DC MACHINES

DC machine could be generator or motor or DC machine comes in two (2) forms, depending on
the mode of operation.

CONSTRUCTIONAL FEATURES
It consists of
(1) Electromagnetic – one or more pair of poles.
(2) Armature winding. i.e. conductor in series or parallel.
(3) Armature core – This is the structural emf for 2 above
(4) Commutator – This is the element which changes the alternating voltage produced to direct.
Fig 3.1 below remind us of electro-magnetic concept from physics course.

Fig 3.1

 = flux per pole in weber

Z= Total no of conductor in amature winding.
N=Speed in rev/min.
p= No of pairs of poles.
a=No of pairs of parallel path in the winding.
Using electromagnetic concept, the modern d.c machine is made of cast steel with the no of
pole projecting inlet as shown in Fig 3.2

1
 Fig 3.2

Poles no are even 2,4,6,8 e.t.c

Materials for pole could be cast iron, cast steel, or wrought iron.
Poles could be of solid material or laminated field winding for magnetization are often mounted
on the poles as shown in fig 3.2
Armature cone is made of iron stampings (gripping iron) to reduce eddy current losses and allow
for accurate regulation.
The armature conductor are wedged into insulated slots in which the emf is generated.
Rotation of the armature is done mechanically.
The commutator rotates in the armature and are welded or soldered to the end of armature
conductor as shown in fig 3.2 while carbon brushes are arrange to bear upon the commutation.
Small auxietary poles (interpoles) are used to obtain a spark free commutation process.
The voltage at the terminal at d.c machine is not equal to emf generated.
This is due to the drop in voltage in the machine as a result of inherent internal resistance of the
armature end and that due to the brush contact.
Hence, the voltage at the terminal of d.c machine is given by expression 3.2
V=E- (IaRa+IaRs+∆V brush).................. 3.2
Where E=generated emf
Ia=armature current
Ra=armature resistance
Rs=resistance of series field winding
Including commutating poles if and ∆V brush is ≈ 2V irrespective of armature current.

2
For the shunt generator rs=0 »Iars=0 from expression of 3.2 as Ia increases V drops as a result of
component Iara.
This effect referred to as armature reaction will be dealt with later in this course.
The loady characteristic in the operation of d.c generator is always of interest to any electrical
engineer, technologist or technician engaged in production line where the load varies.
This behaviour of the terminal voltage of d.c generator to the load it carries at any given time
necessitated the different type of d.c generator presently in existence of all types available, any
engineer, technologist, technician can then choose that type which best suit this line of operation.

TYPES OF D.C GENERATOR

The following are the types of d.c generator
1. Seperately excited
2. Series
3. Shunt
4. Compound d.c generator
The machines differ in the way the field winding are connected or not connected (isolated) to the
armature winding. Hence a separately excited machine is shown in Fig 3.3

Fig 3.3a

This is a special purpose machine. The VI relationship is shown in fig 3.4a below

3
 Fig 3.4a

Terminal voltage drop where is due mainly to armature reactance.

SERIES WINDING D.C MACHINE
A series d.c winding generator connection is shown in Fig 3.3b

The VI characteristic (load characteristic) is shown in fig 3.4b below

The type of connection is often used as a booster for long traction.

SHUNT WINDING GENERATOR

A shunt winding generator is shown in fig 3.3c below where the field coil is connected in parallel
to the armature core of winding.

Fig 3.3c

4
This is common type of generator.
The voltage drop in the terminal voltage

Using expression 3.2 above as the terminal voltage drops , the product of Iara drops.
It implies that Ia drops since our ra is a constant and if Ia drops,this results in less Ø (flux) in the
magnetic cut. Hence from expression 3.1 (E=KØ) E reduces.
This double effects is what is shown in fig 3.4c above and often referred to as armature reaction.

COMPOUND WOUND GENERATOR

This could be sub divided into
1. Short shunt and
2. Long shunt
The cut connections for short shunt and long shunt are shown in fig 3.4d & e respectively.

5
As can be seen for the cut,there are two windings; the shunt and series. The series is intended to
aid the shunt in stabilizing the terminal voltage by ‘E’ for a load of ‘I’ load.
Depending on the strength of the winding i.e (N turns), the compensation could be level
compounded or over compounded as shown in fig 3.4d

Fig 3.4d

PHASE REGULATION RESISTANCE

6
Very often resistance are used. If this is connected to series with shunt winding, the field current
would be increased from or decreased as required. If ↗ increases Ø increases E ↗ increases. This
is used to keep the terminal voltage constant for long line cables, drop in voltage along the line is
handled by using phase regulation resistance to over compound as in case of compound generator.

D.C MOTOR
The basic principle of operation in D.C motor uses the physics concept of electro magnetising
interpreted as Flemings LHS. Using fig 3.1a, current passes through the conductor in magnetic
field as shown. According to Flemings head rule a force acts on the conductor which will then tend
to move. The direction of motor or the conductor is determined using Flemings LH
The force acting on the conductor is given by the expression 3.3
F=BIL [N]...................... 3.3
Where B= flux density
L=length of conductor in metre
I=current in conductor in Amperes
Using fig 3.2, if field magnetic are excited by d.c current and likewise the armature winding. The
d.c generator in fig 3.2 will then start to operate as a d.c motor i.e The armature will rotate thereby
converting electrical energy into mechanical energy.
Construction features of d.c generator and d.c motor are similar. The major difference is external
and the environmental conduction under which the motor operates differ from the generator. Hence
the need for different external appearance of motor is necessary.
Ex 3.1 A conductor 30cm long lies at right angle of magnetic field of flux 1.6wb/m 2 and carries
the current of 25 Amp. Calculate the force on conductor.
Ans = F= BIL=12N
BACK EMF IN MOTOR
As a result of the armature winding in magnetic field. The armature conductor do cut lines of force
on the field. Hence an emf is generated which acts in opposition to the applied voltage.
This is referred to as back emf.
The voltage formula for d.c motor is given by expression3.4
i.e V=Eb+Iara..................3.3
where V is the applied voltage in Volts
Eb is the back emf
Iara is the voltage drop in the armature.
Note: The differences in expression 3.2 and 3.3
E α ØN...............3.4a
where Ø= flux per pole
N=speed of motor in rev/min
Similarly Ø α E/N............3.4b
NαE/Ø...............3.4c
Ex 3.2 A 460 volt d.c shunt motor running on load has armature resistance of 0.12.Calculate
1. Back emf for armature current 150A
7
 2. Ia for Eb equals 452V
Ans
V=Eb=Iara
Eb=442V
Eb=460-12x150=442V
Ia=66.66A

TORQUE OF TURNING EFFECT

Using fig 3.1 as a basis, the turning effect about the shaft is referred to as torque.

The total torque or a motor is sum or separated torque of each conductor.

T α ØIa
Where Ø is the total flux and Ia is the armature current.
TYPES OF D.C MOTORS
Just like d.c generator, the d.c motor takes its name from the type of field arrangement used. Hence
we have
(1) Series wound motor
(2) Shunt wind motor
(3) Compound wound motor
The fig 3.5a below shows the circuit connection for series type

Fig 3.5a

The supplied current passes through both the armature and series field. The motor characteristic
for such a pole is shown in fig 3.6

8
 Fig 3.6

At low speed, the current is heavy and the speed is heavy at no load. At almost no load the speed
flies. Hence the strick rule is that never must a series motor be run unloaded. In starting, this type
is motor against load, torque and current are great. This is suitable for traction purposes.
Shunt Wound Motor

Fig 3,5b
Fig 3.5(b) above shows the shunt wound type of motor. The current in the field is fairly constant
from no load to load. The motor characteristic is shown in fig 3.6(b)

Fig 3.6b

This is a general purpose machine since it has a good starting torque and fairly constant speed at
all loads up to full loads.
9
COMPOUND MOTOR
Fig 3.5(c) below shows the circuit connection for

Fig 3.5c

The effect of series is relatively weak compared to the shunt on the armature.
The series winding has two effects
(a) Cummulative (assisting/adding) (b) Differential (opposing)
The motor characteristic of compound type is shown in fig 3.6(c)

Fig 3.6c
The cumulative compound motor is best suited for processes with sudden overload e.g (Steel)
Rolling mills : A heavy fluy wheel is often fitted to such motor to slow down the speed as a result
of sudden heavy power demands.
The differential compound motor is rarely used. Nonetheless it has a fairly constant speed under
normal load. As load increases the speed tends to drop but the series winding tends to weaken the
speed also tending to increase the speed thereby attaining the steady speed through out.

SPPED CONTROL
Going back to expression 3-4, we have EαØN.
If Ø is constant, then E = K1N. The speed can then be said to be approximately proportional to the
applied voltage.

10
It therefore follows that if the applied voltage influenced on the armature circuit can be controlled,
the speed can also be controlled.
Two method of controlling the speed are in use : (1) Series control (2) Field control
(1) Series control: This involves including the series resistance in the armature circuit of the motor
in order to cut down the voltage applied to the armature thereby reducing the speed of the motor
(Uneconomic method and the seldom used for shunt and compound motors)
(2) Field control: Going back to expression 3-4 (E α ØN). If V is constant, then N and varies
inversely,
E=K1ØN
Ø=K2E/N
N=K3E/Ø

For the shunt and compound motors a variation in shunt winding current will produce a change in
speed.
Fig 3-5b & c above show a field regulating resistance used in achieving this purpose.
Cutting down the resistance increases the current thereby increasing the flux and thus reducing the
speed.
V = ZI → I = V/Z >>
Whereas weakening the field by cutting in the resistance increases the speed.
In case of series motor, fig 3-5a event of weakening the field is obtained by connecting in a
diverting resistance across a field winding.

REVERSING THE DIRECTION OF MOTION OF A D.C MOTOR

In order to do this, the connections of either the field winding or of the armature must be reversed.
This is obvious from the use of Fleming LH rule
(a) Reversing field winding
(b) Reversing armature connection of brushes.
Fig 3.8a&b below show the connection and direction of current.

11
 Fig 3.8a

Fig 3.8b

Fig 3.9a & b show the possible interconnection for the shunt motor.

SHUNT DC MOTOR

12
For the compound motor the armature connections are easier to reverse than the field winding.
Fig 3-10a and b show the two possible connections.
Note: Inter poles circuit are always in series with the armature circuit.

SUMMARY OF APPLICATIONS

Type of motor

SHUNT D.C MOTOR

CHARACTERISTICS
(1) Approximately constant speed
(2) Adjustable speed
(3) Mechanic starting speed

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APPLICATION
(a) Driving
Constant speed
Line shaft
(b) Centrifugal pumps
(c) Lathes
(d) Machine tools
(e) Blower & fan
(f) Reciprocating pumps

SERIES

CHARACTERISTICS
(a) Variable speed
(b) Adjustable varying speed
(c) High starting torque
APPLICATIONS
(a) Traction work (Pulling or leaving load over a surface)
(b) Rapid transit
(c) Trochey cars
(d) Cranes and hoists
(e) Conveyors

CUMMULATIVE COMPOUND

CHARACTERISTICS
(a) Variable speed
(b) Adjustable varying speed
(c) High starting torque

APPLICATION
(a) For intermittent high torque load
(b) For shear and punches
(c) Elevators
(d) Conveyors
(e) Rolling mills

LOSSES AND EFFICIENCY

The same losses take place in motors as well as generator
(1) Copper losses
(2) Magnetic losses (loss or core)
14
(3) Mechanical

(1) Copper losses are divided into I.FL

(a) Ammeter loss I2aRa(30-40)
Fd copper loss I2sherRsher(20-30)%
(2) Magnetic losses can be subdivided into
(a) Eddy current
(b) Hysteresis and both
(3) Mechanical losses: They consist of
(a) Friction loss at bearing on commutator (20-30)% IfL
(b) Head friction [(10-20)%IfL] or wind guage loss.

STRAY LOSSES : are defined as magnetic and mechanical losses after referred to as rotational
losses. Stray losses and copper losses are constant and therefore referred to as constant or standard
losses.
Hence for shunt and compound generator total losses is Arm Cu losses + Wc
= (I + Ish)2Ra + Wc. But I2a Ra is a variable loss. Since Ia varies we can therefore say that total
losses= variable + Constant loss

EFFICIENCY
(1) Mechanical efficiency and is defined by
ɳ m =B/A =Total watts generated in air/Mechanical power supplied
ɳ m = EIa/Output of driving engine
(2) Electrical efficiency C/B
ɳ e = C/B= watt available in load output/Total watts generated
(3) Overall of commercial efficiency= C/A
=ɳ c = watt available in load circuit/Mechanical power supplied
ɳ c =ɳ m X ɳ e
=95% ɳ m
Condition for maximum efficiency is obtained when a variable loss is COH i.e a situation when
I2aRa =Wc or Ia =
The fig below shows the characteristic of efficiency with the load

15
The condition for the maximum power developed by the motor such that IaRa=V/r=Eb
i.e Arm Cu losses=COSH losses.
The efficiency curve of a motor is similar to that obtained in a generator.

PARALLEL OPERATION OF MOTOR

Parallel operation of the motor is considered as a result of the
(1) Continuity of saving situation
(2) Efficiency level
(3) Maintenance and repair facilities
(4) Addition of plant facilities

CONTINUITY OF SERVICING
✓ This is made possible by the use of smaller sizes of plant. A breakdown in any one does
not cut off supply completely in comparison to a single large size. Recently, the
requirement of interrupted service has become so important especially in factory that is
more recognised as economy necessity.
✓ Efficiency: Load fluctuates between the peak value during the day and this value at night
for maximum efficiency generator operates at full load. It then become necessary to have
small unit operating in parallel considering load fluctuation in order to fully utilize the
generator.
MAINTENANCE AND REPAIR
Periodicies carry out

ADDITION TO PLANT
When addition of plant are to be carried out for parallel operation, the procedure adopted is referred
to as synchronization.

16
Let’s consider the fig above, generator 1 is already in operation and to be paralleled with 2. The
armature of 2 is speeded up to its rated value by the prime mover. S2 is closed.
V completes the circle across S1. (V=0 for proper paralleling)
Generator 2 varied until the voltmeter reads V is zero.
Under this condition, S1 is closed and parallel to the system. At this stage, it is not carrying any
load and is referred to as floating i.e E=V. For generator 2 to supply or carry load I is given by
I=E-V⁄Ra
E should increase accordingly by increasing to weaken the field in I to maintain V.
The load shearing between the generators is an import aspect in parallel operation. Different
generators behave differently when operating in parallel.
But it is important that the load is sheared proportionally to the ratings or for high efficiency of
operation.
E1, E2--- No load volt
R1, R2---Armature resistor
V---Common terminal voltage

Load can be transferred from 1 to 2 by either increasing Ø2N2 or by reducing N1Ø1, N2N1 can be
changed by changing the speed of the driving element, Ø1Ø2 can be changed using field regulating
resistances.

Note:

17
 1. Two parallel shunt generator having equal no load voltages shear the load in such a ratio
that the load current of each m/c produces the same drop in each generator.
2. For equal no load voltages, the load current produce sufficient voltage drop in each so as
to keep their terminal voltages the same.

INDUCTION MACHINES
These machines do not run at synchronous speed. Examples are squirrel cage and wound rotor
induction machine. An induction machine is made up of Stator and Rotor.
[Briefly explain how squirrel cage rotor is made]
Induction machine operates on the basis of interaction o induced rotor current and the air gaps
fields. If the rotor is allowed to run on the basis of the torque developed by this interaction the
machine is a motor.
If a rotor is driven externally by a prime mover above a synchronous speed, the machine becomes
a generator. Hence, the machine can function as both a motor and a generator. It is however almost
always used as a motor.
THE PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION
The action of poly-phase induction motor can be briefly discussed:
The stator is excited by poly-phase source rotating at synchronous speed. This produces a rotating
magnetic field also rotating at synchronous speed. If a magnetic field rotating at synchronous speed
cuts rotor conductors, voltages are induced in the rotor conductors which gives rise to rotor current
and these rotor current interacts with air-gap to produce torque. This torque exists as long as
rotating magnetic field are induced rotor current exists. Hence, the rotor rotates in the direction of
the rotating field.
Note: (a) if rotor speed is less than synchronous speed the machine is MOTOR.
(b) when the rotor speed is equal to synchronous speed there will be no induced currents in the
rotor hence no torque.
(c) When rotor speed is driven above synchronous

(A) SLIP(S): This is defined as fractional amount by which the angular speed of rptation of
rotor differs from synchronous speed. If the actual mechanical speed is Nr and synchronous
speed is Ns, then,
Slip(s) = (Ns-Nr)/Ns (1a)
%Slip = (Ns-Nr)/Ns x 100% (1b)
Example: A four pole machine rotates at 1000rev/min and supplied with 50Hz.

18
 i. Find the fractional slip.
ii. Is the machine a motor or generator?
Solution:
(i) 4 pole = 2 pairs of poles.
P = pair of poles, f = frequency.
P = 2, F = 50Hz
120𝑓 60𝑓
Ns = 𝑛 = =
𝑝 𝑝

60𝑥50
= = 1500rev/min.
𝑝

Nr = 1000rev/min (given)
𝑁𝑠−𝑁𝑟
Slip(s) = 𝑁𝑠
1500−1000 500
= = = 1/3
1500 1500

(ii)Since S<1, the machine is a motor.

Note: if Ns=Nr => S=0 => No torque.
If S<0, it is a generator
𝑁𝑠−(−𝑁𝑟)
If S>1 (machine acts as a break) as Nr is reverse as > 1.
𝑁𝑠

(B) FREQUENCY OF ROTOR CURRENT

Recall, for synchronous speed,
60𝑓
Ns = rev/min (r.p.m)
𝑝

Note: At any speed the rotor frequency is proportional to the slip. The frequency of current in a
rotating conductor is given by
𝑃𝑁𝑟
𝐹𝑟 = (2)
60
60𝐹𝑟
or 𝑁𝑟 = 𝑟. 𝑝. 𝑚
𝑝

Where Nr is the actual speed of an induction motor or actual rotor conductor speed and P is no
pair of poles.
If we compare rotor speed and speed of magnetic field, the relative speed between the rotor
conductor and rotating magnetic field due to stator is given by

19
Nr = Ns – n
Where n = Mechanical speed
Nr = Relative speed
Ns = Synchronous speed
𝑃(𝑁𝑠−𝑛)
𝐹𝑟 = (3a)
60

From eqn 1a
𝑁𝑠 − 𝑛
𝑆=
60
𝑆𝑁𝑠 = 𝑁𝑠 − 𝑛 (3b)
Fr = SFs
Example 2; if the conduction machine is supplied with 50Hz with slip of 50%. What is the rotor
frequency?
Solution:
From Fr = SFs
and Fs = 50Hz
S =50% = 0.5
Fr = 0.5 x 50 = 25Hz
Hence in general, the current and voltage induced in the rotor of induction machine are of slip
frequency Fs.
EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF THE INDUCTION MACHINES
Since the frequency of the rotor current is slip frequency (i.e Fr=SFs), then, let x2 be rotor leakage
reactance at slip (i.e when the machine is running) and x2 => Rotor leakage reactance at stand still,
By denoting 1 – for stand stator and
2 – for rotor.
𝑥2 = 𝑗𝑤𝑟 𝑙2 = 𝑗2𝜋𝑓𝑟 𝑙2 = 2𝜋𝑓𝑠 𝑠𝑙2
𝑥2 = 𝑗𝑤𝑠 𝑙2 = 𝑗2𝜋𝑓𝑠 𝑙2
𝑥2 = 𝑗2𝜋𝑓𝑠 𝑠𝑙2 = 𝑠𝑥2 (1)
Also, the induced rotor voltage magnitude is proportional to slip(s).
If E2 is the induced voltage at stand still, then

20
 𝑒2 = 4.44𝑓𝑟 𝑁∅
𝐸2 = 4.44𝑓𝑠 𝑁∅
𝑒2 = 4.44𝑓𝑠 𝑆𝑁∅
𝑒2 = 𝑆𝐸2 (3)
Hence, the rotor current could be
𝑒 𝑆𝐸2
𝐼2 = 𝑧2 = (4)
2 √𝑟 +(𝑆𝑋2 )2
2

Where r2 = resistance/Phase of rotor winding

X2 = leakage reactance/phase of rotor winding at stand still
= 2ℼf times leakage inductance/phase of rotor winding.
By dividing denominator and numerator of RHS of (4) by S
𝐸2
𝐼2 = 2
(5)
√𝑟2 +(𝑋2 )2
𝑠

Equivalent circuit for rotor therefore shown below:

SX X
2 I 2 I
2 2

SE
2 + r
2 E + r
21
2
- - s

Phase angle between E2 and I2

𝑆𝑋2
= tan−1 ( ) = ∅𝑟
𝑟2
𝑟
Or cos ∅𝑟 =
√𝑟 2 +(𝑆𝑋2 )2

THE COMPLETE EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF INDUCTION MACHINE

The induction motor can be viewed as a transformer. Primary of the transformer and the rotor
corresponds to the secondary. Xm is the magnetising reactance and rm is the core loss equivalent.
X2 is the rotor leakage reactance.

21
 I
1

r X
1 1 X I
21 2

V rm X m r
E E 21
1 2
s

Fig: Complete Equivalent Circuit of Induction Motor (per phase)

EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT REFERED TO PRIMARY [STATOR]

For X former impedance relationship effective turns ratio between stator and rotor
𝑘𝑤 𝑁 2
𝑟2𝑖 = (𝑘𝑤1 𝑁1 ) 𝑟2 (1)
2 2

𝑘𝑤 𝑁 2
𝑋2𝑖 = (𝑘𝑤1 𝑁1) 𝑋2 (2)
2 2

Where 𝑘𝑤1 and 𝑘𝑤2 are winding factor of stator and rotor respectively. Therefore, equivalent
circuit referred to stator is shown in fig below

r X X21
1 1
rm X m
V r
21
s

Fig: Equivalent Circuit referred to the stator

TORQUE CALCULATION
By assuming core loss be negligible to that rm = 0. Fig below shows equivalent circuit of fig above.

22
 r X X21
1 1
rm Xm
V r
21
s

For an m phase with the above per phase equivalent circuit.

Input power = 𝑚𝑣𝐼1 cos ∅ (1)
Where cos ∅ is the input power factor
Stator copper loss = 𝑚𝐼12 𝑅1
2 𝑟21
Power transferred to rotor = 𝑚𝐼21 (2)
𝑠
2
Rotor copper loss = 𝑚𝐼21 𝑟21 = 𝑃𝑐 (3)
Gross power output
2 𝑟21 2
= 𝑚𝐼21 − 𝑚𝐼21 𝑟21
𝑠

2 1−𝑠
= 𝑚𝐼21 𝑟21 ( ) (4a)
𝑠

Power transfer to the rotor

1−𝑠
𝑝𝑔 = 𝑝𝑐 ( ) (4b)
𝑠

If T = torque in newton-metres, exerted on the rotor by the rotating flux,

𝑇𝑤 = 𝑃𝑔

Tѡ =Pg
2𝜋𝑛𝑇
= 𝑃𝑔 (5)
60

Where 𝑃𝑔 is the gross power output

2𝜋𝑛𝑇 2 1−𝑠
= 𝑚𝐼21 𝑟21 ( ) (6)
60 𝑠

But from (1a) (of slip operation characteristics)

23
 2𝜋𝑛𝑇 𝑟
2 21
𝑛
= 𝑚𝐼21 ( )
60 𝑠 𝑛𝑠
At standstill n=ns . Therefore,
2 𝑟21
𝑚𝐼21
𝑠
𝑇= 2𝜋𝑛𝑠 𝑁. 𝑚 (8)
60

Also, the input power to the rotor or power transferred across air gap is often referred to as the
gross torque in synchronous watts.
2 𝑟21
𝑇 = 𝑚𝐼21 (Sync. Watts) (9)
𝑠

The general torque-slip curve of an induction machine is shown below

Exercise: A 415 V, 50Hz, 3∅, 4 pole induction motor develops its full load power of 10hp at
1425 r.p.m and the input power is 10kW at 0.85 lagging. On no load, the input is 0.5kW at rated
voltage. Calculate the full load slip, line current, stator copper loss, rotor copper loss and torque in
N.m.
Solution:
Power output power PFL=10H (horse power)
= 10x746W =7460W
Input power = Pinput = 10kW
= 10 x 1000W= 10000W
Speed = 1425 r.p.m
Power factor (p.f) – 0.8 lagging.
P (no load) = 0.5kW = 500W => fixed loss
Pair of poles = 4/2 =2

24
 𝑁𝑠 −𝑁
i. Slip(s) = 𝑁𝑠
60𝑓 60𝑥50
But 𝑁𝑠 = = = 15 00 𝑟. 𝑝. 𝑚
𝑝 2

1500−1425 75
Slip(s) = = 1500 = 0.05
1500

ii. P(input) = √3𝑉𝐿 𝐼𝐿 cos ∅ where IL = Line current

𝑝 10𝑥103
𝐼𝐿 = =
√3𝑉𝐿 𝐼𝐿 cos ∅ √3𝑥415𝑥0.8
= 17.39A
=17.4A
iii. Total losses
= Input power – output power
= 10𝑥103 − (10𝑥746)
= 2540W
Total copper loss
= 2540 – 500
= 2040W
2 1−𝑠
Recall, 𝑃𝑔 = 𝑚𝐼21 𝑟21 ( )
𝑠
2
𝑃𝑐 = 𝑚𝐼21 𝑟21 = rotor copper loss
1−𝑠 𝑃𝑔 𝑥𝑆
𝑃𝑔 = 𝑃𝑐 ( ) = 𝑃𝑐 =
𝑠 1−𝑆
But power transferred to the rotor
= 746 x 10 +500 = 7960W
𝑃𝑔 = 7960𝑊
0.05
𝑃𝑐 = 7960𝑥 = 419𝑊
1 − 0.05
... Stator copper loss =2040 – 419
= 1621W
2𝜋𝑛𝑇
iv. Pout =Tw = 60
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝑇= =
𝑊 2𝜋𝑛
60
25
 746𝑥10𝑥60
=
2𝜋𝑥1425
= 49.99𝑁𝑚

DETERMINATION OF EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT PARAMETERS

r X X
1 1 21

r21
V X r s
m m

The parameters of equivalent circuit of an induction meter can be measured by means of the
following simple test.
i) No load (open circuit on secondary)
ii) Blocked Rotor (Short circuit On secondary)
iii) Measurement of stator resistance.

i. NO LOAD TEST:
Here, rated voltage is applied to the machine and is allowed to run on no load. Input power, voltage
and current are measured and reduced to per phase.
𝑃𝑜𝑐 is the no load power per phase often subtracting the rotational loss.
On no load, the machine runs at approximate synchronous speed (s = 0)
Hence, the rotor is an open circuit and the parameter rm and Xm are determined.

26
 Voc X r
m m

𝑉2
On no load 𝑟𝑚 = 𝑃𝑜𝑐
𝑜𝑐

𝑉𝑜𝑐
𝑋𝑚 =
𝐼𝑜𝑐 𝑠𝑖𝑛∅𝑜𝑐
𝑃𝑜𝑐
∅𝑜𝑐 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1
𝑉𝑜𝑐 𝐼𝑜𝑐
∅𝑜𝑐 = Phase difference between magnitude component 𝑋𝑚 and 𝑟𝑚

ii. BLOCKED ROTOR TEST:

In this case (s=1). Here, a reduced voltage is applied to the machine so that rated current floes
through the stator winding. The input power (𝑃𝑠𝑐 ), Voltage (𝑉𝑠𝑐 ) and current (𝐼𝑠𝑐 ) are recorded and
reduced to per phase value. 𝑋𝑚 and 𝑟𝑚 are considered negligible, hence the shunt branch is zero.

I sc r X X
1 1 21

r21
V sc s

27
𝑟21 = 𝑟2 referred to primary (stator) = ∝2 𝑟2
𝑃𝑠𝑐
𝑟𝑒 = 𝑟1 +∝2 𝑟2 = 2
𝐼𝑠𝑐
𝑉𝑠𝑐 𝑠𝑖𝑛∅𝑜𝑐
𝑋𝑒 = 𝑋1 +∝2 𝑋2 =
𝐼𝑠𝑐

𝑃𝑆𝑐
∅𝑠𝑐 = cos−1 ( )
𝑉𝑆𝑐 𝐼𝑆𝑐
Where ∝ is the turn ratio of transformer (induction between the stator and the rotor
Stator resistance can be easily measured between two terminals
𝑟2 = 𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑟1 = 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑟21 = 𝑟𝑒 − 𝑟1 = 𝛼 2 𝑟2
𝑟𝑒 − 𝑟1
𝑟𝑒 =
𝛼2
Hence, the rotor resistance can be determined.
Note: There is no simple method of determining leakage 𝑋1and 𝑋2 separately. However,
recommended distribution is shown below
Class A B C D Wound
Rotor
𝑋1 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.5 0.5
𝑋2 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.5 0.5

Example 1:
The results of no load and block rotor test on a 3-∅ Y winding connected class A induction motor
is as follow:
No Load: Line-Line Voltage =220V
Total input power = 1000W

28
Line current = 20A
Friction and windage loss = 400W
Blocked Rotor: Line – Line Voltage = 30V
Total input = 1500W
Line current = 50A
A stator resistance between 2 terminals is 0.16ohms. calculate the parameter of approximately
equivalent circuit.
Solution:
220
𝑉𝑜𝑐 = = 127𝑣
√3
𝐼𝑜𝑐 = 20𝐴
1
𝑃𝑜𝑐 (𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒) = (1000 − 400) = 200𝑊
3
𝑉𝑜𝑐2 1272
𝑟𝑚 = = = 80.65𝑜ℎ𝑚
𝑃𝑜𝑐 200
𝑃𝑜𝑐 200
∅𝑜𝑐 = cos −1 ( ) = cos −1 ( ) = 85.6°
𝑉𝑜𝑐 𝐼𝑜𝑐 127𝑥28
𝑉𝑜𝑐 127 127 127
𝑋𝑚 = = = =
𝐼𝑜𝑐 sin ∅𝑜𝑐 20𝑥 sin 86° 20𝑥0.9 19.8
= 6.4ohm
For short cct. Test: [Blocked Rotor test]
30
𝑉𝑠𝑐 = = 17.32𝑣
√3
𝐼𝑠𝑐 = 50𝐴
1500
𝑃𝑠𝑐 (𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒) = = 500𝑊
3
𝑃𝑠𝑐 500
𝑟𝑐 = 2
= 2 = 0.2𝑜ℎ𝑚
𝐼𝑠𝑐 50
0.16
𝑟21 = 𝑟𝑒 − 𝑟1 = 𝑟𝑒 −
2
= 0.2 – 0.8
= 0.12sc
29
 𝑉𝑠𝑐 sin ∅𝑠𝑐
𝑋𝑐 =
𝐼𝑠𝑐
𝑃𝑠𝑐
∅𝑠𝑐 = cos −1 ( )
𝑉𝑠𝑐 𝐼𝑠𝑐
500
cos−1 ( ) = 54°
17.32𝑥50
17.3 × 0.8
𝑋𝑒 = = 0.277𝛺
50

PERFORMANCE CRITERIA OF INDUCTION MOTORS

The performance of an induction motor may be characterized by the following factors:
i) Efficiency
ii) Power factor (p.f)
iii) Starting torque (Ts)
iv) Pull out max torque (Tm)
These characteristics are summarized by the fig below

30
 I (A) P.f ɳ T (N.m)

160

T
240 140

220 1.2 120 120

200 1.0 100 100

180 0.8 80 80
𝑐𝑜𝑠∅

60 60 𝑇𝑚
160 0.6

120 0.4 40 40

80 0.2 20
20

20 01 10 10

1.0 s
0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0.01 0

Note: In design considerations, heating due to 𝐼 2 𝑟 losses and core losses and means of heat
dissipation must be included.
The efficiency (ɳ) is approximately proportional to (1-s). Thus, it would be most compatible with
a load running at the highest possible speed. Since (ɳ) is dependent on 𝑟1and 𝑟2 , losses must be
small for a given load.
To reduce core losses the working flux density (𝐵) must be small. But this implies a conflicting
requirement on load current (𝐼2 ) because of the torque which is dependent on the product of B and
(𝐼2

31
In other words, any attempt to reduce the core beyond a line will result in increase in 𝐼 2 𝑟 losses
for a given load.
From the equivalent circuit, it can be seen that p.f can be increased by decreasing the leakage
reactances and increasing magnetizing reactances. It is however not good to reduce the leakage
current is limited by these reactances. The pull-out (max) torque would be higher for lower leakage
reactance.
From power factor = cos ∅
𝑟1
∅ = cos−1
√𝑟12 + 𝑥 2
A high starting torque is produced by 𝑟2 and the higher the rotor resistance 𝑟2 , the higher the starting
torque.
A high 𝑟2 is in conflict with a higher efficiency requirement.
Again torque = T2
1−𝑠 1−𝑠
𝑇 = 𝑚𝐼2 𝑟2 ( ) = 𝑚𝐼22 𝑟2 ( )
𝑠 𝑠
SPEED CONTROL OF INDUCTION MOTORS
Because of its ruggedness and simplicity, the induction motor finds numerous industrial and
domestic application. Its drawback is that its speed cannot be easily and efficiently varied over a
wide range of operating conditions.
The speed can be varied by
a) Varying the synchronous speed at the travelling field.
b) By varying slip.
c) By varying the frequency (this is difficult)
(A) VARYING THE SYNCHRONOUS SPEED:
120𝑓
The synchronous speed is given by 𝑁𝑠 = . This indicates that Ns can be varied by:
𝑝

i) Changing the no of poles.

ii) Changing the supplying frequency.
iii) Pole changing method: the design of the stator winding is such that by changing the
pole connection of the various coils, the number of pole can be changed (say 2:1)
Accordingly, two synchronous speed results. If more than one independent windings are provided
and each arranged pole changing more synchronous speeds can be obtained.
Disadvantage: Only discrete changes in speed of the motor can be obtained by this method.
Advantage: efficient and reliable for brushes squirrel caged motor.

32
 (B) SPEED VARIATION BY VARIATION OF FREQUENCY.
If it is practicable to vary frequency of supplying the synchronous speed of the motor can be varied.
The variation is discrete or continuous depending on if the variation in supply is discrete or
continuous.
However, max torque developed is inversely proportional to the synchronous speed.
𝐼22 𝑟2
To keep max torque, 𝑇 = constant, the supply voltage and supply frequency should increase
𝑆𝑤𝑠
at the same time. The inherent problem in the application of this method is that supply frequency
is always fixed (50Hz in Nigeria).
With advent of solid-state devices (thyristor, SCR, etc.) with large power rating, it is now possible
to use static inverters to drive the induction motor,
C. SPEED CONTROL BY CHANGING SLIP

𝑟2′′
𝑟2′′′

load
𝑟2′

Torque 𝑉 𝑟2′′
1

𝑉1

𝑁1
𝑉2 𝑁2
𝑁3
𝑁4

load 𝑠𝑙𝑖𝑝 = 0

33
 1−𝑠
𝑝 = 𝑚𝐼 2 𝑟 ( ) = 𝑇𝜔
𝑠
1−𝑠
𝑇𝜔 = 𝑚𝐼 2 𝑟 ( )
𝑠
𝑚𝐸 2 (1 − 𝑠)
𝜔=
𝑇𝑟. 𝑠
The current with solid lines are the speed/torque characteristics of the induction motor under varies
condition. Equivalent different rotor resistances - 𝑟2′ , 𝑟2′′ , 𝑟2′′′ or different stator voltages – V1, V2.
Therefore, speeds 𝑁1 , 𝑁2 , 𝑁3 , 𝑁4 at which the motor can run results. The slip of the motor can
therefore be changed by changing any of the following.
1. Variable Stator Voltage method
The torque developed id proportional to the square of thr applied voltage and for a given rotor
resistance 𝑟2′′ two curves are shown for applied voltage V1 and V2. The motor can therefore run at
N2 and N4 if voltage can be varied between N2 and N4
2. Variation of Rotor resistance:
Applicably only on wound rotor motors for three rotor resistances 𝑟2′ , 𝑟2′′ , 𝑟2′′′ three speeds of
operations are possible by continuous variation of rotor resistance continuous speed of variation is
possible.
Assig: Read: a. Control by solid state device
b. Control by other machines e.g. Kramer method.

STARTING METHOD OF INDUCTION

To accelerate a motor from rest to its synchronous speed operating speed the input energy must be
greater than the sum of the motors kinetic energy and the load by at least the total losses.
In accomplishing this, the input current must be greater than 6 times the full load current and the
starting torque is must not be greater than 1.5 times full load torque. The following staring methods
are applied:
1. Reduced voltage at starting
At starting time, reduced voltage is applied to the stator and the voltage is increased to rated value
when the motor is within 25% of the final speed

Limitation; variable voltage source is needed and starting torque drops substantialially star - Delta
method is reduced current method of starting in which the motor accelerates from rest in star and
run in Delta.

34
At starting, the line current is limited to 5 tmes full load current in delta state but less than two
times full load in star connection and starting torque of Y-connection is only 1/3 of that of delta
connection.
2. CURRENT LIMITING BY SERIES RESISTANCE:
These resistances are measured on the three lines. They are short circuited when the motor has
gained speed.
Disadvantage:
Inefficiency because extra losses in extra resistance in (stator)
Advantage:
A high rotor resistance results in high starting torque for wound rotor motor external resistance in
the rotor circuit is used.

SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

Application: fan, machine, fridge, grinding machine, A/C, vaccum cleaner.
Rotating mmf - 3-∅ ----------------self starting
Pulsating mmf - 1-∅ ---------------not self-starting.
1-∅ motor needs auxiliary winding (starting winding)
Note: A single phase motor is not self-starting. To make it self starting, the motor is provided with
auxiliary winding.

METHOD OF STARTING SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

Due to the absence of rotating magnetic field when the rotor of a single-phase induction motor is
at stand still, it is not self-starting. Two methods are commonly used to start the motor:
i. To produce a rotating field by means of auxillary winding such as split-phasing.
ii. To introduce commutator and brush such as in repulsion motor.
I. SPLIT PHASING: this term applies to the type of small motor in which the phase
different between the running winding current is produced by starting winding a higher
resistance than the running winding. A centrifugal switch is provided in series within
the winding to cut off the auxiliary(starting) winding when the motor reaches about
75% full load speed.

35
 L

Im

Is Air- Winding
(running
winding)

Ia. Capacitor-Start:
If the external resistor of auxiliary winding is substituted by a capacitor (typically between 30 and
100𝜇f, a greater phase difference 𝛼 can be obtained. In capacitor start machine the starting
(auxiliary) winding is open circuited when the motor is up to operating speed. The major function
of the capacitor is to increase the phase difference.
(1) Capacitor-Start
L

Main
Winding

auxillary
Winding

(2) Capacitor Start and Run

36
 L

The same
capacitor for
starting and
running

(3) Capacitor Start – capacitor Run

C1 C
2
This has the
advantage of
smooth running
than (2)

ASSIGNMENT: (It carries 5% of your exam, to be submitted 2 weeks after)

1. Describe the following single-phase motor
i) Split phase
ii) capacitor start
iii) capacitor start run
iv) two capacitor.
In each case give the diagram and speed-torque characteristics.
2. a. Describe the following types of single phase motors
i. commutator machine.

37
ii. shaded pole machine.
iii. Repulsion machine.
iv. universal machine.
b. write short note on slip ring and bus arrangement.
HINT: check electrical machines: Mg say Pg 504-513, 257, 282, etc for this assignment.

38
 SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES
Synchronous machine is one of the most important three types of machines (i.e B-types are
induction, DC motor and synchronous machine). The bulk of electricity for everyday use is
generated by polyphase synchronous generators. Small generating sets are however single-phase
machine. The polyphase synchronous machine is the largest single unit electric machine of several
power rating e.g MVA. They are called synchronous machines because they operate at cosA speed
and frequencies under steady state condition. Synchronous machines are capable of operating both
as motor and generator. They are used as motor with constant speed drives e.g pump-storage
system.

120𝑓
With approximate frequency charges they can operate at different speeds (𝑁𝑠 = ).
𝑝
As generators, they can be operated as parallel sharing loads with one another. As some other
time one of the generators can be allowed to float on the line as synchronous motors on no load.
The two basic parts of synchronous machines are the magnetic field structure carrying the D.C
excitation and the armature. Almost all synchronous machines have stationary armature field
(field on rotor). The rotating field rotor is connected to an external force through the slip ring and
brushes.
Construction Features
The following factors dictate the form of construction:
1. FORM OF EXCITATION: The rotor carries the d.c field structure whose winding produces
the necessary magnetic flux. The d.c excitation may be produced by self-excited d.c synchronous
machine. The d.c generator is fed to the synchronous field winding. In slow speed machine with
light load (e.g., hydro electric generator), the excitor may not be self-excited. In this case a pilot
excitor which may be self-excited or have a permanent magnet or have battery as base excitor.
E.g.

OR

Battery

Pilot Excitor

Excitor
Pilot excitor
Self-excitor

39
Battery performs the following
i. exciting the field.
ii. exciting the excitor.
iii. exciting the pilot excitor.
In small single-phase machines or generators, the machine is mechanically driven to the designed
speed, the output rectified and fed to the field coil to form the excitation. In small single-phase
machines or generators, a battery form exciter which is flat charged by the generated and
rectified current.
2. FIELD STRUCTURE AND SPEED OF MACHINES: Since the machine is a constant speed
machine the synchronous speed Ns = 120f/p. hence for the 50Hz 2 poles machine the Ns =
3000rpm and a 12 poles machine will run at 500rpm while a 50-poles machine will run at
125rpm.
NOTE: Turbo generator which are high speed machines are round or cylindrical rotor
construction.
Two types of rotors are:
i. cylindrical (round) rotor.
ii. salient pole rotor.

Field flux

High speed
− +

− +

−
+

Fig. 1: Cylindrical (round) rotor

40
 N
+

− +
−
− +
− + +
−

S
S

− − − ++ + +
−
− +

+
N

Salient pole rotor

Hydro-electric generator running at slow speed has salient pole rotor construction. The salient
pole rotor is less expensive to fabricate than cylindrical rotor. They are however not suitable for
high-speed machines because of excessive centrifugal forces and stresses that develop at high
speed i.e., about 3000rpm.
Mounting
Hydro
Turbo generator electric
generator

A cylindrical rotor turbine driven machine is horizontally mounted while a water driven machine
is vertically mounted.
3. STATOR: The stator of the polyphase synchronous machine is similar to that of armature of
induction machine. There is not much difference between stator of cylindrical rotor machine and
salient pole rotor. The stator of a hydro electric generator has larger diameter armature coils
compare to the other generators. In general, they consist of punching of high-quality lamination
having slot embedded winding e.g.,silicon, steel-aluminium.
4. COOLING: Synchronous machine carry large current about order of 10A/mm2 in well design
machines. The magnetic loading of the core is such that it reaches saturation in many regions.
This magnetic and electric loading produce heat that must be needed for cooling. In addition to
air, some coolants used are water, hydrogen, helium, etc.
5. DAMPER BAR: A synchronous machine, like other machines undergoes transient during
starting and abnormal condition. In this transient state, the rotor may undergo mechanical
oscillations and its speed therefore deviate from synchronous speed. This is undesirable. To
overcome this, an additional set of winding resembling the cage of rotor is mounted on the rotor.

41
If the speed is not synchronous, current is induced in this damper winding acts as a cage rotor of
an induction motor producing a torque to restore the synchronous speed. The damper bar also
provides a means of starting the synchronous motor which is otherwise not self-excited (or not
self-starting).

N
+

− +
−
− + +
− − +

S
S

− − − ++ + +
−
− +

+
N

SYNCHRONOUS GENERATOR AND MOTORS

What is meant by armature reaction?
This is the influence of stator ampere turns upon the value and the distribution of the magnetic
flux in the poles and the stator core.
Synchronous impedance:
If Xs = Synchronous reactance/phase
R= resistance/phase
Zs = synchronous impedance/phase

 Zs = √𝑅 2 + 𝑋 2 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑍𝑠 = 𝑅 + 𝑗𝑋𝑠

42
 R Xs

To Load

Fig: Equivalent circuit of an alternator

In alternator winding, Ro is usually small compared with Xs so that for many practical purposes,
Zs can be assumed to be the same as Xs.
*One method of estimating the synchronous impedance is to run the alternator on open circuit and
measure the generated emf and then short-circuit the terminals through an ammeter and measure
the short-circuit current, the exciting current and the speed being kept constant.
Since the emf generated on open cct. may be regarded as being responsible for circulating the
short circuit current, through the synchronous impedance or the winding, the value of synchronous
is given by the ratio of open circuit voltage/phase to the short circuit current/phase
3-∅ Synchronous motor: principle of action.
R

D.C Supply

Connection of 3-phase synchronous motor

𝑉 𝑉
𝑉1
𝑉1

∅ 𝑉2
∝
𝑉2

(a) Light
∅ (b) hezvity load
load

Phasor diagram for a synchronous motor

43
Effect of varying load on a synchronous motor

𝑉
𝐼 = 𝑍2 lag 𝑉2 by ∝
𝑠

𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠∅

Power/phase taken by the motor =IV𝑐𝑜𝑠∅

Variety of supply current and p.f will flow for a cosH power factor to a synchronous motor.

1.0

pf

supply current

Pf lagging Pf leading

Field current

The power factor of a synchronous motor can be controlled ny varying the field current, as
indicated in fig above, the actual range of pf variation being dependent upon the value of load.
METHOD OF STARTING A 3-∅ SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR
i. By means of damping grids in the pole’s shoes. - Suitable when the load if any is small.
ii. By means of wound motor – capable of existing large starting torque with a relatively low
starting current.
ADVANTAGE OF SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR
i. The pf can be easily controlled.
ii. The speed is constant and independent on the load. This character is mainly in use when the
motor is required to drive another alternator to generate a supply at a different frequency-changers.
DISADVANTAGE
i. The force per kilowatt is generally high than that of an induction motor.
ii. A d.c supply is necessary for the rotor excitation. This is usually provided by a small d.c shunt
generator carried on an extension or the shaft.
iii. some arrangement must be provided for starting and synchronizing the motor.

44
PLAIN SERIES (UNIVERSAL) MOTOR
The universal is usually built in the smaller fractional hp sizes (up to about 1/8hp) and is used for
mainly domestic applications such as: cleaners, washers, dryers, central heating, pumps, etc. the
construction is that of a normal dc series motor with a totally laminated magnetic circuit so that it
can operate on either AC or DC supplies. Hence, the term universal. Typically, the performance
is shown in the figure below

Speed

pf

Efficiency (ɳ)

Torque

Breaking
Induction motors may be brought to a stand still very quickly either by plugging or dynamic
breaking.
In plugging, two or three supplies to the stator are to be reversed. The current taken from the
supply during plugging is very large and machines which are to be regularly plugged must be
specially rated.
In dynamic breaking: the stator is disconnected from the a.c supply and reconnected to a dc
source as shown in fig below:
The direct current in the stator produces a stationary unidirectional field and as the rotor will tend
to align itself with the stator field, it will therefore come to stand still.

45
 The series commutator motor

Field winding

Compensating winding

The Repulsion motor

THE THREE PHASE AC GENERATOR

Synchronous generator Characteristics
From the operating engineers’ point of view, the most important factor about a generator is the
way the terminal voltage varies with change of load and with an ac machine with change in power
factor. when current is being supplied by a generator, there will ebavoltagae drop in the machine
due to its impedance. The impedance is made up of three items:
i. Resistance of the machine winding R(ohms).
ii. The leakage reactance of the winding X1(ohms).
iii. The effect of armature reaction which causes a change in the magnetic field with
changes of load or power factor. This causes the emf generated for a given excitation

46
 to be different on load and at no load the effect however is similar to that caused by the
reactance and so it is often called the fictious reactance Xa.
Synchronous reactance Xs = XL +Xa
The resistance R and synchronous reactance Xs together from the synchronousimpedance of the
machine.
Synchronous impedance
𝑍𝑠 = (𝑅 2 + 𝑋𝑠 2 )2
The synchronous generator can be represented by the circuit given by fig 7.11
When supplying a load, the load current I causes a voltage drop within the m/c.
Xs
R

XL
XA

Zs
Terminal Voltage
Generated emf
E

Equivalent circuit of a synchronous generator

Two test for synchronous generator

1. Open circuit test.
2. Short circuit test.
A

If

Dc supply
Potentiometer Terminals

Rotor
Stator

Open Circuit Test

Open Open Circuit

Characteristics
Circuit

Current 47

Emf (V)
 𝐼𝑓

Fig.: Open circuit Characteristics

A
A
If I
sc

Dc supply
Potentiometer
Terminals
A

Rotor A
Stator

Short Circuit Test

Short Circuit
Short Circuit Characteristics
Ccurrent

𝐼𝑓 (A)

48
 Open circuit characteristics

Short circuit characteristics

E(Volts) or Isc (Amp) or Zs (Ω)

Synchronous impedance

Field excitation curren

Relation between generated emf E, voltage drop due to synchronous impedance (12s), and load
current I can be drawn for phasor diagram (lagging load) below

𝐸 𝐼𝑍𝑠 𝐼𝑋𝑠

V 𝐼𝑅
O ∅ A C
I
B
D

I = Load current ∅ behind terminal voltage (pd) V

E = no load emf for the same excitation.
From ∆ OAB, 𝐴𝐵 = 𝑉𝑠𝑖𝑛∅ = 𝐶𝐷
𝑂𝐵 = 𝑉𝑐𝑜𝑠∅
OF2 = OD2 + (DF)2
E2 = (OB +BD)2 + (DC + CF)2
= (V𝑐𝑜𝑠∅ + IR)2 + (V𝑠𝑖𝑛∅ +1Xs)2
E = [(V𝑐𝑜𝑠∅ + IR)2 + (V𝑠𝑖𝑛∅ +1Xs)2]1/2
If the power factor is leading then
49
DF = CF – CD, that is the term V𝑠𝑖𝑛∅ become negative. Since the -Ve sign is diminated when
(CF – CD) is squared. It is usual to make the term 1Xs negative for leading power factor, given
the equation for the open cct emf as
E = [(V𝑐𝑜𝑠∅ + IR)2 + (V𝑠𝑖𝑛∅ +1Xs)2]1/2
This value of E can be used in equation of
𝐸−𝑉
Resolution % = %
𝑉

With a leading power factor, it is possible for v to be greater than E given negative regulation.
This means that there is drop in volts when the load is thrown off instead of a rise.
QUESTION
(a) (i) Distinguish between a salient pole rotor and cylindrical pole rotor of an alternator. Mention
area of application in each case.
(b) ) (i)Explain briefly Voltage regulation of an alternator.
(ii) Using a synchronous impedance method and assuming lagging power factor, show that
open circuit e.m.f. (E) equation is given by:
1
𝐸 = [(𝑉𝑐𝑜𝑠∅ + 𝐼𝑅)2 + (𝑉𝑠𝑖𝑛∅ ± 𝐼𝑋𝑆 )2 ] ⁄2
Question
A three- phase alternator has rated output of 500kVA at a terminal voltage of 3300V. The
stator winding has resistance of 0.6 ohms and synchronous reactance of 4 ohms. Calculate the
percentage voltage regulation at power factor of:
1. Unity
2. 0.85 lagging
Sketch the phase diagram in each case.

𝑠 = 500 𝑘𝑉𝐴 = √3𝑉𝐿 𝐼𝐿

𝑉𝐿 = 3300𝑉, 𝑅 = 0.6Ω, 𝑋 = 4Ω
500×103
𝐼𝐿 = = 87.48𝐴
√3×3300
𝑉
𝑉𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 = 𝐿
√3
3300
= = 1905𝑉
√3
For unity power factor, 𝑐𝑜𝑠∅ = 1, 𝑠𝑖𝑛∅ = 0
1
𝐸 = [(𝑉 + 𝐼𝑅)2 + (0 + 𝐼𝑋𝑠 )2 ]2
1
= [1905 × 1 + (87.48 × 0.6)2 + (0 + 87.48 × 4)2 ]2
= 1988.5𝑉
𝐸−𝑉
𝑉𝑅 = 𝑉
× 100

50
 1988.5−1905
= 1905
× 100 = 0.0438

= 4.38%

(1) 0.85 lagging

𝐶𝑜𝑠∅ = 0.85 → ∅ = 31.790 , 𝑠𝑖𝑛∅ = sin 31.790 = 0.53
1
𝐸 = [(𝑉𝑐𝑜𝑠∅ + 𝐼𝑅)2 + (𝑉𝑠𝑖𝑛∅ + 𝐼𝑋𝑠)2 ]2
1
𝐸 = [(1905 × 0.85 + 87.48 × 0.6)2 + (1905 × 0.53 + 87.48 × 4)2 ]2
1
𝐸 = [(1671)2 + (1359.57)2 ]2

= 2154.8
𝐸−𝑉
𝑉𝑅 = × 100
𝑉
2154.8 − 1905
= × 100
1905
= 0.131
= 13.1%

Sketch the phasor diagram in each case

E
𝐼𝑋𝑠

Phasor diagram for unity power factor

𝐸
𝐼𝑍𝑠 𝐼𝑋𝑠

V 𝐼𝑅
O
∅ A

I Phasor diagram for 0.85 power factor

51