Presentation of data

Why presentation of the data is necessary?

The raw data, which have been collected, are generally very large in quantity
with the results their it is very difficult to draw any conclusion from such data until
and unless the data are to be condensed and are fit for further analysis. For this
purpose it is necessary to prepare the data in a form which is easy to understand.
This called presentation of data.
Methods of Presentation of data:
(a) Classification (b) Tabulation (c) Diagram (d) Graphs
Classification
“Classification is the process of arranging things in groups or classes
according to their resemblances or similar characteristics.
Tabulation
The process of systematic arrangement of data into rows and columns is
called Tabulation.
(a) Types of table:
(i) One-way table (ii) Two-way tables
(iii) Three-way tables (IV) Higher order tables
(i) One-way Tabulation; In One-way, we tabulate the data according to
only one characteristic of a particular problem.
(ii) Two-way Tabulation; Two-way table give information regarding to two inter-
related characteristics of a particular problem.
(iii) Three-way Tabulation; Three-way table give information regarding to three
inter-related characteristics of under study problem.
(iv) Higher orders Tabulation; In this table, the observations of under study problem
are arranged according to many characteristic.
Construction of Statistical Tables:
A Statistical table has at least four parts the title, the stub, the box-head and the body; In
addition, some tables have a prefatory note, a foot-note and source note.
Title: Every Table must have a title. A title is a heading at the top of the table describing
its contents. A title usually tells us the what, where, how and when the data in that order.
Title is usually in capitals throughout. Of the title requires two or more lines. It is
arranged to form an inverted pyramid.
Box-head and Stub: The headings for various columns and rows and called column
captain and row captions respectively.
Box-head The portion of the table containing column captains is called the box-head
Stub OR Row heading : The portion of the table containing row captains is called the
stub.
Body and Arrangement of Data: The set of entries in the appropriate cells of the table
together with totals etc., forms the body of the table. This is the most important part
because it contains the entire data arranged in columns and rows.
Frequency Distribution:
Ungrouped Data: The original form of representation of data is called raw data or un-
grouped data.
Grouped Data:
Frequency Distribution: It is defined as the arrangement of data according to magnitude
of size along with particular frequency.
What is frequency?
The frequency of a particular data value is the number of times the data value occurs..
Making Continuous Frequency Distribution:
Steps in the construction of continuous frequency distribution.
1. Find range i.e., Largest value-smallest value
2. Decide the no. of classes (5-20)
A Strug’s Formula
K = 1 + 3.322 logN,N = Total no. of observations.
3. Decide the size of class intervals Range / K
4. Decide the starting point.
5. Determine the remaining class limit.
6. Distribute the data into respective classes.
7. Total of the frequency Column
Representation of data through Diagrams and Charts
Diagrams:
The one of the main objects of statistics is to represent any large value in such a
form as it can understand easily. For attaining this purpose, we use a method of
diagram by which the data is represented in a visual form.

Types of Diagrams: (i) Bar Charts (ii) Pictogram (iii) Pie-chart

Simple Bar Diagram :To get an impression of the distribution of a discrete or
categorical data set, it is usual to represent it by a bar diagram. To construct a bar
diagram, the values of the variable or categories are taken along x-axis and a bar
with height equal to its frequency is drawn on each category.

Pie Diagram: Pie Diagram

The Pie chart or pie diagram is a division of a circular region into different
sectors. It is constructed by dividing the total angle of a circle of 360 degrees into
different components. The angle Q for each sector is obtained by the relation:
 Q=
Each sector is shaded with different colours or marks so that they look separate
from each other. It is a useful way of displaying the data where division of a whole
into component parts needs to be presented. It can also be used to compare such
divisions at different times.
Example

Pictogram: Pictogram Charts use icons to give a more engaging overall view of small sets of
discrete data. Typically, the icons represent the data’s subject or category, for example, data on
population would use icons of people. Each icon can represent one unit or any number of units
(e.g. each icon represents 10). Data sets are compared side-by-side in either columns or rows of
icons, to compare each category to one another.

The use of icons can sometimes help overcome differences in language, culture and education.
Icons can also give a more representational view of the data. So for example, if your data is of 5
cars, you show 5 icons of cars in the chart.
Graph: It is the device used for presenting statistical data is a simple clear and effective
manner. A graph consists of curves or straight lines. Graph is a very good method
of showing fluctuations or trends line in statistical data. They help for making
perditions and forecasts.
Types of Graphs
(i) Graphs of Time series (a) Historigram
(ii) Graphs of frequency distribution
(a) Histogram (b) Frequency Polygon
(c) Frequency curve (d) Cumulative frequency curve or ogive
Historigram: The graphical representation of time series is called Historigram. By taking
time along X-axis and values of the variable along Y-axis Points are plotted and are then
connected either by a smooth curve or by straight line to get the “Historigram’’
Histogram:
It is the graphic representation of class frequencies in a frequency distribution by
vertical adjacent rectangles.
If the class interval sizes are equal, then the heights of the rectangle are
proportional to the areas associated with respective class. In such cases the height will
represent the class frequency.
If the class interval sizes are unequal, then the heights of the rectangles are to be
adjusted by dividing each class frequency by its class interval size.
The heights of 50 college students measured to the nearest centimeters are given in
the following table. Represent the data by a histogram:
Heights (cm) No. of Students
150 – 152 4
153 – 155 6
156 – 158 10
159 – 161 16
162 – 164 12
165 – 167 5
168 – 170 4
Solution:
Class-Boundaries F
149.5 – 152.5 4
152.5 – 155.5 6
155.5 – 158.5 10
158.5 – 161.5 16
 161.5 – 164.5 12
164.5 – 167.5 5
167.5 – 170.5 4

Frequency Polygon:
It is a curve representing a frequency distribution on a graph paper. It is obtained
by joining the mid-points of the tops of the rectangles in a histogram by straight line. In
this diagram the problems of unequal class intervals are solved in the same way as in the
histogram. It is easier to construct and two or more frequency polygon can be shown on
the same graphs. It pictures the true shape of a distribution. It is a closed geometric figure
that represents a frequency distribution. It is used to find the mode of distribution.
Q:Represent the data by frequency polygon:
Heights (cm) No. of Students
150 – 152 4
153 – 155 6
156 – 158 10
159 – 161 16
162 – 164 12
165 – 167 5
168 – 170 4
Solution:

Frequency Curve:
It is obtained by joining the mid-points of the top of the rectangles of the
histogram by free-hand curve. Frequency polygon gives straight line, which
cannot show the regularity of variation in the data as frequency curve does. It is a
theoretical frequency distribution. It is an ideal limit of a histogram or a frequency
polygon.
Q: Represent the data by frequency curve:
Heights (cm) No. of Students
50-54 1
55-59 2
60-64 11
65-69 10
70-74 12
75-79 21
80-84 6
85-89 9
90-94 4
95-99 4
Solution:
 C.F. F Mid-Points
50-54 1 52
55-59 2 57
60-64 11 62
65-69 10 67
70-74 12 72
75-79 21 97
80-84 6 82
85-89 9 87
90-94 4 92
95-99 4 97

Cumulative frequency polygons or ogive

The graph of the cumulative frequencies against the upper class boundaries is
called an ogive or cumulative frequency polygon. Ogive is a continuous form of the
cumulative curve, which assumes a very large number of observations. When the ogive is
smoothed, the resulting curve is sometimes called a cumulative frequency curve.
Q. Draw an ogive
Marks Frequency
0 – 10 6
10 – 20 30
20 – 30 44
30 – 40 50
40 – 50 48
50 – 60 26
60 – 70 3
70 – 80 1
Sol.:
 Marks Frequency Cumulative Frequency
0 – 10 6 6
10 – 20 30 36
20 – 30 44 80
30 – 40 50 130
40 – 50 48 178
50 – 60 26 204
60 – 70 3 207
70 – 80 1 208

Difference between Diagrams and Graphs:

1. Diagrams are more attractive to the eye and as such are better suited for
publicity and propaganda. They do not add anything to the meaning of the data.
2. A diagram is generally constructed on plain paper. In other words, a graph
represents mathematical relationship (though not necessarily functional)
between two variables whereas a diagram does not.
3. For representing frequency distributions and time series graphs are more
appropriate than diagrams. In fact for presenting presenting frequency
distributions diagrams are rarely used.