Chapter 1

Introduction to Agri-lnformatics

Agri-Informatics or Agricultural Informaticsis a branch of agriculture which deals with the

application of information Technology in agriculture and its allied sectors. Agri-Informatics is the
application in agriculture with innovative ideas, techniques and scientific knowledge to expand the
horizons of the computer science. In other words, it is the Information technology applied to
management and analysis of agricultural data. It covers the diverse areas ranging from artificial
intelligence. decision support system, soil information system, expert system. GPS., GIS, remote sensing
and information system related to agriculture.
Artificial Intelligence is an important components of Agricultural Informatics as well as the Smart
Farming,. Artificial Intelligence (A.I) in addition with Machine Learning and Internet of Things(loT).
Sensors, which provide real-time data for algorithms increases the agricultural crop yields and
efficiencies.
Decision Support System in Agriculture or the Agri DSS are the Information Technology resources
that are developed and designed to help the farming community to tackle complex and complicate
problems in Crop Cultivation aspects and helps the farmers by utilizing the best available data and
knowledge about scientifically sound best cultivation practices. This Scientific Technological Systems
not only support the precision agriculture but also plays a crucial role in Smart Farming Approach.
which can reduce the fertilizer and labour inputs, minimize the adverse environmental effects and also
increase the crop yields. Agricultural decision support systems can incorporate inputs on climatic factors.
water, genetic characters, energy, landscape, human, and economic resources, and ideally provide an
analysis of how these factors work together in influencing the crop yield or productivity.
Soil information system is a Soil mapping technology, which is mostly 3 Dimensional in nature,
that uses the advanced loT Sensors in corporation with Artificial Intelligence targeting and geo
processing algorithms to produce high resolution accurate information based on soil and topography.
By using the advanced sensors and geo-processing algorithms, the SIS produce high resolution, accurate
soil and topographic Information.
Agricultural Expert System is a computer program that uses the Artificial Intelligence technology
in the field of agriculture and allied sectors for the purpose of decision making and problem solving.
Agri Expert System plays a very crucial role in different disciplines of agriculture such as Plant
Pathology, Entomology, Horticulture and Agricultural Meteorology.
 2
Introductory Agri-Informatics

Geospatial data: It is the inforamtion that describe objects, events or other features
on or near the surface of
the earth. with a
Farmers can use geospatial technologies such as GPS, GIS and landsat
locain
satel ite imagery
variations in soil quality for planting purpose. Moisture content in soil and pest and diseases to sses%
in
Examples of geospatial data include, vectors and attributes. Descriptive information about a crops
thatlocancaionbe
such as points, lines and polygons. Point clouds: A
collection of co-located charted points
recontextured as 3D models
Machine learning: Machine learning is atype of artificial intelligence (AI) that allows
applications to become more accurate at predicting outcomes without being explicitly programmed to software
do so.
Global Positioning System (GPS) allows the Farmers to accurately navigate to specific locatices
Manie
in the field, year after year, to monitor the crop conditions or collect soil sample. GPS helpsas for
problematic areas such daense
of irrigation systems, roads, agricultural field boundaries and
pest affected areas.
representations of data ant
Geographic Information System (GIS) is a tool to create the visual
helps the farmers to achieving
help in performing spatial analysis in order to make better decisions. GIS
in Agriculture helps for Agricutura
the best in terms of crop production and reducing the extra cost. GIS
Mapping and precision farming.
mapping, Soil Analysis, Determination of Nutrients, Real time
allied sectors, it is helpful in crop
Remote Sensing plays an important role in agriculture and
system analysis, crop acreage estimation
production forecasting, assessment of crop damage, Cropping
detection of stress.
and assessment of crop condition and
 Chapter 2

Introduction to Computers

Computer
receive, process and store data. They are
A computer is a multipurpose electronic device that can
Intermet. Computer also plays a vital
used as tools in almost every part of society together with the Digitization. In Agriculture and allied
and
role in the field of agriculture for the process of Automation
important infornmation, database related to cost of
sectors, computers are used to record keeping of
enterprise. The internet facilities also help the
cultivation, estimation of profit or loss of an agricultural
expert related to various problems faced in the
farmers to contact and communicate with agricultural
field or problem faced during the process of cultivation.
Components of Computer
system has two main components: hardware and software. The equipment associated
Computer tells the hardware
hardware. Software is a set of instructions that
with a computer system is called
Software is actually a computer program. To be more specific, a program is a set of
what to do. produce
instructions that directs the computer to do the tasks you want it to do and to
step-by-step us do not
want. A computer programmer is a person who writes programs. Most of
the results you means we are users. Users means
written by someone else. This
Write programs, we use programs
software.
- people who purchase and use computer
Functions
output, and
computer systen requires four main aspects of data handling: input. processing,
A that operate as follows:
four areas
storage. The hardware is responsible for these
data in a form that the computer can use; then they send the data to the
Input devices accept
processing unit.
formally known as the central processing unit (CPU), has the electronic
The processor, more information people want. The central processing
circuitry that manipulates input data into the
are specified in the program.
unit executes computer instructions that
 4 Introductory Agri-Informatics
processed data-information in a form
Output devices show people the
storage. Secondary storage consiststhatof they can use.
Storage usually means secondary

computdeervandicietss,elfs.uchTheseas
which can store data and programs outside
diskettes and pen drives
memory, which,
the
as we will see, can hold
devices supplement the computer's
data
only temporarily.
is the center of activity.
The processor, is also programs
In a computer the processor processing unit consists of electronic circuits calltehd.at
as the
processing unit (CPU). The central
well as communicate with the input, output, and and interprecentt ral
execute program instructions, as
Computer memory, also known as primary storage(RAM and ROM) Random Access Memory storage devices.
and Read Only Memory, is closely associated with the central processing unit but separate from it.
it is processed: also, memory holds
holds the data after it is input to the system and before
the data after it has been processed but before it has been released to the output device. In addition,
Memory
(eomputer instructions) needed by the central processing et
memory holds the programs peripheral equipment. Peripheral
hardware devices attached to the computer are called
The devices. In the case of personal computers,
and secondary storage
output,
equipment includes all input, storage devices are built into the same physical unit. In many no
some of the input, output,
and and
all contained in the same housing; the keyboard, mouse
computers, the CPU and disk drive are
Screen are separate.
widely, from the simplest computer to the most powerful, by
Although the equipment may vary input, processing, outout.
remain the same:
large the four elements of a computer system
small to
and storage.
performs the following three operations in sequence.
CPU device.
receives data & instructions from the input
1. It
as per instructions.
2. Processes the data
(output) in a desired form.
3. Provides the result
Advantages of computers:
greater and higher speed than human beings.
at a
to perform routine tasks seconds.
I. High speed: Ability calculations in
of
They can perform millions perform tasks in anaccu rate
manner.
Computers are used to instructon
2. Accuracy: information. Any item of data or any
amount of
Storage: Computers can store large computer at lightning speeds.
3.
the memory can be retrieved by the automatically(which
stored in complex tasks
Automation: Computers can be instructed to perform
4. accuracy
increases the productivity). with the same
and
Computers can perform the same task repeatedly an
5. Diligence:
without getting tired.
and complextasks. thereby
perform both simple eftort,
6. Versatility: Computers are flexible to and human
of paper work
7. Cost effectiveness: Computers reduce the amount
reducing costs.
 Introduction to Computers 5

Limitations of computers:
1. Computers need clear and complete instructions to perform a task accurately. If the instructions
are not clear and complete, the computer will not produce the required result.
2. Computers cannot think.
3.Computers cannot learn by experience
Basic Computer Terms
A computer is a programmable machine. It allows the users to store all sorts of information and
then process that information, or data, or carry out actions with the information, such as calculating
numbers or organizing words.
A computer can be defined as an electronic device that is
capable of
() accepting, storing and logically manipulating data or text that is input, and
(1) processing and producing output (results or decisions) on the basis of stored programs of
instructions. Some computers are also capable of processing graphics, video and voice input.
Most computers include a keyboard for text entry, a central processing unit (CPU), one or
more disk drives, a display screen and a printer, where these components are referred to as
the hardware.

Types of Computers
The computers are classified according to
1. Generation,
2. Functionality, and
3. Size.

Types of Computers
Types of Computers

Generation Function Size and Configuration

" First Generation "Analogue compulers " Supercomputers

" Second Generation " Digital computers "Mainframe computers
"Third Generation " Hybrid computers "Minicomputers
"Fourth Generation "Microcomputers
" Fifth Generation

1. According to Generation
Generation refers to the time period during which a computer has been developed. The different
generations of computer are as follows.
 Introductory Agri-lnformatics
6

Generation (1940-1956)
(a) First
1 Used vacuum tubes for Circuitry and magnetic drums for memory
2. High electricity consumption.
3. Programming in machine language.
Examples: Mark 1, ENIVAC
(b) Second Generation (1957-1963)
1. Transistors were used.
2. First operating system and core memory were developed.
3. Programming was in machine language and assembly language.
4. Magnetic tapes and discs were used.
Example: Early versions of COBOL and FORTRAN, IBM 1401, IBM_1402, PDP-1. etc.
(c) Third Generation Features (1964-1971)
1. Integrated circuits developed.
2. Low-power consumption.
3. Small-scale integration (SSI) and medium-scale technology (MSI) was used.
4. High-level languages (HLL) were used.
5. The main examples are PDP-8, ICL 2900, IBM-360 and IBM-370.
(d) Fourth Generation (1972-Present)
1. Large-scale integration (LSI) and very large-scale integration (VLSI) technology or
microprocessors is used.
2. Development of portable computers.
3. Use of RAID (Redundant Array of Inexpensive Disks) technology for ata storage.
4. Used in virtual reality multimedia and simulation.
5. Computers started in use for data communication.
Examples: IBM PC, Apple Macintosh.
(e) Fifth Generation (Present and Beyond)
In l982, Japan invented (Fifth generation computer systems). These modern computers systems
used on high level languages such as Python, R, C#, Java,
These computers are used in parallel processing, speech recognition, intelligent robots and aru
intelligence and logic programming. Example: PARAM 1000, IBM Notebooks.
2. According to Function
The computers are of the following types according to the
function.
Ihere are three different types of computers according to the principles of operation and they al
as follows.
 Introduction to Computers 7

1. Analogue computers
2. Digital computers
3. Hybrid computers
Analogue
Computer
Analogue Digital Digital
Computer Hybrid
Computer
Hybrid

Analogue Computers
Analogue computers are that in which data varies continuously, i.e., the movement of data is
continuous. It is generally meant to measure the physical variables, such as voltage, pressure,
temperature, speed and so on. It is mainly used for communication and broadcast transmission.

Digital Computers
Digital computers are those computers in which data flow in discrete form. These are high-speed
programmable electronic devices that perform mathematical calculations, compare values and store
the results. It uses binary number system in which there are only two digits 0 and 1 (each one is
called a bit). The digital computer is designed using digital circuits in which there are two levels for
an input or output signal. These two levels are known as logic 0 and logic 1. Digital computers provide
more accurate and faster results.
Digital computer is better suited for solving complex problems in science, engineering and
technology. Hence, they are increasingly used in the field of design, research and data processing.
Based on the purpose, digital computers can be further classified as follows.
1. General-purpose compulers
2. Special-purpose computers
General-purpose computers are used for any type of applications. Most of the computers are
general-purpose computers. Special-purpose computer is one that built for a specific application.

Hybrid Computers
Ahybrid computer combines the desirable features of analogue and digital computers. They combine
the speed of analogue computers and the accuracy of digital computers. Now, analogue-t0-digital and
digital-to-analogue converters are used for transforming data into suitable form for either type of
computation.
For example, in a hospital's intensive`care unit (1CU), analogue devices might measure a patient's
temperature and blood pressure. These analogue measurements may then be converted into numbers
and supplied to digital components the systemn for better monitoring. Hybrid computers are mainly
used for specialized tasks.
 Introductory Agri-lnformatics
8
and Configuration
Types of Computers According to Size
ofcomputers which is classified based on their size
There are four diflerent types and
I. Super computers configuration.
2. Mainframe computers
3. Mini computers
4. Micro computers

Digital
Computers Super computers

Mainframe computers

Mini computers

Micro computers
Supercomputers
They are mostly used for applications that require intensive numerical computations, such as stock
analysis, weather forecasting, nuclear energy research, lectronic design and for analysing geological
data. They can process billions of instructions per second. The best known supercomputer manufacturer
is Cray Research. Some of the companies which produce super computers are Cray, IBM, HP and so
on. PARAM is India's first super computer. Tata's EKA is also an example of
supercomputer.
Mainframe Computers
Mainframe computers can also process data at very high speed (in million instructions per second.
Shortly termed as 'MIPS'). Mainframe computers are large sized, powerful, multi-user
hat can support concurrent programs. They can accommodate more than 1000 computen
Simultaneously. Normaly, they are used in banking, airlines, railways and so on for theirworkstations
applicatiots.
The technique that allows
is called time Imany people at the terminals to access the same computer concurrently
sharing
MinicMinicomputers
omputers have lesser
Hence, their speed and
is also less than storage capacity in comparison to mainframe computers.
computers. performance that of
They can perform several actions at mainframes. They are mid-sized multiprocessing
simultaneously. Some of the features of
In recent years, the
the same time and can Support 4 to 200 users
mainframes are not available in minicomputers.
the distinction depends distinction between has blurred. Often
upon how the minicomputers
manufacturer
and small mainframes
waants to market his machines.
 Introductionto Computers
Workstations
Workstations are powerful, single-user computers. They have the capacity to store and process
large quantities of data, but they can only be used by one person at atime. They are typically linked
together to form a computer network called a local area network (LAN), which means that several
people, such as statt in an office can communicate with each other and share electronic files and
data. In terms of computing power, workstations lie in between personal computers and miniconiputers.
Workstations commonly support applications that require relatively high quality graphics capabilities
and a lot of memorY, such as desktop publishing, software development and engineering applications.
A workstation is similar to a personal computer but is more powerful and often comes with a
higher quality monitor.
Microcomputers
A microcomputer is also called a personal computer (PC). It is a small and relatively inexpensive
computer, where it commonly consists of a display screen, a keyboard, a CPU (central processing
unit), one or more disk drives and a printer with limited storage based upon a microprocessor. It is
designed for an individual user.
The invention of microprocessor (single chip CPU) gave birth to the much cheaper microcomputers.
They are further classified into the following processors.
1. Desktop computers
2. Laptop computers
3. Handheld computers (PDAs)
Computer Hardware
It is the physical equipment which is required to create, use, manipulate and store electronic data.
The hardware of a computer system can be classificd into CPU and peripherals.
Central Processing Unit
Central processing unit (CPU) is a microprocessor that controls the execution of program
instructions (microprocessor is programmable while integrated circuits (ICs) perform predetermined
tasks only). The CPU performs the following functions.
1. Arithmetic operations
2. Logical operations
3. Inputtoutput operations
4. Data manipulations
Main CPUComponents
To carry out the functions as mentioned earlier, the CPU has the following components.
1. Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU): It performs various calculations, such as addition, subtraction,
division, multiplication, comparison and so on.
2. Control Unit (CU: It coordinates the operation of hardware, the flow and execution of data
and instructions that are fed into memory or nain storage through CPU.
10 Introductory Agri-Informatics
data instructions, intermediate results and fin
3. Memory Unit (main storage): It holds final resuts
that are ready for output. The data and instructions are passed from the main store into ALI
device under the control of CU
or to and from the storage
Now computers hold megabytes or even gigabytes of data. A megabyte is a unit of one million
bytes, a gigabyte is one billion bytes and aterabyte is one trillion bytes. If a computer has a memory
64 megabytes, then it can hold 64 million bytes of information.
of
Set of Registers
Within a CPU, there are a number of high speed, special purpose, memory units called reoista
These registers carry out critical functions in the execution of programmes. They are used for storing
small information.
Motherboard
The computer's main circuit board contains the CPU, the memory and expansion slots for additional
circuit boards known as adapters or cards.
Buses
It is a set of parallel wires for connecting the CPUof a computer to all other input-output devices.
CPU.
The data can be transmitted in two directions, from and to the
Peripheral Devices
includes monitors,
Aperipheral device is any device that can be connected to a computer. This term
interactive
keyboards, mouse, webcams, drawing pads, joystick, modems, printers, scanners,
whiteboards, drive wheel and so on.
Input Devices
Any device that is capable of inputting information into a computer system, for example, keyboard.
microphone, mouse, scanner, webcam and so on are known as input devices.

Output Devices
The output devices are basically meant for anything that comes out of a computer after being
processed. It includes the monitor, headphone, printers, speakers, plotters and VDUs (visual display
units).
Storage Devices
Computer data storage, often known as memory refers to the computer components and recordlis
media which retains the digital data. Memory refers to the temporary internal storage areas W to the
computer. The term memory is usually used as ashorthand for physical memory and it refers
actual chips capable of holding data. Some computers also use virtual memory, which expands physical
memory onto a hard drive.

Memory
Memory is the part of a computer which stores information.
1. Random Access Memory (RAM): It is also termed as the main memory. It is the temporary
memory (volatile) that allows information to be stored randomly and accessed quickly and
directly (without the need to go through intervening data).
 Introduction to Computers 11

A computer can both write data into RAM and rcad data from
RAM. Every time a user turns
on his/her computer, a set of operating instructions is copied from the hard disk into
These instructions, which help control the basic computer functions remain in RAM untilKAM.
the
computer is turned off. As soon as the power is turned off, whatever data present in tne
RAM disappears.
2. Read-only Memory (ROM): It is the permanent memory of acomputer.A set of instructions
that nas been bunit into the computer by the manufacturer and it cannot be accessed or changed
by the user.
only permits the user to read data. Computers always contain a small amount
of ROM that holds
instructions for starting up the computer.
3. Programmable Read-only Memory (PROM): A PROM is a memory chip in
wnien you
can store, a program. Once the PROM has been used, you cannot wipe it clean and use it to
store something else. Like ROMs, PROMs are non-volatile.
4. Erasable Programmable Read-only Memory (EPROM): An EPROM is a special type of
PROM that can be erased by exposing it to ultraviolet light.
5. Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-only Memory (EEPROM): An EEPROM is a
special type of PROM that can be erased by exposing it to an electrical charge. It is also
termed as flash memory.
Memory is also classified a_
(a) Primary storage and (b) Secondary storage.
(a) Primary storage: It consists of RAM and ROM. In primary memory, the data is not stored
permanently, but it is stored temporarily. After accessing the information, the data is erased
from the memory of computer. Such types of data are considered as short-term memory.
(6) Secondary storage: It is also termed as auxiliary storage. The secondary memory/storage
is the slowest and the cheapest form of memory. It cannot be processed directly by the
CPU and it must be copied first into primary storage (RAM).
The main secondary memory devices are magnetic disks, such as hard drives and floppy
disks, optical disks such as CDs and CD-ROMs and magnetic tapes, they were actually the
first forms of secondary memory. In computer disk storage, any sector is a subdivision of a
track on a magnetic isk or optical disc. Each sector stores a fixed amount of user-accessible
data, traditionally, it consists of 512 bytes for hard drives and 2048 bytes for CD-ROMs and
DVD-ROMs.
The storage devices can be divided into two categories and they are listed as follows.
(1) Internal: They reside within a computer. Hard disk is an example of a magnetic disk in
which the computer data can be stored. They usually hold more data and are conventionally
faster.
(i) External: They are portable and are usually used as removable storage devices. USB flash
drive (commonly termed as pen drive), CD, digital video disk (DVD), Blu-ray disc are
certain examples.
USB flash drives look like a small flat pen. They may have large storage capacity and they
can be plugged into any computer with a USB socket. Flash drives are also commonly referred
to as pen drives or memory sticks.
14 Introductory Agri-lnformatics

Input Devices
provide data andI instructions to the computer are called Input devices,
Devices used to
devices are
Some important input
Scanner, MICR, Web camera, Microphone etc.
Mouse,
1. board,
Key Keyboard: The Key board is used for typing text into the computer. It is also knoWn a
keyboard is similar to that of atype writer with
standard input device. Acomputer
keys. The most commonly available computer
keyboard has 104 keys. additiona
of the cursor on a monitor. A moluce -..
2 Mouse: It is a device that controls the movement There will L
frequently used button.
have 2 buttons on its top. The left button is the most
smoothly scroll thro
wheel between the left and right buttons. This wheel enables us to
on the monitor moves in
screens of information. As we move the mouse, the pointer
light emitine
same direction. Optical mouse is another advanced pointing device that uses adata.
the It is on.
component instead of the mouse ball. Mouse cannot be used for entering
useful to select the options on the screen.
translte
3. Scanner: It is an input device that can read text or illustrations printed on paper and
not be entered
into digital form. The main advantage of these scanners is that the data need
separately resulting in saving lot of time.
Scanners are of two types:
i) Optical scanners, ii) MICR
i) Optical scanners:
a. Optical character Recognition (0CR): In this, characters are read with the help of alight.
This is used in office automation and documentation in library etc.
b. Optical mark recognition (OMR): It is a technology where an OMR device senses the
presence or absence of a mark such as a pencil mark. OMR is used in tests such 23
aptitude tests.
C. Optical barcode recognition (OBCR): Barcode readers are photoelectric scanners that read
the bar codes or vertical zebra striped marks printed on product containers. This is usel
in super markets, book shops etc.
ii) MICR: This is widely used in banks to process the cheques. This allows the computer
to recognize characters printed using magnetic ink.
Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR): It is a character recognition technology
used primarily by the banking industry to facilitate the processing of the cheques. MICR
characters (cheque No., Account No. etc.) are printed in special ink usually containing
iron oxide. When a document that contains the ink needs to be read, it passes througha
machine which magnetizes the ink and there will be areader sorter unit which translates
the magnetic information into charactefs. MICR provides a secure, high speed of scanning
and processing information. t scans
about
Output devices: Any device that is capable 2600 cheques/ min.
of representing information on a computeris
called an Output device. Output
to the user in the devices receive
desired form. Some important information from the CPU and presentit
Output devices are: Monitor, Printer.
 Introduction to Computers 15

1. Termina/Monitor: It is similar to TV SCreen- either a monochrome (black & white) or colour

and it displays the output. It is also referred as Visual Display Unit (VDU). Several types of
monitors are in use. Some of them are Colour Graphic Adapter (CGA), Enhanced Graphics
Adaptor (EGA), Video Graphics Adapter (VGA) and Super Video Graphics Adapter (SVGA).
The screen sizes differ from system to system. The standard size is 24 lines by 80 characters.
Most systems have provision for scrolling which helps in moving the text vertically or
horizontally on the screen.
Printer: A printer is used to transfer data from a computer onto paper. The paper copy obtained
from a printer is often referred as printout.
Various types of printers are available in market include 3D printers, inkjet printe:s, laser printers
and thermal printers. A laser printer rapidly produces high quality text and graphics.
Bits is the smallest possible units of data. Bits 0 and Iare also called as Binar number.
A group of 8 bits = 1byte
4 bits =1 nibble
byte = 8 bits
IKB = 210 byte
IMB = 220 byte
IGB 230 byte
1TB - 210 GB
IPB = 210 TB
1EB = 210 PB
1ZB = 210 EB
1YB = 2l°ZB