Magnetism

(Confidential – For Internal Use Only)

Copyright © 2007 Rockwell Automation, Inc. All rights reserved.

1
 Introduction & Objectives

Objectives:
Upon completing the module on Magnetism the student should be able to do the
following:

• Understand the basic concepts of permanent and temporary magnets.

• Understand the effects of coils with DC and AC voltages
• Understand how air and other cores effect the coils and magnetism
• Know what saturation of a core is
• Understand the concepts of induction
• Know what Magnomotive Force is and how flux & current flows

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 The Earth and Magnetism

Geographical
Magnetic North
South

The earth is a large sphere type magnet with

opposite poles that identify the two ends of
the earth. As a result, one end of a magnet is
called the north pole and the other end is
called the south pole. Notice how the
geographical North is the magnetic South on
the earth.

Geographical Magnetic
South North

The reason for the mix up in naming the earth’s magnetic poles was the result of a wrong guess. At
first people thought the end of a compass needle that pointed north should be called north. Later, they
learned that opposites attract and it was actually the south end of the compass pointing north.

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 Magnetism - “In the Beginning”

In the beginning or back in the first grade, you most N

likely saw and played with a toy magnet (also known
as a “permanent magnet”). These magnets were often in
a bar or horse shoe shape as shown to the right. Notice S N
S
how the magnets have North (N) and South (S) poles.

From this experience you know that two things happen when a permanent magnet is held close to a small
iron or steel object:

A. The permanent magnet attracts the object.

B. The magnet holds the object when it makes contact with the magnet.

The magnet does this because of its inherent magnetic force. We refer to this force as a magnetic field.”

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 Magnetic Fields of Force

The magnetic fields of the two permanent magnets are represented by “lines of flux.” The lines of flux
help one to visualize the magnetic field of a magnet. If a piece of glass was placed on the magnet, then
sprinkled with iron filings the filings would conform to the magnetic lines of flux.

N S
N S

The lines of flux of a magnetic field travel from the N-pole to the S-Pole. Or, we can say
that the lines of flux move out of the north pole and return into the south pole. The number of lines
of flux vary from one magnetic field to another. If you take two magnets you would say, the one
with the greatest number of lines of flux would be strongest.

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 Magnetic Attraction & Repulsion

The pattern of flux lines indicate the force

coming out of the North Pole of one magnet
while it enters the South Pole of the other
S N S N magnet. The two fields have combined into
one big field. This combination tries to pull
the two magnets together. Simply stated,
unlike poles attract.

If one of the magnets is turned around

the pattern of flux is quite different.
The two fields oppose each other, no
magnetic lines of force cross each S N N S
other in between the two magnets.
Their force is directed away from each
opposing North Pole toward the
nearest South Pole. Simply stated, like
poles repel.

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 Origin of Magnetic Fields

Electron
Electrons orbit the center of their atoms and
are spinning on their axis just like the earth
orbits the sun. The spinning is what makes
Nucleus each electron a magnet. The polarity is
determined by the direction of rotation.

Electron Orbit
Orbit of Electron

Atoms of magnetic materials have a

field of electrons (more than one)
orbiting the its nucleus. In this
diagram there are six electrons in the
same orbit. Five are turning
clockwise while the other is turning
counter-clockwise. The result is a
magnetic field around the atom.

Field Orbit

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 Permanent & Temporary Magnets

Magnetic materials include iron, steel, cobalt, nickel, and metallic alloys like
alnico and ferrites. Not all samples of these materials are permanent magnets
but they all have the potential to be magnets.
Motion This picture shows a non magnetic bar of iron
being magnetized by a permanent magnet.
The permanent magnet is drawn across the
surface of the iron bar causing the polarities of
the random atoms to line up.
Iron bar being magnetized

Depending on the characteristics of the materials and the strength of the

permanent magnet, these polarities can remain changed (in line) or with time
revert back to the random condition they were once in.

This picture shows the entire iron bar

in a magnetized condition. Notice all
the polarities lined up. Magnetized iron bar

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 Electromagnetism

Metals like copper and aluminum make very good conductors but they are
non magnetic materials just like air, water, glass, and wood. However,
any electrical conductor can be used to create magnetism. Current
passing through the conductor sets up a magnetic field around it.

Notice the lines of force are in closed loops with no

points we can identify as poles. Actually all
magnetic fields are made up of lines in closed
loops. The reason magnets have poles is that part
of the lines run inside the magnet itself. The pole
was simple the dividing line between air and the
Conventional magnet itself.
Current

If we placed two U-shaped magnets

end to end the magnetic field is
entirely inside the steel.

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 Conventional Flow

The direction of magnetic lines of force is

the direction that would be taken by an
isolated north pole as it is made to travel
around a closed field. In a magnet the
lines of force move from north to south in
the air and south to north while inside the
magnet. Around a current carrying wire,
they move counterclockwise when
conventional flow is flowing toward you
and clockwise when current is flowing
away.

The right hand rule for conductors

states that when wrap your right hand
around a wire with your palm facing
you and your thumb pointing in the
direction of the current flow, your
fingers will show the direction of the
flux lines of force.

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 Current Flow

Lines of Flux Copper Wire

As stated previously, the flow of

electric current in a conductor sets
up concentric lines of magnetic flux
around the conductor. Therefore, in
order to establish a magnetic field
around a conductor, we must have
electric current flowing through a
conductor.

Even with current flowing through the conductor, the strength of a magnetic field in a
straight wire is very weak. An interesting thing happens when we shape this current-
carrying conductor into a coil. Now all the individual flux lines around this conductor
join together to form one large magnetic field around the total coil. This is shown in
the diagram on the next page.

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 Magnetic Poles on a Coil

Magnetic Lines of Flux

As with a permanent magnet, The magnetic

lines (flux) around a current carrying
conductor leave the N-pole of the coil, circle
around the outside and then re-enter the coil
at its S-pole.

The magnetic field around the coil can be strengthened even more by placing a core of
iron or similar metal in the center of the coil. The metal core presents less resistance to
the lines of flux than the air, thereby causing the field strength to increase. The coils field
will magnetize the iron producing a very strong field. This is called an electromagnet. A
north pole is produced at the end of the magnet that your thumb is pointing toward.

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 Induction through Magnetism

Positive Potential
The relation between current flow in a conductor and its Motion
magnetic field works two ways. The opposite, in this case,
occurs when we take a conductor and move it through an
existing magnetic field or cause the magnetic field to move N S
past the conductor. In either case, the relative motion of the
Negative
two causes an electric current to flow in the conductor. We Potential
refer to this as “induced” current flow. In other words, the
current flow is not caused by direct connection of the
conductor to a voltage source, but rather by the influence of
the conductor cutting across the lines of flux of the
magnetic field.
Induced
Voltage

As we discussed previously, the magnetic field surrounding a permanent magnet is identical to the
magnetic field surrounding a current-carrying coil. Both have two poles: a N-pole and a S-pole. Learning
how poles behave is an important concept. For the moment we are interested in two basic characteristics.
First, if we bring the N-poles of two separate magnetic fields close to each other, they will try to push away
from each other, or, as we say, try to repel each other. The same is true if we bring two S-poles together.
Like magnetic poles repel each other. If we bring a N-pole of one magnetic field close to the S-pole of
another magnetic field, the two poles will try to pull together or attract each other. So, we say that unlike
magnetic poles attract each other.

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 Magnetomotive Force & DC
Magnetomotove force is the push behind the magnetic field. It is
directly proportional to two things:
1) The number of turns on a coil
2) The amount of current passing through the coil

mmf = N (turns) x I (amps)

= 4 x 10
= 40 amp-turns
10 Amps

Magnomotive force is to magnetism what electromotive force, or voltage is to

electricity. Knowing the strength of the force allows us to calculate the effects on
the iron core. If 10 amps are applied to the coil above, we know the resulting
force behind the electromagnet is 40 amp-turns.

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 Mulitple Coils

Two magnetic fields from the coils

induce a combined single field on the Coil #1 Coil #2
electromagnet. So what would the total
magnomotive force be?
Hint: Calculate the mmf for each
coil and add them together. 10 Amps 10 Amps

Coil # 1 Coil # 2
mmf = N (turns) x I (amps) mmf = N (turns) x I (amps)
= 4 x (+)10 = 4 x (-)10
= (+) 40 amp-turns = (-) 40 amp-turns

(+) 40 amp-turns + (-) 40 amp-turns = 0 amp-turns

Notice the polarities of the two coils are different. This means the current flowing
through the coils are in the opposite direction. This causes the two fields to cancel
each other out. Since the current level for each coil is equal, the net effect is no
magnetic force on the iron core.
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 Coils & AC Current

The poles of an electromagnetic coil change when the direction of current flow
changes.

As you know, the difference between DC and AC is that with DC the current flows in only one
direction while with AC the direction of current flow changes periodically. In the case of
common AC that is used throughout most of the United States, the current flow changes
direction 120 times every second. Again, in order to discuss the subject, we give each
direction a name. Thus, we say that half the time the current is flowing in a “positive” (+)
direction and the other half of the time it is flowing in a “negative” (-) direction. Or, we say that
the current first flows in a positive direction and then in a negative direction, repeating this
cycle 60 times per second. This type of current is called “60 Hertz AC.” The name honers Mr.
Hertz who originally conceived the concept.
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 AC with an Air Core Coil

A coil of wire builds up a magnetic

field that tries to choke off or stop AC
current from flowing. However, with
an air core, the strength of this field
is weak and offers little resistance to
an AC signal. Current easily travels
through the coil and lights the bulb.

But what happens if an Iron core is used instead of air?

The iron core provides an
easier path for the flux lines to
travel and causes the strength
of the magnetic field to
increase. The increased
magnetic field increases the
choking effect of the coil on the
AC signal and depending on the
strength, the bulb is either off or
glows dimly.

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 Combining AC and DC Coils
As stated earlier, the light bulb will not turn on when AC is applied to a coil
with an iron core and a strong field. If I remove the iron core, the bulb will
light. This is because I weakened the field around the coil.

However, unlike AC, a coil does

not resist the current flow of DC. VAC
Knowing this, we can actually use
DC to control the amount of AC
flowing in a completely isolated
circuit.
VDC

In other words, as I adjust the amount of DC applied to the DC coil in the

picture, I change the saturation of the iron core. This negates the cores effect
on the AC coil and allows the bulb to turn on.

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 Where else are Cores used?
Example of a motor field core
Generators, motors, and transformers
have one thing in common. They all
have coils wound on cores. These cores
are usually made of thin sheets of steel
called laminations that are fastened
Notice the layers
together. During operation, these cores sandwiched together
all become magnetized.
So what is saturation exactly?

Saturation
We know that the core provides a path of less
resistance to the magnetizing lines of flux than
that of air. As current is increased in the coils
that surround the core, the field intensity
increases. However, as with anything, there is a
limit to how much flux a core can actually
absorb. When at its maximum, the core is said
to be saturated. If the current is increased in the
coils at saturation, the core no longer has the
ability to help strengthen the flux.

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 Induction
We already discussed that electricity produces magnetism in a coil. Now lets
discuss how magnetism can produce electricity through induction.

DC Current

Coil #1 Coil #2
Notice how the circuit to the left
of the diagram is powered by a
DC
DC battery and that when the
Battery switch is closed the DC current
creates magnetic lines of flux
around the coil of wire.
Induced
Current

There is no electrical connection between the left circuit & the right circuit.
Notice that right circuit has a coil (#2) in close proximity to the powered coil (#1)
in the left circuit and the flux lines from coil #1 are intersecting with coil # 2. This
intersection induces a proportional voltage of opposite polarity (direction) onto
the second circuit and produces current in that circuit. That is exactly what
happens in a transformer but the amount of induction varies based on the
number of coils in the secondary coil. It may not always be proportional.

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 Conclusion & Closing Statement

Additional and related information can be found in the Rectification, DC

Motor & Drive and AC Motor training modules.

You have now completed this module, if there are any parts of this module that
are still unclear, go back and review them. Then get ready to take the test.

Passing the test for this module may be required in order to participate in other
training courses. You may take the test as many times as you want or need.

Once you have passed submit the test as outlined on the web page.

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