 27 – 9 I – 6 I2 = E ------------------ (i)

Apply KVL in loop ACDA in the clockwise direction:

➔ - 6 I + 3 (3 – I) = 0 ➔I=1A ----------- (ii)
Apply KVL in loop CBDC in the clockwise direction:
➔ - 3 (I + I2) + 6 (3 – I – I2) = 0 ➔ I2 = 1 A ----------- (iii)

Apply the value of I and I2 in the equation 1, ➔ E = 12 V

Example 9:

Find the current flowing

through 1 Ω resistance by
using Kirchhoff’s voltage law /
Mesh analysis.

Loop APQDA – Let, Clockwise Dirn. Loop PBCQP – Let, Clockwise Dirn.

➔ – 0.2 I1 – 0.2 (I1 – I2) – 110 + 130 = 0 ➔ – 0.2 I2 – I2 + 110 + 0.2 (I1 – I2) = 0

➔ – 0.2 I1 – 0.2 I1 + 0.2 I2 = 20 ➔ 0.2 I1 – 1.4 I2 = – 110 ------------------ (ii)

➔ – 0.4 I1 + 0.2 I2 = 20 ------------------- (i) Equate Eqn (i) and (ii), we will get;
I1 = 96.15 A and, I2 = 92.30 A

Example 10:

By using Kirchhoff’s voltage law

(KVL) / Mesh analysis find the
current flowing through a 5 Ω
resistor.
Ans: 0.2272 A (clockwise)
Block – 4 (Current & Static Electricity) Total No. of Lectures: 9

Example 11:

By using Kirchhoff’s voltage law

(KVL) / Mesh analysis find the
current flowing through a 1 Ω
resistor

Ans: 1.25 A (clockwise)

Example 12:

By using KVL find Current

flowing through 10 Ω
resistance.
Ans: 0.034 A (clockwise)

Example 13:

By using Kirchhoff’s voltage law

(KVL) / Mesh analysis find the
current flowing through a 4 Ω
resistor.

Ans: 4.11 A (clockwise)

I1 = 2.72 A, I2 = 2.06, I3 = 4.11 A
Block – 4 (Current & Static Electricity) Total No. of Lectures: 9

Static Electricity and its Hazards:

Static electricity is the buildup of electric charge on a surface. This buildup occurs when there is an
imbalance of electrons, negatively charged particles, between two objects. When these objects come
into contact and then separate, one object may gain electrons while the other loses them, creating a
charge difference.

Hazards of Static Electricity in the Maritime Industry:

The maritime industry is particularly susceptible to the dangers of static electricity due to the unique
conditions and activities involved. Here are some of the main hazards:

• Fire and Explosion: Static discharges can ignite flammable vapours, gases, or dust, leading to
fires and explosions.
o Fuel Tank Explosions: Static electricity can ignite flammable vapours in fuel tanks,
leading to devastating explosions. This is especially dangerous when refuelling or
transferring fuel between vessels.
o Cargo Fires: Static electricity can also ignite combustible materials, such as grains,
chemicals, or paper products, stored in cargo holds.
• Personal Injuries: Static shocks can cause pain, discomfort, and in extreme cases, even cardiac
arrhythmias to crew members, potentially leading to accidents.
• Product Contamination: Static charges can attract dust and contaminants to sensitive products,
affecting their quality and performance.
• Electrostatic Interference: Static discharges can interfere with radio communications,
navigation systems, and other electronic equipment of the vessel.
• Corrosion: Static electricity can accelerate the corrosion of metal structures, leading to structural
damage and increased maintenance costs for the vessel.
• Electrostatic Discharge (ESD) Sensitivity: Many modern electronic components are highly
sensitive to ESD, which can cause damage or failure.
o Electronic Equipment Damage: Sensitive electronic equipment, such as navigation
systems and communication devices, can be damaged or malfunction due to static
discharges.
o Data Loss: ESD can corrupt data stored on electronic devices, leading to financial loss
and operational disruptions.
• Environmental Pollution: Fires and explosions caused by static electricity can release harmful
pollutants into the environment.
• Legal and Financial Liabilities: Accidents and damage caused by static electricity can result in
significant legal and financial consequences.

Prevention Measures:
To mitigate the risks of static electricity in the maritime industry, it is essential to implement preventive
measures, including:

• Bonded and Grounded Systems: Ensuring that all conductive parts of a vessel are connected
to a common ground point can help dissipate static charges.
• Antistatic Additives: Adding antistatic agents to fuels and lubricants can help reduce the buildup
of static charges.
• Conductive Flooring: Using conductive flooring materials in areas where flammable liquids or
materials are handled can help prevent the buildup of static charges.
• Grounding and Bonding Equipment: Before refuelling or transferring materials, ensure that all
equipment is properly grounded and bonded to prevent static discharges.
• Training and Awareness: Educate crew members about the dangers of static electricity and the
importance of following preventive measures.
Block – 4 (Current & Static Electricity) Total No. of Lectures: 9

HEATING EFFECT OF ELECTRIC CURRENT AND ITS APPLICATIONS:

When current flows in a conductor (flow of free electrons) then electrons collide with the immobile charges
of the material. In each collision, the kinetic energy of electrons is converted into heat energy. This is
called the heating effect of electric current. It is also called “Joule Heating”.
• Materials having a low value of resistance show minimum heating effect.
• Materials having a high value of resistance show maximum heating effect.
For example, when an electric current is passed through a high-resistance wire like a Nichrome wire, the
resistance wire becomes very hot and produces heat.
The heat produced is given by: H = I2Rt Joules
H is the heat generated (in joules); I is the current (in amperes),
t is the time (in seconds) the current flows. R is the resistance (in ohms),

The heating effect of current is utilized in the working of electrical heating appliances such as electric
irons, room heaters, geysers etc.
All these heating appliances contain coils of high-resistance wire made of Nichrome alloy.
When these appliances are connected to the power supply by insulated copper wires, then a large
amount of heat is produced in the heating coils (because they have high resistance) but negligible heat
is produced in the connecting wires of copper (because of low resistance of copper).
Applications of Heating Effect of Electric Current:
• Electric Geysers: Geysers use electric heating elements to heat water. The electric current
passes through a coil or a heating element, generating heat that warms the water for bathing or
other domestic uses.
• Electric Bulbs: Incandescent bulbs use the heating effect to produce light. When an electric
current passes through a tungsten filament, the filament heats up due to resistance and glows,
emitting light. This principle is also applied in halogen and some types of fluorescent bulbs, though
they use different mechanisms to produce light.
• Electric Stoves and Cooktops: Electric stoves use heating elements that glow red-hot when
current flows through them. This heat is transferred to cookware, cooking food efficiently.
• Toasters: Toasters utilize metal heating wires that generate heat when current flows through
them, toasting bread through direct contact with the hot wires.
• Heating Pads and Blankets: These devices use resistive wires to generate heat for warmth and
comfort. The electric current heats the wires, which in turn warms the pad or blanket.
• Industrial Applications: Electric heaters are used in various industries for processes like metal
treatment, drying, and plastic moulding, where controlled heating is essential.
• Soldering Irons: Soldering irons generate heat through resistance to melt solder for electrical
connections, showcasing the heating effect in a precise application.
Advantages of Using the Heating Effect:
• Efficiency: Devices designed to utilize this effect can convert a significant portion of electrical
energy into heat.
• Control: The heat output can be controlled by adjusting the current, allowing for precise
temperature management.
• Convenience: Many appliances using this effect are easy to operate and provide instant heat.
Block – 4 (Current & Static Electricity) Total No. of Lectures: 9

Numerical based on Heating Effect of Electric Current:

Example 1:
A lamp load of 1000 Ω resistance is connected across the DC supply of 25 V. What is power absorbed
in the lamp and what amount of heat will be released in 10 seconds?
Given Data: R = 1000 Ω; V = 25 V; t = 10 sec; Pabsorbed =? ; Heat =?
I = V/R = 0.025 A; P = I2R = 625 x 10-3; H = 6.25 Joule
Example 2:
An electric iron operates from a 230 V outlet and draws 8A of current. At Rs. 4/ kWh, how much does is
cost to operate the iron for 2 hours?
Given Data: I = 8 A; V = 230 V; Electricity Rate = 4/ kWh; t = 2 hour; Cost=?
Energy = P X T = 3680 wh = 3.68 kwh; Total Cost = 4 X 3.68 = Rs. 14.72
Example 3:
A coil consists of 2000 turns of copper wire having a cross-section area of 0.8mm2. The mean length per
turn is 80 cm and the resistivity of the copper is 0.02 µΩ-m. Find the resistance and power absorbed by
the coil when connected across 110V of the voltage supply.
Given Data: N = 2000 turns; A = 0.8mm2 = 0.8 X 10-6 m2; Mean length/ turn = 80 cm = 0.8 m
𝑙
Length of the coil = 1600m; ρ = 0.02 X 10-6 Ω-m ; R = ρ 𝐴 = 40 Ω; Pabsorbed = I2 R = 302.5 W

Example 4:
Find the heat energy produced in a resistance of 10 Ω when 5 A current flows through it for 5 minutes.
Given Data: R = 10 Ω; I = 5 A; t = 5 min = 300 sec; H = I2Rt = 75 kJ
Example 5:
An electric heater of resistance 10 Ω connected to a 220 V power supply is immersed in the water of 1
kg. How long does the electrical heater have to be switched on to increase its temperature from 30°C to
60°C? (The specific heat of water is s = 4200 J kg-1).
Given Data: R = 10 Ω; V = 220 V; I = 22 A; H = I2Rt = 4.84 kJ
As per the equation of the specific heat; Q = m s ∆T; Q = 126 kJ
The time required to produce this heat energy t = Q/ I2R = 26.03 sec
Example 6:
Two coils A and B are connected parallel to a battery. If the resistance of coil A and B are 60Ω and 100Ω,
respectively and the heat developed in coil B is 420 J in 20 s, then how much heat (in J) is produced in
coil A in 60 s?
Given Data: RA = 60Ω; RB = 100Ω; HB = 420 J; t = 20 sec; HA =?, when t = 60sec
𝑉2
Let the voltage produced by the battery is V; HB = t; V = √2100 𝑣
𝑅

𝑽𝟐
➔ HA = t = 2100 J
𝑹
Block – 4 (Current & Static Electricity) Total No. of Lectures: 9

Electromagnetic Induction (EMI):

Introduction:
Electromagnetic or magnetic induction is the production of an electromotive force across an electrical
conductor in a changing magnetic field.
The discovery and understanding of electromagnetic induction are based on a long series of experiments
carried out by Faraday and Henry.

Faraday Laws of Electromagnetic Induction:

First Law: Whenever the magnetic flux linked with a circuit changes, an e.m.f. is always induced in it.
Second Law: The magnitude of the induced e.m.f. is equal to the rate of change of flux linkages.

Direction of the Induced Current:

• Fleming's Right-hand Rule:

Fleming's right-hand rule shows the

direction of induced current when a
conductor attached to a circuit moves
in a magnetic field. It can be used to
determine the direction of current in a
generator's windings.

• Lenz Law:

Electromagnetically induced current

always flows in such direction that
the action of the magnetic field set
up by it tends to oppose the very
cause which produce it.
Block – 4 (Current & Static Electricity) Total No. of Lectures: 9

Type of induced E.M.F:

Dynamically induced Statically induced

• Dynamically induced:
In dynamically Induced E.M.F. the field remains stationary and conductors cut across it.
• Statically induced:
In statically induced E.M.F., the conductor or coil remains stationary and the flux linked with it is
changed by simply increasing or decreasing the current producing this flux.
Two types of Statically Induced EMF
• Self Induced EMF
• Mutually Induced EMF

Self-Inductance:
Self-inductance is the property of the current-carrying coil that resists or opposes the change (increase
or decrease) of current flowing through it.
• The above property of the coil exists only for the alternating current
• It is also referred to as inertia or electromagnetic inertia.
Block – 4 (Current & Static Electricity) Total No. of Lectures: 9

Mutual Inductance:
The ability of one coil to produce an E.M.F. in the nearby coil by induction when the current in the second
coil changes is called mutual inductance.

As we know; Φ1= Φ11 + Φ12

• e1 is induced because of self-

𝒅𝒊𝟏
induction ➔ 𝒆𝟏 = 𝑳𝟏 𝒅𝒕
• e2 is induced because of Mutual
𝒅𝒊𝟏
Induction ➔ 𝒆𝟐 = 𝑴 𝒅𝒕
• As per Faraday Law e2 can be written
𝒅𝒊𝟏
as ➔ 𝒆𝟐 = 𝑵𝟐 𝒅𝒕
• After equating both e2 equations:
𝝋𝟏𝟐 𝝋𝟐𝟏
𝑴 = 𝑵𝟐 = 𝑵𝟏
𝒊𝟏 𝒊𝟐
As we know; ϕ12 = Kϕ1 and ϕ 21 =K ϕ2.

𝑴 = ±𝑲√𝑳𝟏 𝑳𝟐

Difference Between Self and Mutual Inductance:

Feature Self-Induction Mutual Induction

Induction of EMF in a coil due to its Induction of EMF in one coil due to the
Definition
own changing current. changing current in another coil.
The current change is in the same
Inducing Current The current change occurs in a different coil.
coil.
Always opposes the change in the
Induced EMF Opposes the change in the neighbouring coil.
same coil (Lenz's Law).
Used in inductors, chokes, and Commonly found in transformers and coupled
Applications
energy storage devices. circuits.
Coefficient of
Represented by self-inductance (L). Represented by mutual inductance (M).
Induction
Stores energy in its own magnetic Transfers energy between coils via a shared
Energy Storage
field. magnetic field.
Dependence on Depends on the coil's physical Depends on the proximity and orientation of
Geometry dimensions and material. the two coils.
𝝋𝟏𝟐 𝝋𝟐𝟏
Mathematical 𝒅𝝋 𝑴 = 𝑵𝟐 = 𝑵𝟏
𝑳=𝑵 𝒊𝟏 𝒊𝟐
Equation 𝒅𝒊

Diagram
Block – 4 (Current & Static Electricity) Total No. of Lectures: 9

Combination of Inductors:

Energy Stored in Inductor:

Numerical:
1. The field winding of a D.C. electromagnet is wound with 960 turns and has a resistance of 50 Ω
when the exciting voltages are 230 V, and the magnetic flux linking the coil is 0.005 Wb. Calculate
the self-inductance of the coil and the energy stored in the magnetic field.
I = 4.6 A; L = 1.0435 H; Energy = 11.04 Joule

2. A circuit has 1000 turns enclosing a magnetic circuit 20 cm2 in section. With 4 A, the flux density is
1.0 Wb/m2 and with 9A, it is 1.4 Wb/m2. Find the mean value of the inductance between these
current limits and the induced e.m.f. if the current falls from 9 A to 4 A in 0.05 sec.
L = 0.16 H; EMF = 16V
Block – 4 (Current & Static Electricity) Total No. of Lectures: 9

3. A direct current of one ampere is passed through a coil of 5000 turns and produces a flux of
0.1mWb. Assuming that the whole of this flux threads all the turns, what is the inductance of the
coil? What would be the voltage developed across the coil if the current were interrupted in 10−3
seconds? What would be the maximum voltage developed across the coil if a capacitor of 10μ F
were connected across the switch breaking the d.c. supply?
L = 0.5 H; EMF = 500 V; Energy (Inductor) = 0.25 Joule; V = 224 V

4. A flux of 0.5 mWb is produced by a coil of 900 turns wound on a ring with a current of 3 A in it.
Calculate:
(i) the inductance of the coil
(ii) the e.m.f. induced in the coil when a current of 5 A is switched off, assuming the current to
fall to zero in 1 milli second and,
(iii) the mutual inductance between the coils, if a second coil of 600 turns is uniformly wound
over the first coil.
L = 0.15 H; EMF = 750 V; M = 0.1 H

5. If a coil of 150 turns is linked with a flux of 0.01 Wb when carrying a current of 10 A; calculate the
inductance of the coil. If this current is uniformly reversed in 0.1 seconds, calculate the induced
e.m.f. If a second coil of 100 turns is uniformly wound over the first coil, find the mutual inductance
between the coils.
L = 0.15 H; EMF = 30 V; M = 0.1 H

6. If a coil of 150 turns is linked with a flux of 0.01 wb when carrying a current of 10 Amp, calculate
the inductance of the coil. Now, if the current is uniformly reversed in 0.1 sec, calculate the induced
emf.
L = 0.15 H; EMF = 30 V
7. Two coils, A and B, have a mutual inductance of 0.06 H. If the current in coil A changes from 4 A to
1 A in 0.1 s, what is the induced EMF in coil B?
EMF = 1.8 V

8. A coil of inductance 100 mH has a current of 2 A flowing through it. If the current is decreased to 1
A in 20 ms, what is the average induced EMF in the coil?
EMF = 5 V

9. A coil with a self-inductance of 0.6 H experiences a change in current from 0 A to 5A. If the induced
EMF is 3V, find the time taken for this change.
Time = 1 second
Block – 5 (Transmitters) Total No. of Lectures: 9

Applicable Syllabus

COGNITIVE
UNIT. NO. SPECIFIC LEARNING OBJECTIVES (TOPICS)
LEVEL

5 Transmitter
Explain the working of the radio transmitter and receiver with a block
5.1 U
diagram

5.2 Explain the concept of antennas- straight and Yagi-Uda antenna. U

5.3 Explain thermistors and their application as heat sensors. U

5.4 Explain RADAR transmitters and Receivers. U

5.5 Explain flow rate measurement in Liquid/ Gas. U

Cognitive Levels: K – Knowledge; U – Understanding; Ap – Application

Introduction:
Electronics is the branch of science and technology that deals with the study, design, and application of
devices that use electrical current to control the flow of electrons. Electronics is a broad field that
encompasses a wide range of devices, from simple transistors to complex integrated circuits.
Electronic devices are used in a wide variety of applications, including but not limited to: -
• Communication: Electronics are used in computers, smartphones, radios, televisions, and other
communication devices.
• Entertainment: Electronics are used in music players, video games, and other entertainment
devices.
• Computing: Electronics is used in computers, laptops, and other computing devices.
• Industrial: Electronics are used in industrial machinery, robots, and other industrial devices.
• Medical: Electronics are used in medical devices such as pacemakers, MRI machines, and other
medical equipment.

Radio communications:
Radio communications refer to transmitting and receiving signals using radio waves to exchange
information between two or more locations. This technology has been an essential part of modern
communication since the early 20th century and remains vital in various applications, including
broadcasting, two-way communication, wireless networking, and emergency services.
Block – 5 (Transmitters) Total No. of Lectures: 9

Radio Transmitters:
Transmitters are devices or systems that transmit signals or information from one location to another.
Depending on the transmitter type and the transmission medium, these signals can be in various forms,
such as Radio, EM, Electrical, or Optical signals.
The important components of a transmitter are a microphone, audio amplifiers, oscillators,
modulators, and a Transmitting Antenna.

i) Microphone: A microphone is a device which converts sound waves into electrical waves.
When the speaker speaks or a musical instrument is played, the varying air pressure on the
microphone generates an audio-electrical signal which corresponds in frequency to the
original signal. The output of the microphone is fed to a multistage audio amplifier to raise the
strength of weak signals.
ii) Audio Amplifier: The audio signal from the microphone is quite weak and requires
amplification. This job is accomplished by cascaded audio amplifiers. The amplified output
from the last audio amplifier is fed to the modulator for rendering the process of modulation.
iii) Oscillator: The function of an oscillator is to produce a high-frequency signal, called a carrier
wave. Usually, a crystal oscillator is used for this purpose. The power level of the carrier wave
is raised to a sufficient level by radio frequency amplifier stages (not shown in Fig. 16.1). Most
of the broadcasting stations have carrier wave power of several kilowatts. Such high power is
necessary for transmitting the signal to the required distances.
iv) Modulator: The amplified audio signal and carrier wave are fed to the modulator. Here, the
audio signal is superimposed on the carrier wave suitably. The resultant waves are called
modulated waves or radio waves and the process is called modulation. The process of
modulation permits the transmission of audio signals at the carrier frequency. As the carrier
frequency is very high, the audio signal can be transmitted to large distances. The radio waves
from the transmitter are fed to the transmitting antenna or aerial from where these are radiated
into space.
v) Transmitting Antenna: The transmitting antenna radiates the radio waves in space in all
directions. These radio waves travel with the velocity of light i.e., 3 × 108 m/sec. The
radiowaves are electromagnetic waves and possess the same general properties. These
are like light and heat waves except that they have longer wavelengths. It may be emphasised
here that radio waves are sent without employing any wire. It can be easily shown that at high
frequencies, electrical energy can be radiated into space.
Block – 5 (Transmitters) Total No. of Lectures: 9

Radio Receivers:
A radio receiver is a device which reproduces the modulated radio waves into sound waves.
In India, only amplitude modulation is used for radio transmission and reception. Therefore, such radio
receivers are called A.M. radio receivers. To reproduce the A.M. wave into sound waves, every radio
receiver must perform the following functions:
a) The receiving aerial must intercept a portion of the passing radio waves.
b) The radio receiver must select the desired radio wave from several radio waves intercepted by
the receiving aerial. For this purpose, tuned parallel LC circuits must be used. These circuits will
select only the radio frequency which is resonant with them.
c) The selected radio wave must be amplified by the tuned frequency amplifiers.
d) The audio signal must be recovered from the amplified radio wave.
e) The audio signal must be amplified by a suitable number of audio amplifiers.
f) The amplified audio signal should be fed to the speaker for sound reproduction.

Radio Receivers can be broadly classified into two types viz., straight radio receivers and
superheterodyne radio receivers. The former was used in the early days of radio communication.
However, at present, all radio receivers are of superheterodyne type.

Straight Radio Receivers:

The receiving aerial is receiving radio waves from different broadcasting stations. The desired radio
wave is selected by the R.F. amplifier which employs a tuned parallel circuit. The selected radio wave is
amplified by the tuned R.F. amplifier. The amplified radio wave is fed to the detector circuit. This circuit
extracts the audio signal from the radio wave. The output of the detector is the audio signal which is
amplified by one or more stages of audio-amplification. The amplified audio signal is fed to the speaker
for sound reproduction.

Limitations of Straight Radio Receivers:

i) In straight radio receivers, tuned circuits are used. As it is necessary to change the value of
variable capacitors (gang capacitors) for tuning to the desired station, there is a considerable
variation of Q between the closed and open positions of the variable capacitors. This changes
the sensitivity and selectivity of the radio receivers.
(Low Sensitivity and Low Selectivity)
ii) High Interference: There is too much interference from adjacent stations.
Block – 5 (Transmitters) Total No. of Lectures: 9

Superheterodyne receiver:
The shortcomings of a straight radio receiver were overcome by the invention of the superheterodyne
receiver. A superheterodyne receiver, often shortened to superhet, is a type of radio receiver that uses
frequency mixing to convert a received signal to a fixed intermediate frequency.
It was long believed to have been invented by US engineer Edwin Armstrong, but after some controversy, the
earliest patent for the invention is now credited to French radio engineer and radio manufacturer Lucien Lévy.

At present, all modern receivers utilise the superheterodyne circuit. In this type of radio receiver, the
selected radio frequency is converted to a fixed lower value, called intermediate frequency (IF). This is
achieved by a special electronic circuit called a mixer circuit. There is a local oscillator in the radio receiver
itself. This oscillator produces high-frequency waves. The selected radio frequency is mixed with the
high-frequency wave by the mixer circuit. In this process, beats are produced, and the mixer produces a
frequency equal to the difference between the local oscillator and radio wave frequency.
The circuit is so designed that the oscillator always produces a frequency 455 kHz above the selected
radio frequency. Therefore, the mixer will always produce an intermediate frequency of 455 kHz
regardless of the station to which the receiver is tuned. For instance, if a 600 kHz station is tuned, then
the local oscillator will produce a frequency of 1055 kHz. Consequently, the output from the mixer will
have a frequency of 455 kHz.

The production of a fixed intermediate frequency (455 kHz) is the salient feature of the superheterodyne
circuit. At this fixed intermediate frequency, the amplifier circuits operate with maximum stability,
selectivity, and sensitivity. As the conversion of incoming radio frequency to the intermediate frequency
is achieved by heterodyning or beating the local oscillator against radio frequency, therefore, this circuit
is called a superheterodyne circuit.
Block – 5 (Transmitters) Total No. of Lectures: 9

Stages of Superheterodyne Radio Receiver:

The above figure shows the block diagram of a superheterodyne receiver. It may be seen that the R.F.
amplifier stage, mixer stage and oscillator stage use tuned parallel circuits with variable capacitors. These
capacitors are ganged together as shown by the dotted interconnecting lines. The rotation of the common
shaft simultaneously changes the capacitance of these tuned circuits.
i) R.F. amplifier stage: The R.F. amplifier stage uses a tuned parallel circuit L1C1 with a variable
capacitor C1. The radio waves from various broadcasting stations are intercepted by the
receiving aerial and are coupled to this stage. This stage selects the desired radio wave and
raises the strength of the wave to the desired level.
ii) Mixer stage: The amplified output of the R.F. amplifier is fed to the mixer stage where it is
combined with the output of a local oscillator. The two frequencies beat together and produce
an intermediate frequency (IF). The intermediate frequency is the difference between
oscillator frequency and radio frequency i.e.
I.F. = Oscillator frequency − Radio frequency
The IF is always 455 kHz regardless of the frequency to which the receiver is tuned. The
reason why the mixer will always produce a 455 kHz frequency above the radio frequency is
that oscillator always produces a frequency 455 kHz above the selected radio frequency. This
is achieved by making C3 smaller than C1 and C2. By making C3 smaller, the oscillator will
tune to a higher frequency. In practice, the capacitance of C3 is designed to tune the oscillator
to a frequency higher than radio wave frequency by 455 kHz. This frequency difference (i.e.,
455 kHz) will always be maintained because when C1 and C2 are varied, C3 will also vary
proportionally. It may be noted that in the mixer stage, the carrier frequency is reduced. The
IF still contains the audio signal.
iii) I.F. amplifier stage: The output of the mixer is always 455 kHz and is fed to fixed-tuned I.F.
amplifiers. These amplifiers are tuned to one frequency (i.e., 455 kHz) and render nice
amplification.
iv) Detector stage: The output from the last IF amplifier stage is coupled to the input of the
detector stage. Here, the audio signal is extracted from the IF output. Usually, diode detector
circuits are used because of their low distortion and excellent audio fidelity.
v) A.F. amplifier stage: The audio signal output of the detector stage is fed to a multistage audio
amplifier. Here, the signal is amplified until it is sufficiently strong to drive the speaker. The
speaker converts the audio signal into sound waves corresponding to the original sound at
the broadcasting station.
Advantages of Superheterodyne Receiver:
The basic principle involved in the superheterodyne circuit is to obtain a fixed intermediate frequency
with the help of a mixer circuit and local oscillator. The superheterodyne principle has the following
advantages:
i) High R.F. amplification: The superheterodyne principle makes it possible to produce an
intermediate frequency (i.e., 455 kHz) which is much less than the radio frequency. R.F.
amplification at low frequencies is more stable since feedback through stray and
interelectrode capacitance is reduced.
ii) Improved selectivity: Losses in the tuned circuits are lower at an intermediate frequency.
Therefore, the quality factor Q of the tuned circuits is increased. This makes the amplifier
circuits operate with maximum selectivity.
iii) Lower cost: In a superheterodyne circuit, a fixed intermediate frequency is obtained
regardless of the radio wave selected. This permits the use of fixed R.F. amplifiers. The
superheterodyne receiver is thus cheaper than other radio receivers.
Block – 5 (Transmitters) Total No. of Lectures: 9

Antenna:
In radio engineering, an antenna or aerial is a device that converts electrical signals into
Electromagnetic waves and vice-versa with the minimum loss of energy.
It is a metallic structure that captures and/or transmits radio electromagnetic waves.

Yagi-Uda Antenna:
The Yagi-Uda antenna, often simply referred to as a Yagi antenna, is a popular and widely used
directional antenna in radio communications.
• It operates in the HF to UHF bands (i.e., 3 MHz to 3 GHz)
• Its bandwidth is typically small, in the order of a few percent of the centre frequency.
• It was invented in 1926 by Shintaro Uda and Hidetsugu Yagi.
• This type of antenna is known for its relatively simple design, high gain, and directional properties,
making it ideal for point-to-point communication and reception.
Construction of Yagi-Uda Antenna:
Yagi-Uda antennas are relatively easy to construct using simple materials like metal rods or wires for the
elements. They can be built for specific frequencies by adjusting the lengths of the elements according
to the wavelength.

From the above figure, a Yagi antenna consists of three or more elements where the driven element is a
dipole, and the directors and reflectors are called parasitic.
• The length of the driven element is half of the wavelength (λ/2) and is fed with coaxial cable.
• A reflector is placed behind the driven element, and it is slightly longer than λ/2; a director is
placed in front of the driven element and is slightly shorter than λ/2.
• Each element of the yagi antenna is separated by a distance of 0.1λ.
• A typical yagi has one driven, one reflector and one or more directors.
• The antenna propagates EM-Field energy in the direction running from the driven element
towards the director(s) and is most sensitive to incoming EM-field energy in the same direction.
• The more directors a yagi has, the greater the forward gain.

Elements Type No of Elements Length Distance with others

Driven Dipole (Main) =1 Approximately λ/2 Every element of Yagi

antenna is separated
Reflector Parasitic (Support) =1 Slightly > λ/2
with 0.1λ from any
Director(s) Parasitic (Support) 1 or more than 1 Smaller than λ/2 other element.
Block – 5 (Transmitters) Total No. of Lectures: 9

Whip Antenna:
A whip antenna, also known simply as a whip or straight antenna or quarter wavelength antenna, is a
type of radio antenna that consists of a straight, flexible rod or wire that extends vertically from a base. It
is a simple and common design used in various radio communication systems to transmit or receive radio
frequency signals. Whips are often used for applications like AM/FM radio broadcasting, citizen band
(CB) radios, ham radios, and portable radios.
The length of a whip antenna is typically a quarter or a half of the wavelength of the radio signal it is
designed to work with. The key characteristic of a whip antenna is its resonant length, which allows it to
efficiently transmit or receive signals at a specific frequency.
Longer whip antennas are more efficient for lower frequencies, while shorter ones work better for higher
frequencies.
Whip antennas can be categorized into two main types:
1. Ground-plane whip antenna: This type of whip antenna requires a ground plane, which is
usually a flat conducting surface placed beneath the antenna. The ground plane acts as a reflector
and helps improve the antenna's radiation pattern and efficiency. A classic example of a ground-
plane whip antenna is the whip antenna found on cars. The body of the car serves as the ground
plane.
2. Monopole whip antenna: Monopole whip antennas are commonly used in the higher frequency
HF, VHF and UHF radio bands. It is a long, thin metal rod that is usually made of stainless steel
or aluminum. Whip antennas do not require a physical ground plane, as they utilize the Earth as
the reference for their radiation pattern. These antennas are often used in portable devices like
handheld radios or walkie-talkies.

Advantages:
• They are relatively inexpensive to manufacture.
• They are lightweight and easy to transport.
• They are omnidirectional, meaning they radiate radio waves in all directions.
• They can be used in a variety of environments, including indoors and outdoors.
Disadvantages:
• They have a relatively low gain, meaning they are not as efficient at transmitting or receiving radio
signals as some other types of antennas.
• They can be easily damaged by wind or other physical forces.
• They can be affected by the ground, which can reduce their performance.
Block – 5 (Transmitters) Total No. of Lectures: 9

Thermistors:
Thermistors are electronic components whose electrical resistance changes significantly with
temperature. They are designed to be highly sensitive to temperature variations, making them valuable
in temperature sensing and control applications. Thermistors are typically made from ceramic materials
with semiconducting properties.
Types of Thermistors:
i. NTC (Negative Temperature Coefficient) Thermistors:
• These thermistors exhibit a decrease in resistance as temperature increases. The
relationship between resistance R and temperature T is typically logarithmic or exponential.
• NTC thermistors are commonly used in temperature measurement, temperature
compensation circuits, and temperature control systems.
ii. PTC (Positive Temperature Coefficient) Thermistors:
• PTC thermistors behave oppositely to NTC thermistors — they show an increase in
resistance as temperature increases.
• They are often used in applications where overcurrent protection or self-regulating
heating elements are needed. For example, they can be found in heating elements, motor
starting circuits, and automotive applications.
Characteristics:
• Temperature Sensitivity: Both types of thermistors are highly sensitive to temperature changes,
making them suitable for precise temperature monitoring.
• Response Time: Thermistors generally have a rapid response time to temperature changes,
allowing for quick adjustments in control systems.
• Accuracy: When properly calibrated and used within their specified temperature range,
thermistors can provide accurate temperature measurements.
• Size and Cost: Thermistors are compact and relatively inexpensive compared to other
temperature sensing technologies like RTDs (Resistance Temperature Detectors) and
thermocouples.
Applications:
• Temperature Sensors: Used in digital thermometers, Engine temperature sensing, air
conditioning systems, thermostats, HVAC systems, industrial process control, and consumer
electronics for accurate temperature measurement.
• Temperature Compensation: Integrated into circuits to compensate for changes in device
performance due to temperature variations.
• Overtemperature Protection: PTC thermistors are employed in devices to prevent overheating
by triggering protective actions when a certain temperature threshold is reached.
• Medical Instruments: Used in medical thermometers, incubators, and other healthcare
equipment requiring precise temperature control.
Advantages:
• Accuracy: Thermistors offer high sensitivity and accurate temperature readings over a wide
range.
• Size: They are compact, making them suitable for integration into small devices and circuit
boards.
• Cost: Thermistors are generally cost-effective compared to other temperature sensing
technologies like RTDs (Resistance Temperature Detectors) and thermocouples.
Block – 5 (Transmitters) Total No. of Lectures: 9

RADAR:
The word RADAR is an abbreviation and it stands for Radio Detection and Ranging.
It is an instrument used for locating the presence of objects/ obstacles at distances far beyond our vision
or aided vision (using telescopes). It employs EM waves to detect, locate, and track objects (speed of
moving), such as aircraft, ships, weather phenomena, and even vehicles.
Radar measurements are not affected by darkness, clouds, fog, smoke and many other obstacles that
block ordinary vision.

RADAR Principle:
A radar system is made up of five main components:
• Transmitter (T): This generates the radio waves that are sent out into the air.
• Duplexer (DU): It is a switching device which allows the same antenna to be used for
transmission as well as reception.
• Antenna (A): A device which converts the electrical signal into EM waves and vice-versa with
minimum loss of energy. The antenna sends and receives the radio waves.
• Receiver (R): This detects the radio waves that are reflected from the target.
• Display (D): This shows the location and distance of the target.

The RADAR transmitter generates a high-frequency electrical signal, for a very short period duration (T),
which is applied to the RADAR antenna (A) via the duplexer (DU). The antenna radiates these short-
duration EM Waves in the direction of the target/ object. The target intercepts a portion of this energy and
re-radiates the same in all directions; a part of which is reflected to the antenna. The antenna receives
the reflected signal and routes it via the duplexer (DU) to the receiver. The receiver derives the necessary
information about the target/ object i.e. its presence, its range, and its relative velocity and presents it to
a Display system (D) for the RADAR operator to know and take necessary action.
Block – 5 (Transmitters) Total No. of Lectures: 9

There are two types of RADAR:

a) Pulsed RADAR (to find range)
b) Continuous Wave RADAR (to find relative velocity)
RADAR Resolution:
a) Radial range resolution (R) = C * T / 2
b) Cross range resolution = R * θ

Example – A radar antenna that has a beam-width of 1 degree in azimuth, as well as, elevation is
transmitting pulses of 1.5 microseconds, determine
a) The radial resolution
b) The crossrange resolution at a range of nmi.
Solution –
a) Time (T) = 1.5 microseconds; C = 3 * 10-8 m/s
R=C*T/2 = (3 * 10 ) * (1.5 * 10-6) / 2
-8
= 225 meters

b) Given Range (R) = 80 nmi = 80 * 1.85 Km = 148 Km

Beam Width = 1 degree = 1 * (π/ 180) = 0.017 radians
Cross Range Resolution = 148 * 0.017 = 2.5 Km

RADAR Equation:
𝑃𝑡
• Power Range Density of Isotropic Antenna =
4 𝜋 𝑅2
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝐷𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝐴𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑛𝑎
• Gain = 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝐼𝑠𝑜𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑖𝑐 𝐴𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑛𝑎
𝑃𝑡 ∗𝐺
• Power Range Density of Directional Antenna =
4 𝜋 𝑅2
𝑃𝑡 ∗𝐺∗𝜎
• Power intercepted by the target/ object =
4 𝜋 𝑅2
𝑃𝑡 ∗𝐺∗𝜎
• Power re-radiated by the target/ object = ( )/ 4πR2
4 𝜋 𝑅2
𝑃𝑡 ∗𝐺∗𝜎∗𝐴𝑒
• Power Received (Pr) by the RADAR Antenna =
(4𝜋)2 𝑅 4
In the above equation, R is the Range and Pr is the power received
𝑷𝒕 ∗𝑮∗ 𝝈∗ 𝑨𝒆
• Rmax = ( )1/4 ------ RADAR 1st Order Equation
(𝟒𝝅)𝟐 𝑷𝒓(𝒎𝒊𝒏)
4𝜋∗𝐴𝑒
• As we know, Gain = ; Put the value of Ae in the above eqn.
𝛌2

𝑷𝒕 ∗𝑮∗𝑮∗ 𝝈∗ 𝛌2 1/4
• Rmax = ( ) ------ RADAR Equation
(𝟒𝝅)𝟑 𝑷𝒓(𝒎𝒊𝒏)